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Mechanics of ball end milling process

Article · January 1993

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G. Yiicesan*
Postdoctoral Fellow.
Y. Altmta§
Associate Professor. Mem. ASME
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
The University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
Prediction of Ball End
Milling Forces
Mechanics of milling with ball ended helical cutters are modeled. The model is based
on the analytic representation of ball shaped helical flute geometry, and its rake and
clearance surfaces. It is assumed that friction and pressure loads on the rake face
are proportional to the uncut chip thickness area. The load on the flank contact face
is concentrated on the in cut portion of the cutting edge. The pressure and friction
coefficients are identified from a set of slot ball end milling tests at different feeds
and axial depth of cuts, and are used to predict the cutting forces for various cutting
conditions. The experimentally verified model accurately predicts the cutting forces
in three Cartesian directions.

1 Introduction
Ball ended milling cutters are extensively used in machining
parts with sculptured surfaces. Milling of dies for forming, forg-
ing and injection plastic molding are most commonoperations
in die shops. The dies are generally made of tool steels which
are hard to machine. Breakage of tool shank and chipping of
ball shaped helical flutes are the critical factors in ball end
milling of die alloys. In the aerospace industry, aerodynamic
sculptured shapes are milled with ball ended cutters. The aero-
space parts are generally made of titanium, nickel and aluminum
alloys, and the dimensional accuracy and metal removal effi-
ciency are critical factors in such operations. Ball end milling
of compressor and turbine blades are typical operations in the
aircraft engine industry.
In this paper, the mechanics of machining with ball ended
cutters are modeled. A typical ball end mill with helical flutes
is shown in Fig. 1. The radius of the ball part is equal to the
radius of cylindrical shaft of the cutter body. The effective
radius of the cutter in parallel x — y planes start with the shank
radius at cylindrical part of the cutter body (R0), and reduces
gradually towards zero at the ball tip. The flutes have a constant
lead (i.e., helix pitch), but have a varying local helix angle due
to changing radius.
There has been significant research reported in modeling me-
chanics of milling [1, 2, 3, 7, 12] but little work has been done
on the mechanics of ball end milling. Previous research has
concentrated on the mechanistic modeling of cylindrical helical
end mills and reviewed by Smith and Tlusty in [ 8 ]. Unlike the
ball shaped helical flutes, cylindrical cutters have uniform cut-
ting speed and constant helix, rake and clearance angles along
the helical flutes. Due to changing radius and helix, the cutting
speed, the effective helix and rake angles are different along
the flute of a ball end mill. The cutting speed starts with a
constant value at ball-cylindrical meeting point, and reduces to
zero at the tip of the ball. Due to changes in the tool geometry,
the cutting coefficients such as shear, friction and pressure loads
are different along the ball shaped helical flutes. Yang and Park
reported a model to predict the cutting forces in ball end mills
[13]. They obtained the cutting force coefficients from a set of
orthogonal turning tests, and used them in predicting the ball
end milling forces. They achieved a reasonable accuracy by
approximating each differential helical cutting edge segment as
an orthogonal cutting zone. In this paper, a semi-mechanistic
model is used similar to the earlier model presented by Yucesan
* Now Assistant Professor at Faculty of Aeronautical Engineering, Istanbul
Technical University, Turkey
Contributed by the Manufacturing Engineering Division for publication in the
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY. Manuscript received Dec. 1993; revised
Oct. 1994. Technical Editor: S. Kapoor.
et al. [16, 17, 18] for cylindrical end mills. The variations of
friction and pressure coefficients along the flute are considered
by using effective cutting force coefficients which are dependent
on the cutter and flute immersion geometry and the feed-rate.
The cutting coefficients are identified from standard slot milling
experiments, and used to predict the cutting force distribution
along the flute edge for any ball milling geometry but with the
same rake angle. The proposed model accurately predicts the
cutting forces for different chip loads and cutting geometry, and
verified in various ball end milling experiments.
Henceforth, the paper is organized as follows: The geometric
modeling of the ball end mill cutters and ball shaped helical
flutes are presented in Section 2. Modeling of cutting force
expressions are shown in Section 3, and followed by cutting
coefficients identification procedure in Section 4. The model is
experimentally verified for ball end milling of a titanium alloy
(Ti 6 Al 4 ) in Section 5. The results and proposed model are
briefly summarized in Section 6.
2 Geometric Model of Ball End Mills
The geometry of a ball ended milling cutter is shown in Fig.
1. The flutes of the ball ended cutter meet at the tip of the
sphere, and are ground with a constant helix lead. The flutes
have a helix angle of p0 at ball-shank meeting boundary (A).
Due to reduction of radius at (x - y) planes toward the ball tip
in axial (z) direction, the local helix angle (/3(z)) along the
cutting flute varies for constant helix-lead cutters.
tan/3(z) = ^ t a n / 3 0 . (1)
no
Each flute is ground with constant radial rake (ar) and clear-
ance ( y ) angles. The ball part of the cutter meets with a cylindri-
cal shank which has a radius of R0, and the ball radius is the
same. The expression for the envelope of the ball part of the
cutter is,
+ y2 + (Z " Ro)2 Rl (2)
The cutter radius in x — y plane at axial location z is,
R\z) = x2 + y2 (3)
The tips of the flutes meet at the ball end point O, where the
cutter radius is zero. As a point on the flute is moved upward
in the z axis, the diameter of the cutter radius in the x - y plane
increases, and the point spirals counterclockwise (CCW) due
to the helix angle. The lag angle (i/0 is measured from the
flute's tip point O in CCW direction. The center of the coordi-

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY 1996, Vol. 1 1 8 / 9 5

Copyright © 1996 by ASME
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 A vector r is drawn from the cylindrical coordinate center (O)
to a point on the cutting edge and denned by,
r(i//) = flf»(cos i/fi + sin ipj) + R0if) cot /30k (6)
In Fig. 1, a differential cutting edge segment is shown with its
rake and flank surfaces. With a set of unit vectors, a curvilinear
coordinate system is formed along the cutting edge. Here, T, b
and n are unit vectors tangent to the flute edge, on the rake face
which is vertical to the flute edge and perpendicular to the rake
surface, respectively. The fourth unit vector Tc indicates the
direction of the friction force acting on the rake face. The unit
vector tangent to the cutting edge is defined as:

dr
(7)

Workplace where

(a) Ball end mill geometry [-R(ip) sin {tp + 9) + R'(ip) cos (ip + 9)]
\\dt\
Rake
angle ar J cos + 0
y = TTT, [ * W W ) + * ' W sin ( 0 + 9)]
\\dr\\
R0 cot PQ
TZ
11*11
The length of an infinitesimal cutter segment, dS, along the ball
Top view of part is computed from:
helical flute clearance angle
If dS = ||flfr|| = V(fl'(iA))2 + R\IJJ) + R20 cot 2 p0difi (8)
where R'(ip) is the derivative of /?(</0 with respect to i//,

(ib) Plan (x-y) view of the cutter at elevation z -R0(4i cot/30 - l ) c o t A,

R'W = (9)
Fig. 1 Geometry and tool coordinates of a helical ball end mill Vl - ( < / / c o t / ? o - l ) 2
Let K be a unit vector on the rake face and along the intersection
of a parallel x — y plane at the cutting edge point which meets
nate system is located at the tip of the ball end shown by point the rake surface,
O in Fig. 1. The z coordinate of a point on the flute is,
K = - c o s ((/> + 9 - ar)\ - sin (\ji + 9 - a r ) j (10)
z = R0ip cot /30 (4)
where ar is the rake angle defined on (x, y) surface. From Fig.
for the constant pitch cutter. From the three equations given 1, the unit vector b , which lies on the rake surface and
above, the cutter radius in the x - y plane, which touches a perpendicular to the cutting edge is found from vectors T
point on the helical and spherical flute located at lag angle ip, and K,
can be expressed as,
b = T cot rj (11)
#(<//) = floVl - ( < A c o t / ? 0 - D 2 (5) sin rj

Nomenclature

fd = feed-rate
h = uncut chip thickness
Fx, Fy, Fz = Cartesian force components
K„, Kf, 8C - coefficients of rake pres-
sure, friction, chip flow
angle
K„f, Kff = flank pressure and friction
coefficients
Nf = number of flutes
RQ = ball radius of the cutter
a = maximum axial depth of cut
ifi = lag angle between the tip (z
= 0) and a point on the heli-
cal flute (z)
4>a = maximum lag angle be-
tween the tip (z = 0) and
uppermost cutting point (z
= a)
i/»i, \p2 = force integration limits for
a flute engaged between z,,
R(ip) = tool radius at x - y plane
defined by axial coordinate
z and lag angle t/f
dS = length of an infinitesimal
cutting edge segment
n, b , T , K = unit vectors defining the
rake surface and curved
cutting edge
Tf, nf = unit tangential and normal
vectors for the flank surface
r = position vector defining the
cutting edge from coordi-
nate center O
F = total cutting force vector
F„, = measured cutting force vector
F„, F/ = rake normal and friction force
vectors
F,,/, Fff = flank normal and friction force
vectors
Tc = unit vector in the chip move-
ment direction
9 = tool rotation angle
9i = equivalent rotation angle for
the f'th flute
/90 = helix angle at the intersection
of ball and tool shank
ar = tool rake angle defined in (x
— y) plane
y = flank clearance angle

96 / Vol. 118, FEBRUARY 1996 Transactions of the ASME

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 where r\ ( = c o s " ' ( T - K ) ) is the angle between T and K. Unit
surface normal vector to the rake face, n, is computed as a
cross product of the vectors r and b;
n = rXb (12)
A unit vector along the direction of the friction force can be
obtained as a linear combination of the vectors r and b .
Tc = cos ecb + sin 8CT (13)
where, 9C is analogous to the chip flow angle commonly used
in the literature [9]. Similarly, unit tangent (T{) and surface
normal (%) vectors of the clearance face are defined as:
Tf = -sin (t/t + 9 + y)i + cos (ip + 9 + y)i (14)
where y is the angle between the tool's primary clearance and
the workpiece surfaces measured in the (x — y) plane. The tool
rotation angle 9 is measured from the x - axis at the tip of a
reference flute. At 6 = 0 position, the tip of the leading flute
just starts to cut in up-milling, and the remaining part of the
flute is completely outside the immersion zone. At this position,
the uppermost point on the reference flute (z = a) lags with an
angle i/f„ = (a/R0) tan (30 counterclockwise behind the tip (z =
0). The flute starts entering the cut from its lower part, i.e., tip,
and the upper parts start engaging as the cutter rotates clockwise
in up milling. The clearance surface normal is given by,
P/ = I, ' ,. (15)
The ball end geometry, the helical cutting edge orientation,
the rake and clearance surfaces are defined geometrically, which
are used in the following section to formulate the cutting forces.
3 Modeling of Cutting Forces
It is assumed that the metal removal mechanism produces
pressure and friction between the chip and rake face contact,
and the friction force acts in the chip flow direction defined by
8C [see Fig. 1 ( a ) ] . Due to flank-finish workpiece surface con-
tact, there is a pressure and friction loading on the clearance
face. Let vectors F„, Ff and F B/ and Fff denote the total pressure
and frictional loads acting on the rake and flank contact areas,
respectively. The total cutting force vector is expressed as a
function of the flute's rotation angle (9) measured from the tip
and x axis, and the flute's lag angle (i//) along the tool axis for
the in cut flute points.
F(9) = F„(9) + Ff(9) + Fn/(8) + F„(9)
K„[-n(tp + 8) + KfTc(tjt + 6)]dAr
+ K„f[-nf(ilj + 9) + KffTfW + 9)]dAf (16)
where dAr is the area of an infinitesimal chip-rake surface con-
tact area. Assuming that the chip contact length is equal to
uncut chip thickness h,
h(^,9) =/„sin((// + 9) (17)
the differential chip contact area is found from:
dAr = h(ip,9)dz (18)
where dz = Ro cot Podip for constant helix-lead cutters. Note
that the ratio of feedrate over the local radius of the cutter
becomes larger toward the ball tip, therefore the chip thickness
could have been calculated more accurately using the exact
kinematics of milling modeled by Martelotti [5]. Montgomery
and Altintas showed that the use of the accurate kinematic
model of the tooth motion improves the prediction of feed and
Journal of Engineering for Industry
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structural deformation marks left on the finish surface [6], but
at the expense of increased computational complexity. Since
the tool flank-workpiece contact length for a sharp tool is un-
known, the flank contact or ploughing forces are treated in a
similar manner presented by Armarego et al. [2]. The K,lf is
defined as the force acting on unit cutting edge length, thus dAf
becomes equal to dS which is given in Eq. (8). The pressure
and friction loads on both rake and relief surfaces are related
to the cutting forces with cutting constants K„, Kf, 9C, K„f and
Kff. The cutting constants are identified from milling experi-
ments as explained in the following sections. The forces for
multiple fluted cutters can be obtained by summing the forces
acting on the individual flutes in the cut. If #, is the equivalent
rotation angle of the (th flute for an Nf fluted milling cutter:
2-7T
0, = 0 + ( i - l ) — (19)
Nf
where i is the flute number, then the total forces acting on the
cutter can be obtained as:
N
f
F(9,Nf) = IF(0,). (20)
;=i
Limits of Integration. As the cutter rotates, the spherical
shaped helical flute removes a different amount of chip along
the engaged portion which is bounded by integration limit
angles <px(9) and ip2(9). The helical flute is in the cutting zone
between the lower and upper points defined by ip\(9), 4ii(Q),
respectively. The integration limits are functions of the cutter
geometry, immersion of the cutter in the workpiece, axial depth
of cut, feed direction and the instantaneous tool rotation angle
(9). A set of general cutter immersion cases, which includes
slotting, partial slotting where the cutter periphery is in full
contact with the workpiece, or ball end milling of square shoul-
ders where parts of the cutter cannot reach right angled corners,
were presented in detail in the ASME conference version of
this article [19]. In order to simplify the presentation of the
ball end mill immersion geometry, only the case of slotting is
given here for illustration.
The plan and side views of the slot milling geometry are
shown in Fig. 2(a). The cutter rotates in clockwise direction,
and the rotation angle is measured from the x axis and the origin
is the ball end point O. The program is initialized as follows:
The reference flute is positioned in such a way that the upper-
most cutting point on the helical edge is \jia = (a/R0) tan /30
away CCW from the x axis [see flute position 1 in Fig. 2 ( a ) ] .
The rotation angle is 9 = 0 at this position. As the cutter rotates
clockwise, the flute starts entering the cut from its lower part as
shown by flute position 2. At this position, the flute engagement
boundary or the integration limits are I/M = 0, i//2 = 8 as shown
by the linear trend in Fig. 2(b). Between positions 3-4, the
flute is fully immersed from its tip to the uppermost contact
point (z = a), and the integration limits are i//| = 0, t/f2 = tya-
The flute starts exiting from the cut with its lower region first
as shown by the flute position 5. The integration limits are <p\
= 6 - 7r, i/»2 = <A„. The uppermost point leaves the cut last, as
indicated by flute position 6. The integration limits are summa-
rized in Table 1 for the slot milling. The above strategy is
applied to all flutes which are in the immersion zone, i.e., 0 <
9,i < 7T + \pu. The contributions of all flutes to total cutting
force are summed, using the rotational position of flute i = 1
as a reference.
4 Identification of Cutting Force Constants
The resultant cutting force vector given in Eq. (16) can be
expressed in a following alternate form:
F(0)=f f„sm(il, + 9)[C(<t> + 8)]{KI}dz
+ f [D(«A + 9)]{Kt}dS (21)
FEBRUARY 1996, Vol. 1 1 8 / 9 7
 leads to the identification of average cutting coefficients over
the radial immersion of cut for each feed rate and axial depth
of cut. Note that the cutting force coefficients could have been
expressed as a function of local chip loads as presented by the
authors in [20] for cylindrical cutters. However, the average
cutting force expressions still provided accurate force predic-
tions, and lead to simplified, efficient to compute analytical
cutting force expressions. As presented by Armerago [2], the
separation of flank components from the cutting forces was
found to be important in linearizing the force coefficients. Fur-
ther details of the prediction algorithm for cutting force coeffi-
cients can be found in [20].

(a)
5 Experimental Verification
fi ,Vz Several cutter geometries with different rake angles were
tried in the slot cutting experiments at different feeds and axial
depth of cuts. The workpiece material was titanium alloy
Ti 6 Al 4 . The carbide cutters were ground with a constant relief
angle of y = 10 deg, and the helix angle at the shank meeting
point was /30 = 30 deg. Single fluted cutters with a ball radius
of R0 = 9.525 mm were used for the identification of cutting
force coefficients. Single and multi-fluted cutters were used for
the model verification. The cutting tests were conducted without
lubricant and the forces are measured with a three-component
table dynamometer. The forces were collected at approximately
0.8 degree cutter rotation intervals.
The cutting coefficients are predicted for each cutting test
(D) Integration limits—slotting
with the least squares procedure explained in the previous sec-
Fig. 2 Flute engagement geometry and integration limits for slotting tion. The variation of cutting coefficients with axial depth of
cut (a) and feed-rate (fd) are shown for cutters with rake angles
of 0 deg, +5 deg, +10 deg in Fig. 3. The pressure on the rake
where the geometric orientation matrices are defined by, face decreases significantly as the rake angle increases, see Fig.
3 ( a ) . Especially at very small axial immersions where the chip
/ — nx bx rx\ load and cutting speed are low, high rake angle (i.e., 10 deg)
[C(«A + 9)]=\ -n, by ry (22) seems to provide a better shearing of the chips. This is as
expected since the increase in the rake angle leads to higher
shear angles which reduce the main cutting force. At very small
and, feeds, i.e., low chip loads, the pressure becomes larger due to
size effect. The axial depth of cut represents the variation in
/ »fx Tfx\ the cutting velocity, local helix angle, and the chip size due to
[D(«A + 9)]= I nfy rfy (23) increase in the diameter and chip load along the flute axis. The
\nfz 0 / average friction coefficient on the rake face increases with the
rake angle, but stays approximately constant with the feed, [see
where n = {nx, n„ nz), b = [bx, by, bz}, r = [TX, ry, TZ) rf Fig. 3(b)]. High rake angles push the chip towards the rake
= [Tfx,Tfy,Q] and nf = {nfx, nfy, nfz}. The cutting coefficient face and increase the contact area, which is indicated by the
vectors {K r } and {K,} are defined as follows: friction trend in the figure. At a 10 deg rake angle, the friction
coefficient starts with a high value at low axial depth of cut
Kx =Kn where the local helix angle is small, and approaches to the
[K r } = | K2 = KJ
KnKfcos (24) average friction coefficient of the cutter with 5 deg rake angle.
K3 = KnKf sin 9C It seems that the sticking and sliding friction zones between the
rake face and chip are strongly influenced in milling titanium
alloy with high positive tools. Although, the mathematical
[K f (25)
K5 = KnfKff model is based on the basic mechanism of cutting, the force
coefficients are estimated with a least square method; hence it
In (21) the unknown cutting force coefficients {K r } and { K f } is difficult to deduct accurate conclusions from the mechanistic
are identified from ball end milling experiments by applying results.
the least squares method on the sum of squared differences
between the measured and predicted cutting forces, The pressure on the flank is lumped on the in cut portion of
the cutting edge. The direction of flank friction is close to the
min E{KU . rake pressure for small rake and clearance angles; thus it has a
M similar trend [see Fig. 3 ( c ) ] . Only the feed-rate seems to have
=1 n(9!)-¥(9„ Klt . . ., K5)\\2 (26) a noticeable influence on the flank friction or ploughing force.
1=1
where M is the total number of samples and Fm{0t) is the Table 1 Integration limits for slot ball end milling
measured cutting force vector at the instantaneous tool rotation
angle of 9, at sample /. For a minimum prediction error, the Zone No. Reference flute position Lower limit -^i Upper Limit-^2
solution of 1 e<o 0 0 (out of cut)
2 0 < 9 < ik 0 e
3-4 V1. < * < T 0 A
dE 5 0-ir
= 0, (j = 1, . . ., 5) (27) JT < $ < ir + i>„
*.
dKj 6 8>ir + i/>, 0 0 (Out of cut)

98 / Vol. 118, FEBRUARY 1996 Transactions of the ASME

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 2500 T 0.9

08

0.7

0.6

R a k e angle - aT = 0° *r ,4

0.3
• fd=0.0254 [mm/flute]
-0.052
=0.076

0.2 =0.1016

0.1 ••
Rake angle - ar = 0°
-I H H-

1.4 •
1.2
1
0.8
0.6 +
0.4 Rake angle - ar = 5°
0.2
0
1.6
—,2000
1.6
£ 1500 1.4 •
1.2
j^ 1000 •
tf 0.8'
soo | R a k e angle - ar = 10° 0.6 +
Rake angle - ar = 10°
0.4
0.2 •
2 4 6 8 10
0
Axial Immaralon [mm] 0 2 4 6 6 10
Axial Immaralon [mm]

3(a) Average pressure on the rake face 3(b) Average friction coefficient on the rake face

A similar observation is made for the pressure on the flank [ see
Fig. 3 (d)]. It must be noted that the flank force amplitudes are
much smaller than the rake components in general. However,
when the feed rate (chip load) is low, and/or the cutting edges
are dull then the flank components of the force become more
significant [11]. The flank coefficients shown in Fig. 3 were
estimated using sharp tools with negligible flank wear. The
variation of predicted average chip flow angles are shown in
Fig. 3 (e). The chip flow angle is weakly dependent on the feed,
moderately dependent on the rake angle, and strongly dependent
on the axial depth of cut. This trend is in accordance with the
laws of cutting mechanics. According to Stabler's rule [10],
the chip flow angle is equal to the inclination angle which is
the local helix angle here. The cutter tested had a helix angle
of 30 deg = 0.5236 rad at the ball-shank meeting point (z =
9.525 mm), and zero local helix at the ball tip (z = 0 ) . When
the ball part of the mill is fully immersed in the workpiece (a
- R0 = 9.525 mm), the mean helix angle is 15 deg = 0.2618
rad. The predicted average chip flow angle is between 0.2-0.3
rad (12 deg - 17 deg) [Fig. 3(e)], which is in accordance with
the trend indicated by the Stabler's chip flow rule. As the axial
depth of cut approaches to zero, or to the tip of the cutter where
the helix is zero, the chip flaw angle converges to zero as well.
The mechanistic relationships given in Table 2 are constructed
by applying curve fitting to the identified cutting coefficients
shown in Fig. 3. The axial depth of cut was normalized with cutter
radius. The relationships give the average coefficients for any axial
depth of cut and feed-rate in a ball end milling operation. The
cutting conditions, which do not influence the coefficients signifi-
cantly, are not considered for simplicity. The curve fitting was
carried out by using an advanced statistical package. The standard
deviations, minimum and maximum discrepancies from measure-
ment data, and error distributions are considered in selecting the
most optimal yet simplified expressions. Higher order expressions,
which considered even the weakest nonlinear trends with respect
to axial depth of cut and feed-rate, did not improve the accuracy
in predicting the forces at various cutting conditions. In Fig. 4, a
sample simulation of cutting forces for a slotting test with a =
7.62 mm axial depth of cut at feed-rate fd = 0.0508 mm is shown
for a single fluted cutter with zero rake angle. The cutting force
coefficients are used in simulating the flank friction (Fff) and
pressure (F„f) loads, rake friction (Ff) and pressure (F„) loads in
each Cartesian direction x,y,z. The total forces in each direction
are found by summing the rake and flank components as shown
in the same figure. Note that the z component of flank friction
force, which is defined in x — y plane [Eq. (14)], is zero in Fig.
4. It is evident from Fig. 4 that the rake forces, which represent
the shearing action, approaches to zero much earlier than the flank
contact forces shown by broken lines. This trend explains the
sudden increase and decrease of z cutting force in entry and exit,
respectively. As soon as the edge contacts with the material, the
flank forces develop rapidly whereas the rake forces develop grad-
ually as sufficient chip thickness is formed for initiating the chip
shearing.

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY 1996, Vol. 1 1 8 / 9 9

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 — • — M=0.0254 [mm/flute]
35 1 T
• -0.052
30 0.9
O -0.1016
J 25 0.8
- • — tt«0.025« [mm/flute] 0.7 •
^20
0.6
•*-,
15 -• -0.052

*' 10 -*—

-°
-0.076

-0.1016
Rake angle - ar = 0°
£ 0.5 •
0.4
5 0 . 3 ••

0.2 •
0 H 1 : 1 I
0.1 •
Rake angle - ar = 0°
50
0 I I h-
45
40 1
35 0.9
T30 0.8
£25 0.7
^ 20 0.6
Rake angle - ar = 5° 0.5
10 *
0.4
5 0.3-
0 -i 1 1 1 1

30
0.2- Rake angle - ar = 5°
0.1
0 -H 1 1 1-
25
H

20 0
1.4
1

i ^^L»——~~* —*"— ^ 1.2

^15
1
10-
fe< Rake angle - ar = 10° 0.8
5• tt 0.6
1 1 1 i i
0.4
2 4 6 8 10
Axial Immersion [mm] 0.2 Rake angle - ar = 10°
0 —i
0 2 4 6 8 10
Axial Immersion [mm]

3(c) Average pressure on the flank 3(d) Average friction coefficient on the flank

Several different cutting conditions are simulated and com-
pared with experimental results using the cutting force model
and identified coefficients given in Table 2. In Fig. 5, predicted
and measured cutting forces for a slotting test with a low feed-
rate of/, = 0.0508 mm/rev and various axial depth of cuts are
shown. The carbide ball end mill had a single flute with ar =
0 deg rake angle. The predicted and simulated cutting forces
are in excellent agreement even at very low axial depth of cuts
where the ploughing process is quite dominant due to low cut-
ting speeds at the ball tip region. In a separate case, half immer-
sion up-milling tests with axial depth of cut a = 6.35 mm but
at two different feed-rates of fd = 0.0508 mm/rev and fd =
0.1016 mm/rev were conducted with the same ball end mill.
Again, the predicted and measured cutting forces are in good
agreement (Fig. 6) except with slight phase shifts at the exit
due to difficulty in selecting the reference point in the half
immersion test data. Slot cutting test with single fluted ball end
mills having 5° and 10° rake angles were conducted at various
feeds and axial depth of cuts, see Figs. 7 and 8. Again, the
force predictions were quite accurate even at severe cutting
conditions, i.e., very low feeds and axial depth of cuts. Provided
that the cutting coefficients do not change with the cutting
speed, which is observed for the titanium alloy machined here
[21], cutting forces can be predicted for ball end mills with
different diameters. A sample simulation of cutting forces for
a ball radius of R0 = 6.35 mm is shown in Fig. 9. Even though
the coefficients (Table 2) were identified using a different cutter
radius and cutting speed, the force prediction is still accurate
at a very small feed rate, i.e., chip loads.
The fly cutting test results indicate that the force model
and the simplified cutting force coefficients are acceptable
for the analysis of multi-fluted ball end mills. The cutting
forces are periodic in milling at tooth passing intervals, pro-
vided that flutes have identical geometry. Although recently
developed hydraulic chucks minimize the run outs within
0.020 mm range, it still leaves some uneven chip loads among
the flutes. Furthermore, only one of the flutes reaches to the
ball tip, and the remaining flutes are ground with axial and
radial offsets in order to prevent marks on the finish surface.
A three fluted production ball end mill with a zero rake angle
and angular grinding tolerance of (+2 deg, —2 deg) was
tested for illustration. The maximum radial run-outs at the
shank-ball meeting region of the flutes were 0.015 mm, 0.010
mm and 0.0 mm. The influence of run-out geometry on the
chip load distribution was not modelled in the simulations,
but can be included in a similar fashion as illustrated by
Kline et al. [4]. However, the radial run-outs vary along the
flutes due to ball envelope, which increases computational

100 / Vol. 118, FEBRUARY 1996 Transactions of the ASME

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 0.6
-•—1(1=0.0254 [mm/flute]
0.5 -« -0.052

0.4 -0 -0.1016

Io,
® 0.2

Rotation angle 0[<feg.]

0.1 Rake angle - ar = 0°
0 i 1 1 1 1

0.6

0.5

0.4
1'0.3 +
u
©
0.2

0.1
Rake angle - a r = 5°
0 < 1 1 1 1

0.6 T

0.5 •

0.4

0.3 Rake angle - ocr = 10°

©
0.2 Rotation angle 9[deg.]

0.1 • Fig. 4 Decoupled normal and frictional components for each cutting
force vector. Cutting conditions: fl0 = 9.525 mm, ar = 0 deg, a = 7.62
mm, ft, = 30 deg, fd = 0.05[mm/flute], dry slot milling with one flute.

4 6 8 10
Axial Immersion [mm]
3(e) Average chip flow angle
Fig. 3 Variation of cutting coefficients with axial immersion and feedrate
for a tool with different rake angles. Cutting conditions: spindle speed
= 269 rev/min, /30 = 30 deg, y = +10 deg, R„ = 9.525 mm, workpiece =
TieAU titanium alloy, cutter = carbide, dry slot cutting with one flute. Axial
depths of cut: 1.27, 2.54, 3.81, 6.35, 8.89 mm. Feed rates: 0.0254, 0.052,
0.076, 0.1016 mm/flute.
complexity. The cutter gage length was about 50 mm from
the power chuck face, hence the cutter and clamping assem-
bly were quite rigid. The main flute was ground up to the
ball tip whereas the other two flutes were ground radially 1.5
mm and axially 0.3 mm (i.e., gash dimensions) away from
the ball tip, which was not considered in the force simulation
algorithm either. The predicted and measured forces are com-
pared in Fig. 10. The feed and normal force predictions were
quite satisfactory, and small deviations are due to unmodelled
run-out and tool grinding errors (rake and clearance angles)
which are typical to most tool shops. The prediction of axial
forces was not as accurate due to geometric discrepancies
between the three flutes of the cutter in the ball tip region.
Since two of the flutes do not cut at all in the gash region,
the z forces were over-predicted by the simulation. The axial
forces that contribute most are close to the ball tip where
the effects of ploughing, run-out and the gashed flutes are
strongest. Since the cutting force coefficients were identified
from another cutter, any discrepancy in cutter grinding in
this region is most felt on the axial forces. The importance
of precision cutter grinding with repeatable dimensions is
quite evident here. Recently introduced precision CNC cutter
grinders with vision guided automatic dressing and wheel
wear compensation should improve the dimensional repeat-
ability and accuracy of cutters.
The cutters having different geometries were modelled,
tested, verified and their coefficients are stored in a data base
for simulating forces and structural deformations in periph-
eral and ball end milling of components made of the titanium
alloy.

Table 2 Empirical cutting force coefficients for ball end milling of Ti«AI4 Valloy. Cutter:
carbide constant lead ball end mills with /30 = 30 deg, R0 = 9.525 mm.

Coefficient a, = 0° a, = 5" a, = 10°

;«(*„) 7.939 - 0.2467a/R<, - 3.983/, 7.878 - 0.241a/flo - 4.955/, 7.396 + 0.2153a/J2o - 3.361/,
K, 0.743 1.079 + 0.0081a/Ho - 1.934/, 1.658 - 0.7782o/flo - 2.908/,
'»(««) -2.489 + 1.5431a/ft, -2.196 + 1.3716o/flo - 4.592/,, -2.182 + 0.8782a/flo - 6.329/,
Knf 26.80 + 77.96/,, 32.88 - S.5912o/flo + 73.37/, 11.23 + 2.5813a/Bo + 69.78/,
Ktl 0.366+ 0.1105o/flo + 2.615/j 0.279 + 0.2o/flo + 2.328/, 0.329 + 0.4467o/Ho + 2.409/,

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY 1996, Vol. 118 / 101

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 Rake angle - aT = 0" tN]
R a k e a n g l e - aT = 5°

260

200

160

100

60

-50
200
-100
l
-150
(a) Feed rate fd — 0.0254 mm/flute, Axial depth of cut = 1.27mm
INI (a) Feed rate fd = 0.0508 mm/flute. Axial depth of cut = 1.27mm W
700 T 1000

-500
(b) Feed rate ft = 0.1016 mm/flute, Axial depth of cut = 3.81mm
(b) Feed rate fd = 0.0508 mm/flute, Axial depth of cut = 3.81mm [N]
1600
1400-
1200
1000
600
600
400
200
0
-200n
-400 Rotation angle - ^(degree)
50 100 -600
(c) Feed rate fd = 0.1016 mm/flute, Axial depth of cut = 6.35mm
PIT Rotation angle - 8(degret) '

(c) Feed rate fd = 0.0508 mm/flute, Axial depth of cut = 7.62mm
Fig. 5 Measured and predicted cutting forces for milling tests at three
different axial depths of cut. Cutting conditions: a, = 0 deg, spindle speed
= 269 rev/min, R0 = 9.525 mm, p0 = 30 deg, fd = 0.05 [mm/flute].
Fig. 7 Predicted and measured cutting forces for slot milling with a
single fluted ball end mill. Cutting conditions: a, = 5 deg, spindle speed
= 269 rev/min, fl0 = 9.525 mm, /So = 30 deg.

Rake angle - ar = 10°

(a) Feed rate fd = 0.0254 mm/flute, Axial depth of cut = 1.27mm

EMBMGS3S-
*0 60 80 100 120 140 160 160 200

Rotation angle $[deg.]

(a) Feed-rate fd = 0.0508 [mm/flute]

x
•400
[N] (b) Feed rate fd = 0.1016 mm/flute, Axial depth of cut = 3.81mm
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
20Q v -wjt--- 40 60 60 100 120 140 200
0
400
" " Rotation angle 6[deg.] -20011 Fx 50 100
-400 Rotation angle - $(degree)
-600
(b) Feed-rate fd = 0.1016 [mm/flute] fc) Feed rate fd = 0.1016 nun/flute, Axial depth of cut = 6.35mm

Fig. 6 Predicted and measured cutting forces for half radial immersion Fig. 8 Predicted and measured cutting forces for slot milling with a
dry up milling tests. Cutting conditions: a, = 0 deg, a = 6.35 [mm], spindle single fluted ball end mill. Cutting conditions: a, = 10 deg, spindle speed
speed = 269 rev/min, fl0 = 9.525 mm, p0 = 30 deg, one flute. = 269 rev/min, R0 = 9.525 mm, /30 = 30 deg.

102 / Vol. 118, FEBRUARY 1996 Transactions of the ASME

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Fig. 9 Predicted and measured cutting forces for slot milling with a
single fluted ball end mill with a different diameter. Cutting conditions:
ar = 0 deg, spindle speed = 269 rev/min, fl0 = 6.35 mm, /30 = 30 deg,
fd = 0.0127 mm, a = 5.08 mm.
[N]
2000
1600
1000
600
0 8 Smith, S., and Tlusty, J., 1991, "An Overview of Modeling and Simulation
-500 " 100 150 200 260
•1000 R o t a t i o n angle - 0(degree)
-1500
-2000
-2500
Fig. 10 Predicted and measured cutting forces for slot milling with a 3
fluted ball end mill. Cutting conditions: R0 = 9.525 mm, a, = 0 deg, spindle
speed = 615 rev/min, /30 = 30 deg, fd = 0.127 mm/flute, a = 8.9 mm, run
outs at the ball-shank meeting points: 0 mm, 0.010 mm, 0.015 mm.
6 Conclusions
A semi-mechanistic analytical model for the prediction of
cutting forces in ball end milling operations is presented. The
model is based on general mechanisms of chip formation and
tool flank-workpiece contact. The mechanisms are correlated to
the cutting forces with experimentally identified pressure and
friction coefficients on the rake and flank contact surfaces. The
model accurately predicts the cutting forces in three Cartesian
directions for given axial and radial depths, and feed rate. The
distribution of cutting force magnitudes and directions along
the ball shaped helical end mills are predicted. The knowledge
of loading is essential in designing the cutter geometry for
strength, and in selecting the cutting conditions to avoid chip-
ping and breakage of ball ended cutters during machining.
Acknowledgments
This research is jointly supported by Natural Science and
Research Council of Canada and Pratt & Whitney Aircraft of
Journal of Engineering for Industry
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publicationhttp://manufacturingscience.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/
stats on 07/06/2013 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms
Canada under a cooperative research and development grant
entitled ' 'Peripheral milling of titanium based jet engine com-
pressors." The assistance of research engineer Peter Lee in
organizing the cutting test data and figures is appreciated.
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FEBRUARY 1996, Vol. 1 1 8 / 1 0 3