Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804

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Cretaceous Research
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Polyphased dolomitization of a shoal-rimmed carbonate platform: example

from the middle Turonian Bireno dolomites of central Tunisia
Jamel Touir a, *, Mohamed Soussi b, Habib Troudi c
a
Sciences Faculty of Sfax, Laboratory 3E, Route la Soukra, km 3.5, Sfax 3018, Tunisia
b
Sciences Faculty of Tunis, Research Unit UR/99/10-042092, Tunis 1060, Tunisia
c
Entreprise Tunisienne d’Activités Pétrolières, 27 bis Avenue Keireddine Pacha, BP 367, Tunis, Tunisia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The middle Turonian Bireno carbonate platform of central Tunisia consists of a shoal-rimmed platform
Received 2 February 2007 including at least three carbonate units deposited in inner to outer shelf depositional settings. The Bireno
Accepted in revised form 7 January 2009 middle unit is dominantly composed of dolomites capped by a subaerial exposure surface correlative
Available online 20 January 2009
with the global SB 90.5 Ma. Dolomitization occurred during a major sea-level fall which resulted in
a progressive modification of the marine groundwater by meteoric water or by evaporation The multi-
Keywords:
disciplinary study, including petrographic and geochemical analyses, shows that the dolomites include
Shoal-rimmed platform
three dolomite phases which consecutively occurred in quite different platform environments, according
Polyphased dolomitization
Sea-level fall to different mechanisms: (1) the first dolomite phase resulted from a replacive dolomitization that
Middle Turonian affected the fine-grained limestone intercalations associated with the layered anhydrites in the evapo-
Bireno platform ritic supratidal zone; (2) the second dolomite phase resulted from a replacive dolomitization that
Central Tunisia simultaneously affected the rudist lithosomes on the platform border as well as the alternation of the
peritidal laminated limestone and desiccation breccias of the intertidal zone, the resulting dolomicrite
was more or less recrystallized during shallow burial into turbid dolomicrosparite and dolosparite; (3)
the third dolomite phase resulted from the precipitation of limpid dolomite cement in the tectonic
fractures affecting especially the rudist shoal carbonates on the border of the platform.
Through this study it was established that dolomitization occured in close relation with the major
lowring of the sea level in different sub-environments belonging to the same sedimentary system, but
following different mechanisms that can result in different dolomite phases displaying quite different
petrographic and geochemical signatures. In addition to the role of the sea-level fall, the local tectonic
framework played a great role in controlling dolomitizing fluids circulation and distribution of the
dolomitized bodies within the platform.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Upper Cretaceous of central Tunisia is composed of, at least,
five major transgressive/regressive depositional cycles (Burollet,
1956; Touir et al., 1989; M’Rabet et al., 1995). Each cycle includes
marls and limestone intercalations at the base and a carbonate unit
with dolostones at the top (Fig. 2). These carbonates have been
deposited in shallow marine carbonate platforms which were
controlled by the interplay of eustatic sea-level fluctuation and
tectonic activities that affected all of central Tunisia (Burollet, 1984;
Bouaziz et al., 2002). The carbonate platforms and associated
dolomites of central Tunisia have been studied by several authors
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jamel.touir@fss.rnu.tn (J. Touir).
(e.g. M’Rabet, 1981; Troudi et al., 2000, Abdallah et al., 2000;
Abdallah, 2003).
The principal aim of the present paper is the study of the
dolomites of the Bireno platform considered as a rudist shoal-
rimmed carbonate platform (Troudi et al., 2002; Touir and Soussi,
2003) and assigned to the middle Turonian (Touir et al., 1989;
Abdallah et al., 2000); in ddition, the Bireno dolomites are of a great
economic importance since they constitute a productive oil reser-
voir in oriental Tunisia offshore (Troudi et al., 2002). Three localities
in central Tunisia (Fig. 1) have been selected to analyse these
dolomites: the Jebel M’rhila which was located in the platform
margin where a rudist shoal developed, the Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig
which was a part of the intertidal domain and the Oued Trif which
corresponds to the evaporitic supratidal zone. Stratigraphically
(Fig. 3), the middle Turonian dolomites are located at the top of
a depositional cycle. They lie below a regional exposure surface

0195-6671/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2009.01.004
786 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804
Fig. 1. Simplified sketch map after the geological map of Tunisia (1/500 000), showing the main Cretaceous outcrops and location of the studied sections in central Tunisia.
most likely related to a major sea-level fall correlative with the
global SB 90.5 Ma (Robaszynski et al., 1990; Abdallah et al., 2000).
The main purpose of the present paper is to elucidate how
relative sea-level fluctuation and local tectonics can control dolo-
mitization. It aims also to show that the variability of the dolomi-
tization mechanisms that affected carbonates previously deposited
in different sub-environments of a carbonate platform is a common
phenomenon.The timing of dolomitization and the paragenetic
history in the different platform sub-environments will also be
discussed and correlated taking into account the stratigraphic data
of Abdallah (2003) and Abdallah et al. (2000) as well as the liter-
ature data on old and modern dolomites.
2. Analytical methods
The middle Turonian dolomites have been sampled and ana-
lysed in three localities (Jebel M’rhila, Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig and
Oued Trif) which respectively represent from north to south, the
platform border (rudist-shoal), the intertidal zone and the evap-
oritic supratidal zone. The detailed mapping has lead to the
distinction of different dolomitic bodies. The petrographic anal-
ysis of dolomites has mainly been performed under polarizing
microscope on thin sections and enhanced by cath-
odoluminescence observations. Fresh rock samples were also
examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The dolomite
textures were defined according to Sibley and Gregg (1987)
classification and the dolomite mineralogy was analysed using X-
ray diffraction (XRD) on bulk-rock samples extracted from
unfractured dolomites and on dolomite cement extracted from
fractures.
Major and trace elements (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Sr and Na) were
titrated using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Quantification
by punctual analysis of these elements at the crystal scale was
carried out using a spot electron microprobe analysis (LINK system,
software ZAP.P/BFCS).
Carbon and oxygen isotope analysis was carried out by mass
spectrometry from the carbon dioxide delivered after prolonged
attack using 100 % phosphoric acid (Fontes et al., 1970). The analysis
results are presented relative to the PDB standard and d18O ratios
corrected according to Sharma and Clayton (1965). The samples
used for isotope analysis are selected once the study rocks are
systematically observed by microscopy and the different petro-
graphic expressions are defined. Fresh dolomitic samples are
extracted from rocks that mainly include replacive dolomite;
whereas the dolomite cement is recovered from fractures and then
separated from the replacive dolomite using a little electric driller
under binocular microscope.
3. Geographic and geologic settings
The middle Turonian Bireno carbonate platform outcrops
extensively in several atlasic structures of Central Tunisia (Fig. 1)
and displays three distinctive carbonate units the middle one of
which is usually dolomitic and locally associated to evaporites (Figs.
3 and 4). The Bireno platform is assigned to the middle Turonian as
it lies above the Whiteinella archaeocretacea Zone and below the
 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804
Fig. 2. Type section showing the stratigraphy of the Upper Cretaceous platforms of
central Tunisia (in Touir et al., 1989, slightly modified). The dolomite units are located
at the top of the depositional cycles. The Bireno dolomites lie just below an
unconformity.
Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica Zone (Bismuth et al., 1981; Touir
et al., 1989; Abdallah et al., 2000). Paleogeographically (Fig. 5), this
platform extends for more than 60 to 80 km between two E-W
oriented major faults: the M’rhila fault to the north and the Kas-
serine fault to the south, and more than 300 Km between the
Algerian frontiers to the west and the oriental Tunisia to the east.
Using Wright and Burchette (1996) classification, the Bireno
platform consists of a ‘‘shoal-rimmed platform’’ (Troudi et al., 2000;
Troudi et al., 2002; Touir and Soussi, 2003); it can also be regarded
as a ‘‘fault-block platform’’ according to the recent genetic classi-
fication of Bosence (2005). The platform northern margin shows
a belt of hippuritid-rudist lithosomes. The lithosomes present an
organic shoal which broadly follows the E-W M’rhila fault direction
787
while separating between an inner-shelf to the south and an outer-
shelf to the north. The intertidal zone characterized by the presence
of laminated dolomites and desiccation breccias intercalations can
be examined in Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area. In Oued Trif area, the
Bireno facies are represented by thin laminated dolostones alter-
nating with anhydrites of sebkha to supratidal settings. In these
three paleogeographic domains the Bireno middle dolomitic unit is
capped by a subaerial exposure surface. The latter is overlain by
transgressive oolitic-bioclastic sub-marine bars in the Jebel M’rhila
area (platform border) and by rudist-bearing bedded limestone in
the Oued Trif and Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig localities (inner-shelf).
Towards the north of Jebel M’rhila area, the Bireno carbonate
platform grades into outer-shelf where an alternation of marls and
clayey limestone was deposited (Fig. 6). Towards the south it passes
into deposits of a paralic to continental domain which includes
evaporites, solution breccias and paleosoils (Boltenhagen, 1985;
Touir and Soussi, 2003). Further south, in the Gafsa area in partic-
ular (Fig. 1), the Bireno platform contains marl intercalations and
bioclastic limestone ending with a middle Turonian sequence
boundary correlative with SB 90.5 Ma (Abdallah et al., 2000).
Towards eastern Tunisia and the Pelagian Sea the Bireno platform
grades into outer-shelf where, in addition to shallow marine
carbonates, fine-grained limestone and marls were deposited
(Troudi et al., 2000).
In the study area, the Bireno platform is associated with a NE-
SW oriented network of faults and fractures that were active during
the middle Turonian (Touir et al., 1987) under a regional exten-
sional tectonic regime (Bouaziz et al., 2002). This tectonic frame-
work controlled not only the facies and thickness distribution
during the Turonian but also the dolomitization of a part of the
Bireno platform as will be shown in the next chapters.
4. Dolomites and dolomitization in evaporitic supratidal
environment
4.1. Occurrence
In the Oued Trif area (Fig. 1) the Bireno middle unit is mainly
represented by laminated stratabound dolomites (30 to 50-cm-
thick) associated with a 60-m-thick layered anhydrite succession
(Figs. 3, 4 and 6). The dolomites of the lower and middle part of the
succession are commonly associated with dissolved gypsum
nodules while those of the uppermost part are transformed into
breccias due to the dissolution of the anhydrites. The dolomite-
anhydrite alternation ends with an exposure surface coorelative
with the Haq’s SB 90.5 Ma (Abdallah et al., 2000). In this locality,
this unconformity is overlain by the transgressive Bireno upper unit
represented by a rudist-bearing limestone rich in foraminifera.
4.2. Petrography
The evaporitic supratidal laminated dolomites (Fig. 7) mainly
consist of patchy and brownish dull-luminescent dolomicrite; this
is locally associated with finely crystalline turbid dolomicrosparite
(20 mm in average), with euhedral planar-s crystals. These dolo-
mites can not be subdivided into different petrotypes.
4.3. Mineralogy and geochemistry
In the Oued Trif area the dolomites lay between the siliceous
dolomitic limestone and the siliceous calcian dolomite (Table 1a).
The CaCO3 concentrations range between 12 and 72 moles %, those
of MgCO3 are between 2 and 8.2 moles % and those of SiO2 between
9 and 40 moles %. The rhomb points which have been analysed
using the spot electron microprobe (Table 1b) are composed of
788 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804

Fig. 3. Lithofacies and sequence stratigraphy of the lower-middle Turonian series in the studied sections.

calcian dolomite with concentrations randomly varying between
51 and 55 moles % CaCO3 (52.4 moles % in average) and between
40.4 and 44.8 moles % MgCO3 (43.6 moles % in average). Such finely
crystalline Ca-rich dolomite is comparable with the non-ordered
primitive dolomite, also called ‘‘protodolomite’’ (Goldsmith and
Graf, 1958; Wells, 1962). The diffracted X-ray position of this
dolomite is quite in advance relative to that of the standard dolo-
mite (Goldsmith and Graf, 1958), which also appears comparable
with the ‘‘protodolomite’’. The total-rock Sr concentrations range
between 120 and 850 ppm, whereas in a dolomite crystal they
range between 10 and 87 ppm (21 ppm in average). The total-rock
Fe concentrations lie between 116 and 500 ppm, while in a dolo-
mite crystal they gradually increase from the periphery to the
crystal centre from 260 to 653 ppm. The concentrations in Na are as
low as 85–183 ppm; whereas at the crystal scale the Na concen-
trations are higher and randomly range between 42 and 488 ppm
(214 ppm in average).
4.4. Discussion of the dolomitization environment and mechanisms
According to the field observation and the geochemical and
petrographic data the Oued Trif laminated dolomites are
 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804 789

Fig. 4. Field photographs from the study area. A, Bireno middle and upper units separated by the SB 90.5 Ma unconformity, Jebel M’rhila area. B, Bireno upper unit limestones
onlapping the middle unit dolomites, Jebel M’rhila area. C, Open karst at the top of Bireno dolomites showing insoluble residues and calcite cement (arrow), Jebel M’rhila area. D,
Bireno middle evaporitic unit overlying the open marine low-energy limestone of Bireno lower unit, Oued Trif area. E, General view on the Bireno middle unit showing the
alternation of anhydrites and dolomitic beds in the Oued Trif section. F, Peritidal laminated dolomite (L) overlain by desiccation breccias (B) through an erosional surface (arrow),
Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area.

interpreted as early diagenetic product which occurred in an
evaporitic supratidal zone, during the 90.5 Ma sea-level fall
(Abdallah et al., 2000). In view of the associated gypsum nodules,
the high Ca concentrations and the lack of stoichiometric dolomite,
these finely cristalline dolomites can be compared to those that
Friedman (1980) considers as ‘‘evaporite rocks’’. The high Sr
concentrations (120 to 850 ppm) in these dolomites point to
dolomitization by a marine water that was more or less modified by
evaporation. The dolomitization in evaporitic peritidal environ-
ments is well documented (e.g. Bush, 1973; Carballo et al., 1987;
Kuznetsov and Suchy, 1992) and it is demonstrated that its occur-
rence is possible due to some typical factors such as: (1) the exis-
tence of dense marine brines resulting from intense evaporation,
(2) the abrupt porewater change during the relative sea-level
fluctuation, (3) the existence of metastable carbonate minerals of
biogenic origin such as the aragonite and the Mg-calcite, and (4) the
existence of algal and bacterial organic matter.
In the evaporitic environments, the dolomitization is gener-
ally achieved according to the evaporative pumping model (Hsu
and Siegenthaler, 1969; McKenzie et al., 1980) which commonly
implies the following hydrologic mechanisms (Patterson and
Kinsman, 1981): (1) sabkha recharge during episodic seawater
flooding, (2) capillary evaporation, and (3) evaporative
pumping.
According to several works on modern coastal sabkhas (Deffeyes
et al., 1965; Purser, 1980; Kendall, 1989), the brine concentrations
gradually increase during the progressive evaporation of the
marine water, concurrent with precipitation of aragonite and
790 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804
Fig. 5. Sketch map showing the middle Turonian Tunisia paleogeography, the Bireno facies distribution and the location of the studied sections (in Troudi et al., 2002, slightly
modified).
gypsum. Subsequently, the Mg/Ca ratios increase and release the
dolomitization process (Kinsman, 1969b), and when Mg/Ca ratios
become extremly high the magnesite precipitates. Such processes
can be appropriate for the Oued Trif dolomites, where the supra-
tidal recharge in marine brines would have mainly been related to
the tidal flooding and the underground reflux through the rudist
shoal which was located to the north of the Oued Trif supra-tidal
zone.
4.5. Timing of dolomitization and paragenetic history
Considering field, petrographic and geochemical data taking
into account the regional paleogeography, the dolomites of the
Oued Trif area represent a separate dolomite phase and are inter-
preted as an early replacive dolomite formed by evaporitic dolo-
mitization mechanism. This evaporitic dolomite is thought to be
the first dolomite phase having occurred in the middle Turonian
Bireno platform most likely in relation with a sea-level lowering
that consecutively led to:
(1) The progressive evaporation of the marine water in the
supratidal zone and simultaneously the dolomitization of the
fine-grained laminated limestone into replacive dolomicrite;
(2) A moderate shallow-burial recrystallization partially trans-
formed the previous dolomicrite into a planar-s turbid
dolomicrosparite;
(3) During the subaerial exposure of the platform a meteoric water
dissolution occurred, but due to the absence of fractures in the
Oued Trif area this process did not result in real karst devel-
opment, instead, it led to the dissolution of anhydrites and
formation of dolomite collapse breccias in the upper anhydrite
succession, and a non-luminescent drusic calcite cemented
these breccias and filled-up the solution vugs;
(4) During the following marine transgression, a rudist-bearing
limestone was deposited above the dolomite-anhydrite alter-
nation. This transgressive limestone reworked the surficial
dolomites, indicating that the dolomitization in Oued Trif area
predates the platform subaerial exposure and the following
marine transgression.
 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804 791

Fig. 6. Stratigraphic framework of the mid-Cretaceous deposits in central Tunisia. The Bireno dolomites are located at the top of a middle Turonian depositional cycle, just below the
90.5 Ma sequence boundary. Correlations are based on Abdallah et al. (2000) and Abdallah (2003). The deposits thickness and the distances between sections are exaggerated.

5. Dolomites and dolomitization in intertidal environment
5.1. Occurrence
In the Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area (Fig. 1) the Bireno carbonate
Member includes three distinctive units (Fig. 3). The middle unit
includes a 7-m-thick dolomitic limestone succession rich in rudist
debris overlain by at least 30-m-thick succession of peritidal
dolomites. The latter are composed of the repetition of several
parasequences each showing a basal term represented by dolomite
desiccation breccias grading upwards to peritidal laminated dolo-
mites (microbial?). The peritidal dolomite unit ends with
a subaerial erosion surface correlative with the global 90.5 Ma
unconformity (Abdallah et al., 2000). This unconformity already
792 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804

Fig. 7. A, B, and C, Thin section photographs illustrating the evaporitic supratidal dolomites and the associated paragenetic history in the Oued Trif area. A, Slightly laminated
dolomicrite with dissolved gypsum nodules (dark zones). B, Dolomicrite showing several dissolved gypsum nodules (black patches). C, Dolomicrite rich in gypsum nodules dis-
solved and then cemented by calcispar. In the centre a birds-eye filled with geopetal vadose silt (S). D, E, F, and G, Thin section photomicrographs illustrating the microfacies of the
peritidal dolomites and associated limestone, Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area. D, Peloı̈dal dolomicrite affected by sheet cracks infilled with calcispar (white). E, Dolomicrite and dolo-
microsparite with fine-grained detritic quartz (white). F, Packstone with poorly sorted peloids and benthic foraminifera (arrow); the matrix shows geopetal internal sediments. G,
Limpid dolomite cement (d) (third dolomite phase) in a solution vug grafted on anhedral turbid dolomite (R) (second dolomite phase); the rhomboedric shape of the vug edges
indicates the dissolution of the dolomite cement.
 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804 793

Table 1a
Total-rock mineralogy and geochemistry of the evaporitic supratidal dolomites, Oued Trif area

Locality Sample Mineralogy CaCO3 (Moles %) MgCO3 (Moles %) Fe (ppm) Sr (ppm) Na (ppm) Mn (ppm)
Oued Trif OT1 Dolomitic calcite 11.8 8.2 116 850 85 8
OT2 Dolomitic calcite 72 2 500 120 183 320

identified in Oued Trif locality is here overlain by an 8-m-thick
rudist-bearing bedded limestone (Bireno upper unit) preserved
from any dolomitization and showing at the base a thin trans-
gressive horizon containing lags and reworked dolomite breccias.
5.2. Petrography
In the Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area, the peritidal laminated dolo-
mites are on the whole finely crystalline (Fig. 7) but different from
the previous evaporitic dolomites. On the basis of the dolomite
crystal size and textures which have been examined under polar-
izing and scanning electron microscopes (SEM), two different
dolomite petrotypes (P1 and P2) according to Sibley and Gregg
(1987) classification can be distinguished:
shown by the dolomicrite relics preserved as dark cores in the
turbid crystals. It is thought that this intertidal turbid dolomite
of Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig occurred somewhat after the evaporitic
supratidal dolomite of Oued Trif; so it corresponds to a second
dolomite phase in the Bireno platform.
(2) A thin limpid fringe of bright luminescent dolomite cement
which is locally grafted on the turbid dolomite crystals of the
petrotype P1. This dolomite probably resulted from chemical
precipitation. As the limpid dolomite cement is regularly
grafted on the turbid dolomite crystals, this confirms that the
limpid dolomite cement postdates the turbid dolomite; hence
it corresponds to a third dolomite phase in the Bireno platform.
5.3. Mineralogy and geochemistry

5.2.1. Petrotype P1
This consists of euhedral to subhedral brownish dull-lumines-
cent turbid dolomicrosparite to dolosparite, arranged into planar-e
textures in which the precursor of original laminar fabric is quite
preserved. The dolomite crystals are as small as 10 to 20 mm, and
sometimes reach 50 mm (dolosparite); they usually show a dolo-
micrite dark core. The turbid dolomite crystals are sometimes
bounded by a thin limpid fringe of bright luminescent dolomite
cement.
5.2.2. Petrotype P2
This is represented by subhedral brownish dull-luminescent
dolomicrosparite to dolosparite with a planar-s texture; the dolo-
mite crystals are turbid and average 200–300 mm in size and they
show neither dark cores nor limpid dolomite fringes.
5.2.3. Significance of the dolomite petrotypes
The dolomite petrotypes P1 and P2 of the Jebel Essif-Jebel
Réguig area show two distinctive dolomite phases which are
different from the evaporitic dolomite already shown in Oued Trif
area:
(1) A patchy brownish dull-luminescent turbid dolomite repre-
sented by the petrotype P1 and the central crystals of the
petreotype P2.This can result from an earlier replacive dolo-
micrite that have been slightly affected by recrystallization as
In the intertidal dolomites the turbid dolomite (second dolomite
phase) is rather calcian as the CaCO3 concentrations range between
49.7 and 52.5 moles % (51 moles % in average) and those of MgCO3
lie between 42.4 and 42.8 moles % (42.6 moles % in average). The Sr
concentrations range between 42 and 90 ppm (66 ppm in average)
and those of Na are between 238 and 280 ppm (260 ppm in
average). The Fe contents range between 130 and 200 ppm; those
of Mn lie between 36 and 41 ppm (Table 2a). The spot electron
microprobe analysis (Table 2b) shows that in the same turbid
dolomite crystal the Sr concentrations are slightly variable (for
example between 21 and 99 ppm, with 64 ppm in average); the
turbid dolomite is poor in Fe and Na which are even undetectable in
some crystal points. These geochemical characteristics are different
from those of the evaporitic supratidal dolomites already observed
in Oued Trif area.
The thin fringe of limpid dolomite cement (third dolomite
phase) that sometimes occurred around the turbid crystals in the
petrotype P1 consists of calcian dolomite relatively impoverished in
Sr (99 ppm) and Na (204 ppm) in comparison with the turbid
dolomite.
5.4. Discussion of the dolomitization environment and mechanisms
Considering the field and the petrographic and geochemical
data and taking into account the Bireno platform paleogeography,
the Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig laminated dolomites occurred during

Table 1b
Microprobe analysis data through dolomite and calcite crystals in the evaporitic supratidal dolomites and associated limestone, Oued Trif area

Locality Sample Mineralogy Analysis CaCO3 MgCO3 Fe Sr Na Mn

points (Moles %) (Moles %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Oued Trif Dolostones Calcian 1(center) 51.5 44.1 592 0 243 20
dolomite
" 2 51 44.8 565 0 182 46
" 3 51.6 43.2 653 10 179 104
" 4 55 40.4 585 53 192 0
" 5 52.7 44.5 282 0 25 38
" 6 53.7 43.7 260 87 187 0
" 7(center) 51.2 51.2 443 0 488 0

Locality Sample Mineralogy analysis CaCO3 MgCO3 Fe Sr Na Mn

crystals (Moles %) (Moles %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Oued Trif Limestone Calcite crystal 1 95.6 0.5 6.5 67 0 0
" crystal 2 91 0.8 64 152 73 0
" crystal 3 94 1.1 77 78 42 0
794 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804

Table 2a
Total-rock mineralogy and geochemistry of the laminated intertidal dolomites, Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area

Locality Petrotypes Mineralogy CaCO3 (Moles %) MgCO3 (Moles %) Fe (ppm) Sr (ppm) Na (ppm) Mn (ppm)
Jebel Sif P1 Calcian dolomite 49.7 42.4 200 42 280 36
Jebel Réguig P2 Calcian dolomite 52.5 42.8 128 90 238 41

a sea-level fall in a lagoonal intertidal environment, just like several
modern and old similar dolomites already documented worldwide
(e.g. McKenzie et al., 1980; Soussi and M’Rabet, 1994; Frisia, 1994).
In general, the peritidal fine-grained carbonate sediments are
regarded to be highly susceptible to dolomitization. Such an affir-
mation is based on (1) the high specific surfaces in micrite particles
(Bathurst, 1975; Murray and Lucia, 1967), and (2) the significant
magnesium amounts the microbial and algal mats can supply
during the organic matter decomposition, using the mechanism of
organic complexation of Mgþþ (Gebelein and Hoffman, 1973).
Several authors (e.g. Mertz, 1984; Baker and Burns, 1985) recognize
a positive correlation between the development of dolomites and
the presence of organic-rich laminated deposits.
Except the Na concentrations, the other geochemical and
petrographic characteristics of the turbid dolomite in the intertidal
zone suggest a replacive dolomitization using normal marine
waters. Although the Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig intertidal zone was
closely bordered to the souh by an evaporitic supratidal zone (Oued
Trif area), a ‘‘brine-reflux mechanism’’ able to release an evaporitic
pumping dolomitization (Hsu and Siegenthaler, 1969) can not be
envisaged because the low Na and Sr concentrations as well as the
absence of evaporites intercalations or gypsum nodules in these
intertidal dolomites are not compatible with such a dolomitization
mechanism (McKenzie et al., 1980). The previous characteristics
rather plead for a dolomitization using normal marine waters. On
the other hand, seeing the important peritidal laminated carbon-
ates in the Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area which may be of a bacterial
origin, the dolomitization using the ‘‘bacterial reduction of
sulphates’’ mechanism (e.g. Irwin et al., 1977; Garrison et al., 1984;
Slaughter and Hill, 1991; Baltzer et al., 1994) can also be envisaged;
but the dolomitization by marine waters remains the most likely as
evidenced by the previous dolomite features.
Although the marine water remains the major source of Mg
(Ward and Halley, 1985) which is potentially able to provide suffi-
cient Mgþþ for massive dolomitization in near-surface settings
(Sass and Katz, 1982; Land, 1985; Vahrenkamp, 1988; Tucker and
Wright, 1990), this nevertheless necessitates an efficient hydrody-
namic driver (Land, 1991; Hein et al., 1992) able to force the inter-
stitial seawater circulation through the carbonate platform and
release the dolomitization. In this respect, the ‘‘surface mixing fresh
water-seawater’’ mechanism already proposed by Whitaker et al.
(1994) and Vahrenkamp and Swart (1994) can be appropriate to the
studied intertidal dolomites particularly since these dolomites are
related to a sea-level lowering.
According to the petrographic and geochemical characteristics,
the limpid dolomite cement shown in some vugs may be the result
of a precipitation using diluted marine waters, according to the
mixing water dolomitization mechanism (Hanshaw et al., 1971;
Badiozamani, 1973). The dilution of the marine water by the
meteoric water which resulted from the sea-level fall did not result
in important limpid dolomite cement in the Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig
area; this may be due to the absence of a significant permeability
network (i.e.fractures) through the Bireno platform in this area.
5.5. Timing of dolomitization and paragenetic history
As shown above, the intertidal dolomites of Jebel Sif-Jebel
Réguig include two distinctive dolomite phases: the replacive
turbid dolomite and the limpid dolomite cement. They occurred
consecutively during a sea level-fall correlative with the SB
90.5 Ma depending on the progressively mixing seawater -
meteoric water which resulted in the following paragenetic
history: (1) the replacive dolomitization of the peritidal laminated
limestone into dolomicrite which later was recrystallized into
turbid dolomicrosparite to dolosparite (second dolomite phase),
some dolomicrite relics are preserved as dark cores in the
resulting turbid dolomite crystals; (2) when the mixing water
became adequately diluted, the limpid dolomite cement (third
dolomite phase) formed, but due to the absence of fractures in the
Jebel Sif - Jebel Réguig area, the third dolomite phase was limited
to a single thin fringe around some turbid crystals; (3) when the
groundwater became primarily meteoric during the subaerial
exposure of the platform, a vadose meteoric diagenesis occurred
and dissolution affected the dolomitized platform, and conse-
quently, the primary inter- and intra-crystalline porosity has more
or less been enlarged into secondary vuggy porosity (100–
300 mm) which, if present in the subsurface, represents an
important potential reservoir for hydrocarbons (Troudi et al.,
2002). Due to the lack of fractures in the study area, the disso-
lution of the platform did not led to the development of real
karsts; and (4) the already dolomitized and emerged platform has
finally been sealed with transgressive rudist-bearing limestone
(Bireno upper unit) that reworked the dolomitic platform surface,

Table 2b
Microprobe analysis data through dolomite crystals from the laminated intertidal dolomites, Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area

Locality Petrotype Analysis points Mineralogy CaCO3 (Moles %) MgCO3 (Moles %) Fe (ppm) Sr (ppm) Na (ppm) Mn
(ppm)
Jebel Sif P1 1 (center) Calcian dolom. 53.63 43.8 113 84 236 0
P1 2 " 52.03 44.7 395 0 137 40
P1 3 Substoich. dol. 48.41 48.84 152 36 193 54
P1 4 (periphery) " 49.63 47.64 360 30 140 0

Jebel Réguig P2 1 (center) Calcian dolom. 52.6 45.3 73 65 121 0

P2 2 " 52.0 46.1 0 66 137 43
P2 3 " 52.3 45.9 49 68 143 0
P2 4 " 51.8 46.4 90 21 0 60
P2 5 (periphery) " 51.2 46.4 172 99 204 0
 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804 795

Table 3a
Mineralogical, geochemical and isotopic properties of the unfractured rudist lithosomes dolomites, Jebel M’rhila area

Locality Sample Petrotype Mineralogy CaCO3 MgCO3 FeCO3 Sr Na Mn d18O d13C

(Moles %) (Moles %) (Moles %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (& PDB) (& PDB)
Sidi Abdel- SAK 9a P1 Calcian dol. 54.20 45.81 00.83 327 2331 639 nm nm
kader SAK 9b P1 Calcian dol. 55.31 44.68 01.10 296 2534 1480 nm nm
SAK 9c P1 Calcian dol. 54.72 45.28 00.87 293 2386 681 nm nm
SAK 9d P1 Calcian dol. 54.23 45.76 00.87 278 2127 640 1.80 1.11
SAK 9e P1 Sub-stoich. 51.20 48.80 01.06 143 2164 1037 nm nm

Jebel Sbeı̈tla JS 5-1 P2 Hyperc. 68.50 31.63 01.37 341 2405 1076 nm nm
dol.
JS 5-2 P2 Hyperc. 65.60 34.31 01.06 364 2220 999 þ0.74 1.76
dol.
JS 5-3 P2 Hyperc. 67.00 33.05 00.78 284 2220 528 nm nm
dol.

Oued Gourbej OG 9-1 P3 Hyperc. 56.15 43.84 00.87 163 2479 527 þ1.86 1.00
dol.
OG 9-2 P3 Calcian dol. 54.82 45.17 00.94 7 2109 768 0.25 3.92
OG 9-3 P3 Calcian dol. 54.90 45.10 01.05 141 2534 768 þ1.21 1.52

this clearly attests that the dolomitization precedes the platform
exposure and the following marine transgression.
6. Dolomites and dolomitization in platform border
environment
6.1. Occurrence
The mapping of the dolomites associated with the Bireno plat-
form middle unit in the Jebel M’rhila area permitted to distinguish,
at least, three different dolomitic bodies following the local NE-SW
tectonic trends. The first corresponds to dolomitic rudist lith-
osomes located on the uplifted blocks which are affected by frac-
tures filled either with dolomite or calcite cements. The second
rudist lithosomes are not associated with fractures. The third
dolomitic body is represented by stratified dolostones and dolo-
mitic limestone rich in rudist debris but located in the collapsed
blocks (Fig. 8). As in the other localities, the top of Bireno middle
unit displays a subaerial exposure surface, but in Jebel M’rhila the
latter is associated to epikarsts and some metric covered karsts
containing dolomitic collapse breccias associated with ferrous and
argillaceous insoluble residues, calcite and dolomite cements. This
surface which corresponds to an unconformity correlative with SB
90.5 Ma (Fig. 6) (Abdallah et al., 2000) is overlain by transgressive
oolitic-bioclastic limestone (Bireno upper unit) reworking at the
base dolomitic breccias.
6.2. Petrography
More than 100 thin sections representing the three different
dolomitic bodies have been analysed under transmitted-light
petrographic microscope and then re-examined by scanning elec-
tron microscope (SEM). The observations have been perfected by
cathodoluminescence examination. Four distinctive dolomite pet-
rotypes (P1 to P4) have been recognized (Fig. 9); the petrotypes P1
and P2 are comparable to those of intertidal dolomites previously
shown in Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area. In addition, these petrotypes
show two distinctive dolomite phases which are comparable to and
correlative with the second and third dolomite phases already
observed in Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area:
(1) the second dolomite phase corresponds to a patchy brownish
dull-luminescent turbid dolosparite, in which the dolomite
crystals usually show dolomicrite dark cores. This turbid
dolosparite resulted from replacive dolomitization that was
followed by recrystallization and the dark cores represent
remnants of the original dolomicrite.
(2) the third dolomite phase is represented by a bright lumines-
cent limpid zoned dolomite which is usually located in the
fractures and adjacent vugs. In general, a luminescent zoned
dolomite reflects polyphased precipitation related to chemi-
cally variable dolomitizing waters (Reeder and Prosky, 1986).
The limpid dolomite cement zones are sometimes intercalated
with a more or less dissolved thin calcite fringe. This calcite

Table 3b
Mineralogical, geochemical and isotopic properties of the fractured rudist lithosomes dolomites, Jebel M’rhila area

Locality Sample Petrotype Mineralogy CaCO3 MgCO3 FeCO3 Sr Na Mn d18O d13C

(Moles %) (Moles %) (Moles %) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (& PDB) (& PDB)
S. Abdel- sak 9b P3 Hypercalc. 59.20 40.58 00.71 163 2590 676 nm nm
kader dol.
sak 9d P3 Hypercalc. 59.20 40.10 00.31 148 2590 353 nm nm
dol.
sak 9f P3 Hypercalc. 55.80 44.27 00.56 146 3330 475 nm nm
dol.
sak 9h P3 Hypercalc. 60.40 39.63 83 139 1665 1028 nm nm
dol.

Oued OG 10 P4 Hypercalc. 62.50 37.41 00.60 93 2849 329 7.24 8.68

Gourbej dol.

Village VB 1 P4 Calcian dol. 53.95 46.03 00.46 144 3145 432 2.99 3.18
berbère VB 2 P4 Stoich. dol. 50.23 49.76 00.45 83 1665 371 3.35 1.46

nm ¼ not measured.
796 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804

Fig. 8. Schematic sketches showing the relationship between dolomitization and tectonic framework, Jebel M’rhila area. A, B, Geometric relationships between dolomite cement
and the NE-SW oriented fractures. C, The dolomitized rudist lithosomes occurred on the tectonic uplifts.

possibly resulted from a dedolomitization process, which can
be related to Ca-rich waters (Ward and Halley, 1985) and
calcite-dolomite fluctuating saturations (Humphrey, 1988). The
dissolution of the resulting ‘‘dedolomite’’ can reflect highly
diluted waters (Thériault and Hutcheon, 1987)
6.3. Mineralogy and geochemistry
In the rudist lithosomes, the turbid dolomite (second dolomite
phase) (Table 3a) is entirely calcian with concentrations ranging
between 50.23 and 55.31 moles % CaCO3. Those of Mg are between
44.68 and 49.76 moles % MgCO3. The Sr concentrations range
between 142 and 364 ppm (240 ppm in average). The Mn
concentrations range between 527 and 1480 ppm (831 ppm in
average). The turbid dolomite is relatively rich in Na the concen-
trations of which range between 1665 and 3330 ppm (2419 ppm in
average). The dolomite of petrotype P2, which is mostly turbid, is
the most enriched in Na. These geochemical characteristics are
comparable to those of the turbid dolomite in intertidal zone (Jebel
Sif-Jebel Réguig area), except the Na concentrations which are
relatively higher in the rudist lithosomes dolomites.
 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804 797

Fig. 9. A, B, photomicrographs showing the petrotype P1 encountered within the rudist lithosomes dolomites, Jebel M’rhila area. A- Euhedral - planar-e- dolosparite with turbid
rhombs showing dark core. B- SEM photomicrograph showing solution voids between the fringes of dolomite cement. C, Photomicrographs showing the petrotype P2 encountered
within the rudist lithosomes dolomites, Jebel M’rhila area: Subhedral - planar-s - dolosparite. D, E, Photomicrographs showing the petrotype P3 encountered within the rudist
lithosomes dolomites, Jebel M’rhila area. D- Euhedral - planar-e - dolosparite with zoned crystals showing straight dolomitic fringes and locally calcitized zones (red bands). E,
Zoned dolomite rhomb with dissolved core (congruent dedolomitization) and well-preserved peripheral fringes of dolomite cement. F, G, H, Photomicrographs showing the
petrotype P4 (dolomite cement) encountered within the rudist lithosomes dolomites, Jebel M’rhila area. F, Limpid dolomite cement (third dolomite phase) grafted on replacive
turbid dolosparite (second dolomite phase). G, Open fracture lined with smoothed dolomite cement and occluded by late calcispar (large yellow zone). H, Dolomite-cement in a pore
as a peripheral fringe (F) and as individualized truncated crystals (T).

The limpid dolomite cement (third dolomite phase) (Table 3b) is moles %; it is quite ferroan with concentrations ranging between
also geochemically comparable to that of intertidal zone. Indeed, it 0.75 to 1.37 moles % FeCO3, but it is less enriched in Na than the
is hyper-calcian as the CaCO3 concentrations range between 55.8 to turbid dolomite, with concentrations generally below 1000 ppm.
68.5 moles % and those of MgCO3 are between 31.63 and 44.27 The limpid dolomite cement is relatively depleted in Sr and Mn the
798 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804
concentrations of which range between 83 and 144 ppm (100 ppm
in average) and between 329 and 432 ppm (380 ppm in average),
respectively. Nevertheless, such Mn concentrations are relatively
high when compared with those commonly characterizing the
fresh waters, such as for example those already reported from the
Barbados Island where the Mn concentrations are less than 50 ppm
(Pingitore, 1978).
It is worth noting that from top to bottom, the Bireno dolomitic
unit in the Jebel M’rhila area is gradually impoverished in dolomite
with respect to calcite and in Fe and Mn against a gradual enrich-
ment in Sr and Na. Such mineralogical and chemical gradients
reflect the role of the fractures in the distribution of dolomites, as
will be shown below.
As for the isotopic analyses (Fig. 10), the turbid dolomite is
slightly depleted in 13C as the d13C ratios range between 1.67 and
1.00 & PDB (–1.32 & PDB in average). The limpid dolomite
cement in fractures (Petrotype P4) is more depleted in heavy
carbon as the d13C ratios range between 8.68 and 1.46 & PDB
(4.68 & PDB, in average). The 18O contents vary with the dolo-
mitic bodies: in the fractured rudist lithosomes (Petrotype P4) the
d18O ratios range between 7.24 and 1.80 & PDB, whereas in the
unfractured lithosomes (Petrotype P2) the dolomite is clearly less
depleted in heavy oxygen (d18O ratios range between 0.25 and
þ1.86 & PDB).
Aiming at further chemical characterization of the studied
dolomite, a total of 72 points through the turbid and the limpid
zoned dolomites have been systematically analysed with the
scanning electron microprobe (Table 3c). The analysis results are
relatively comparable to those of intertidal dolomite. In the turbid
dolomite of petrotypes P1 and P2 the Mg and Fe concentrations
Fig. 10. Carbon and oxygen isotopic composition in fractured and unfractured rudist
lithosomes dolomites, Jebel M’rhila area.
increase gradually toward the crystal centre from 37 to 51 moles %
MgCO3 and from 0.40 to 1.00 moles % FeCO3, respectively. A
negative correlation exists between the Sr concentrations and the
dolomite crystal size (Fig. 11); such a correlation is largely recog-
nized in limestone (Kinsman, 1969a; Renard, 1972) as well as in
dolomite (Tlig and M’Rabet, 1985) and is regarded to be related to
the recrystallization of early dolomite.
The dark cores of the dolomite crystals of petrotype P1 consist of
hyper-calcian to calcian dolomicrite (40 to 45 moles % MgCO3). It
corresponds possibly to a disordered primitive replacive dolomite
(Goldsmith and Graf, 1958; Gidman, 1978). The spot analysis
detected some pink luminescent Mg-calcite points (1.3 moles %
MgCO3) in the dark cores. This can be interpreted as a result of
incongruent dedolomitization, all the more as the hyper-calcian
dolomicrite in general is susceptible to such a phenomenon (Pier-
son, 1982; Ward and Halley, 1985).
Through the limpid zoned dolomite cement there is a gradual
depletion in Mg toward the peripheral dolomite fringes from 48 to
40 % MgCO3 against a progressive enrichment in Fe from 0.54 to 2
mole % FeCO3. Such Mg-Fe negative correlation suggests a poly-
phased dolomite precipitation from chemically variable solutions,
in particular the Mg/Ca ratios (Folk and Siedelcka, 1974; Ward and
Halley, 1985). The Na concentrations are randomly distributed
across the limpid dolomite fringes, whereas the Sr and Mn
concentrations are below the microprobe detection limit. The thin
calcite fringe (< 1 moles % MgCO3) sometimes intercalated in the
zoned dolomite is generally related to dedeolomitization. This
‘‘dedolomite’’ is not to be confused with the non-luminescent
calcite cement (3 moles % MgCO3) which usually occludes the
solution vugs.
6.4. Discussion of the dolomitization environment and mechanisms
The organic build-ups (e.g. rudist lithosomes) are regarded to
be highly susceptible to dolomitization because the main hydro-
dynamic budget in a marine environment is generally measured
in such a setting (Schroeder and Purser, 1986). In this respect,
several modern examples can be cited, such as the Belize Reef
(James and Ginsburg, 1979) and the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall,
1986). In Jebel M’rhila area, the dolomitization affected the rudist
lithosomes which generally chartecterize a shallow-water envi-
ronment with adequate nutrients and hydrodynamic energy (Gili
et al., 1995).
The turbid dolomite of the rudist lithosomes (platform border),
like that in the intertidal zone, is linked to a replacive dolomitiza-
tion using normal marine waters; this is evidenced by the relatively
important Sr average contents (190 ppm) and the slightly negative
to positive isotopic ratios (d18O ¼ 0.25 to þ1.86 & PDB;
d 13C ¼ 1.25 to 1.00 & PDB) (Land, 1980; Mullins et al., 1985).
Furthermore, considering the quantitative relationship between Na
concentrations and paleosalinity (Fritz and Katz, 1972; Land and
Hoops, 1973; Veizer et al., 1977; Humphrey, 1988), the slightly
fluctuating and relatively high Na concentrations (2350 ppm in
average) also point to dolomitization by marine waters. Neverthe-
less, such Na concentrations appear extremely high when
compared to those measured for example in the Abu Dhabi evap-
oritic dolomites (100–300 ppm) (Purser, 1973). For that reason, an
adequate brine-reflux process that could have been driven from the
evaporitic supratidal zone (Oued Trif area) toward the rudist shoal
(Jebel M’rhila area) can be envisaged, but the confirmation of such
an assumption needs further investigations.
Considering that the interstitial marine waters require an effi-
cient hydrodynamic driver (Land, 1991; Hein et al., 1992) to circu-
late through the carbonate platform and release the dolomitization,
the ‘‘surface mixing fresh water-seawater’’ mechanism of Whitaker
 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804 799

Table 3c
Microprobe analysis data through the dolomite and calcite crystals in the rudist lithosomes, Jebel M’rhila area

Locality Sample Analysed points Mineralogy CaCO3 (Moles %) MgCO3 (Moles %) FeCO3 (Moles %) Sr (ppm) Na (ppm) Mn (ppm)
Sidi AbdelKader sak 9a 1 Calcian dolom. 53.05 45.94 1.00 1700 2100 2100
2 " 47.83 50.72 1.44 100 4600 2300
3 Calcite 96.18 3.81 – 600 0 1200
4 Calcian dolom. 52.58 46.13 1.27 100 1400 3700
5 stoich. dolom. 50.12 48.26 1.61 100 0 2500
6 Calcite 94.97 4.41 0.61 100 1200 2600
7 dolom. calcite 86.09 13.27 0.63 120 1000 2800
8 Calcite 97.14 2.85 – 100 1200 3000
9 Calcite 96.82 2.47 0.70 100 1000 2500
10 Calcian dolom. 53.67 45.00 1.32 180 850 1500
11 " 52.24 46.71 1.03 400 1500 200
12 " 54.63 43.98 1.38 1200 1300 2300
sak 9b 1 Calcite 96.59 2.74 0.66 600 1300 900
2 Calcian dolom. 54.65 43.80 1.53 600 2000 1200
3 Calcite 97.61 2.38 – 0 1300 200
4 Calcian dolom. 53.84 45.39 0.76 200 5600 100
5 Stoich. dolom. 50.64 48.06 1.30 400 8600 200
6 Calcite 96.31 3.38 0.32 0 200 0
7 Calcian dolom. 53.10 45.46 1.42 300 600 100
8 " 53.86 45.72 0.40 700 4100 100
9 Sub-stoich dol. 49.04 49.13 1.82 500 4200 100
10 Calcite 96.73 2.78 0.48 600 100 500
11 Sub-stoich dol. 51.78 45.67 2.54 600 9000 2600
sak9c 1 Calcite 96.00 4.00 – 600 1100 300
2 Calcian dolom. 47.39 51.65 0.98 200 3600 2500
3 Calcite 98.07 1.92 – 1200 1600 100
4 Calcian dolom. 46.23 52.08 1.68 300 9500 3100
5 Calcite 97.55 2.45 – 300 1500 300
6 Calcian dolom. 52.64 46.51 0.83 900 4500 1100
7 " 50.64 48.06 1.29 400 9600 2300
8 " 52.63 46.21 1.15 400 5000 1200
9 Stoich. dolom. 49.44 49.44 1.25 1000 10200 900
10 Calcite 98.00 2.00 – 0 1900 300
11 Calcite 95.30 4.70 – 1800 3700 600

Oued Gourbej OG 9a 1 Hypercal. dol. 58.57 40.13 – 100 2400 600

2 Calcian dolom. 55.35 44.23 0.42 600 1900 500
3 " 53.89 45.55 0.55 1000 4900 300
4 " 52.05 47.37 0.56 400 3600 1700
5 " 51.07 47.93 1.00 600 6200 200
6 Calcite 98.83 1.16 – 400 1700 500
7 Sub-stoich dol. 50.69 48.70 0.60 700 5800 400
8 " 48.63 50.78 0.70 300 4600 800
9 Calcian dolom. 53.11 46.48 0.40 700 6800 400
10 " 52.07 47.92 – 600 3100 1200
OG 9b 1 " 54.77 44.82 0.40 100 5200 300
2 Hypercal. dol. 62.56 36.98 0.44 200 1100 1000
3 " 48.83 50.75 0.50 400 4400 700
4 Stoich. dolom. 49.95 49.19 0.84 700 3200 800
5 48.60 51.00 1.14 1500 3600 1000

Jebel Sbeı̈tla JS 5a 1 Calcite 98.20 1.40 0.80 200 5300 300

2 Calcian dolom. 52.46 46.75 0.77 400 1500 400
3 Calcite 97.17 1.61 1.21 1500 2700 800
4 Calcian dolom. 51.50 47.93 0.56 1700 6000 200
JS 5b 1 " 52.90 46.50 0.59 600 1600 100
2 " 54.01 45.35 0.62 1400 6900 500
3 " 51.87 47.54 0.58 700 1100 0
4 Calcite 98.16 1.29 0.54 700 800 300
5 Stoich. dolom. 50.00 49.56 0.43 900 4400 1300
6 Hypercal. dol. 56.95 41.57 1.46 800 6900 600

et al. (1994) and Vahrenkamp and Swart (1994) may also be
appropriate to the turbid dolomite of rudist lithosomes.
The limpid dolomite cement in the fractures of the rudist lith-
osomes show petrographic and geochemical characteristics
generally comprable to those shown in the limpid dolomite cement
of the intertidal zone; it may be the result of a precipitation using
diluted marine waters, according to the mixing water dolomitiza-
tion mechanism (Hanshaw et al., 1971; Badiozamani, 1973). These
features mainly consist of (1) the limpid aspect of dolomite
(Weaver, 1975); (2) the bright luminescent dolomite fringes with
sharp boundaries (Wagner, 1983; Amieux, 1981); (3) the low Mg (41
moles % MgCO3) and Sr (100 ppm) averages (Weaver, 1975) and (4)
the negative oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios (in fractures:
d18O ¼ 7.24 & PDB and d13C ¼ 8.68 & PDB) (Fontes et al., 1970).
In addition, the gradual decrease of Mg/Ca ratios toward the
peripheral limpid dolomite fringes especially in the petrotype P4
reflects the progressive dilution of the marine water probably by
the meteoric water during the dolomite precipitation (Folk and
Siedelcka, 1974; Ward and Halley, 1985). The dolomite - calcite
alternation shown in some crystals points to a mixing water
800 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804
Fig. 11. The Sr concentrations versus the crystals average size within samples collected from the rudist lithosomes dolomites, Jebel M’rhila area.
dolomitization (Machel and Mountjoy, 1986; Humphrey, 1987)
with a changing meteoric water-seawater mixing rate (Jones et al.,
1984; Ward and Halley, 1985; Humphrey, 1988). In the Jebel M’rhila
area, the mixing water dolomitization and the resulting limpid
dolomite cement can be linked to the sea-level lowering correlative
with SB 90.5 Ma (Abdallah et al., 2000).
Taking into account that the Sr contents vary independently
from the surrounding temperature and the precursor mineralogy
(Katz and Matthews, 1977; Land, 1980; Ward and Halley, 1985), the
low Sr concentrations in the studied dolomite suggest that the
impoverishment of the limpid dolomite cement in 18O is related to
meteoric water influences (Hudson, 1977; Land, 1980) rather than
to high temperatures or to organic matter decomposition (Mattes
and Mountjoy, 1980). In this regard, the 13C negative ratios in the
limpid dolomite can be related to the incorporation of biogenic CO2
(Fontes et al., 1970; Irwin et al, 1977; Hudson, 1977; Pierre et al.,
1984) and/or to dissolution of the soil gaseous carbon dioxide. Such
phenomena would have become possible during the transit of
oxidizing meteoric waters (Pierre et al., 1984; Humphrey, 1988) on
the Bireno platform. Therefore, the light isotopic carbon in the
limpid dolomite cement could not have been dependent upon
bacterial reduction of sulphates as this process requires anoxic
reducing waters (Irwin et al., 1977; Baker and Burns, 1985;
Slaughter and Hill, 1991).
6.5. Timing of dolomitization and paragenetic history
As discussed above, the rudist lithosomes dolomites in the
Jebel M’rhila area include two distinctive dolomite phases
(turbid dolomite, limpid dolomite cement) which are compa-
rable to and correlative with the second and third dolomite
phases previously recognized in Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area; they
postdate the first-phase evaporitic dolomite. Both phases were
related to marine waters which progressively became diluted by
meteoric ones during the 90.5 Ma sea-level lowering. The turbid
dolomite occurred in the rudist lithosomes (platform border)
during the first steps of the sea-level fall as a replacive dolo-
micrite using normal marine waters. Subsequently during
shallow burial, the dolomicrite has been recrystallized into
turbid dolosparite where dolomicrite relics have been preserved
as dark cores in some turbid crystals. The limpid dolomite
precipitated in the fractures and nearby vugs when the sea-level
fall led to adequately diluted mixing waters. The presence of
limpid dolomite cement regularly grafted on the second-phase
turbid dolomite confirms that the replacive dolomitization and
the subsequent dolomicrite recrystallization precede the
cementing dolomitization. During the subaerial exposure, the
uppermost levels of the Bireno dolomitic unit have been
weathered, eroded and reworked into breccias by the overlying
transgressive limestone. The breccias show both turbid and
limpid dolomites (Fig. 12), which indicates that the second and
third dolomite phases predate the subaerial exposure of the
Bireno platform and the following marine transgression.
The petrography and microstratigraphy of the rudist lith-
osomes dolomites are quite comparable to those of intertidal
dolomites; they point to a simple paragenetic history related to
a sea-level fall like several dolomites already discussed world-
wide (e.g. Kaldi and Gidman, 1982; Humphrey, 1988). Indeed,
while becoming progressively modified by the meteoric water
during the sea-level fall the marine groundwater successively
caused:
(1) the dolomitization of the rudist lithosomes into replacive
dolomicrite;
(2) the recrystallization during shallow burial of the olomicrite
into turbid euhedral to subhedral dolosparite, where the
original dolomicrite can be preserved as dark cores in the
turbid crystals;
(3) when the groundwater became adequately diluted, the dolo-
mitizing solutions percolated ‘‘per descencum’’ through the
already dolomitized platform, following the fractures network.
It resulted in the precipitation of euhedral limpid zoned dolo-
mite in the fractures and adjacent vugs;
(4) when the groundwater became mainly meteoric, a congruent
dedolomitization relayed the dolomitization reflecting the
fluctuation of the calcite and dolomite saturations (Humphrey,
1988). The dedolomitization particularly affected the dolomi-
crite dark cores and sometimes the dolomite cement fringes.
After this process the resulting dedolomite was slightly
dissolved.
(5) during the platform subaerial exposure, the meteoric ground-
water controlled a vadose meteoric digenesis that first fav-
oured the karstification and then the precipitation of
non-luminescent calcite in the fractures.
 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804 801

Fig. 12. A, B, C, D, Thin section photomicrographs illustrating the rudist lithosomes dolomites and the associated paragenetic history, Jebel M’rhila area. A, Cathodoluminescence
photomicrograph showing bright-yellow-luminescent (1) followed by dull-red-luminescent (2); the replacive turbid dolomite is dull-brown-luminescent (R) and the dark-blue
corresponds to late calcite cement (C) occluding the residual void. B, SEM photomicrograph showing rhomboedric dolomite cement grafted on replacive dolomite (R); the dolomite
cement is affected by dissolution. C, Biologic perforation containing geopetal dolomicrite internal sediment (S) sealed by calcispar (C) indicataing an early dissolution. D, Fine-
grained mud-limestone (L) containing reworked dolomitic elements derived from the abrasion of the top of the Bireno dolomites unit (B); these elements show zoned dolomite
crystals.

7. Factors controlling dolomitization simultaneously underwent a vadose meteoric diagenesis. In partic-

7.1. Sea-level change
Many authors have reported that the massive dolomitization of
several old formations occurred at the top of the depositional cycles
and were controlled by the sea-level fall (Dunham and Olson, 1978;
Kernas and Lucia, 1989; Tucker, 1992; Montanez and Read, 1992).
The Pleistocene Yucatan Peninsula reefs (Ward and Halley, 1985),
the Barbados islands (Humphrey, 1988) and the Guadalupian Yates
Formation in West Texas (Mutti and Simo, 1994) are good examples
documenting such a relationship.
In central Tunisia the Cretaceous dolomites can also be linked
with sea-level change since they occur at the top of transgressive-
regressive depositional sequences, just below unconformities that
form the sequence boundaries (M’Rabet, 1981; Troudi et al., 2002;
Touir and Soussi, 2003). This is true particularly for the Bireno
platform dolomites which are located at the top of a middle
Turonian depositional cycle, just below a subaerial exposure
surface correlative with the global 90.5 Ma sea-evel fall (Abdallah
et al., 2000). The sea-level lowering basically led to the establish-
ment of seawater - meteoric water mixing with a progressive
dilution that controlled the Bireno platform dolomitization.
Initially the dolomite occurred in the evaporitic supratidal zone
using evaporated marine waters, according to the evaporitic mecha-
nism. Next, a replacive dolomitization simultaneously affected the
intertidal zone and the platform border (rudist lithosomes), using
normal marine waters. When the seawater became sufficiently
diluted limpid dolomite cement precipitated in fractures and vugs. At
the end of the sea-level fall the Bireno platform emerged and
ular the dolomites at the top of the platform border have been dis-
solved resulting in several epikarsts and covered karsts. The following
marine transgression began with the sedimentation of oolitic and
bioclastic limestone in the Jebel M’rhila area (platform border) and
with rudist-bearing limestone to the south (inner shelf).
7.2. Local tectonics
In addition to the sea-level change the dolomitization of the
Bireno platform was thought to be controlled by the local tectonic
framework. Indeed, the geographical distribution of the middle
Turonian dolomite bodies noticeably follows the local tectonic
trends which consist mainly of a network of E-W and NE-SW faults.
These faults have been reactivated during the middle Turonian
(Touir et al., 1987; Ben Ayed et al., 1991) according to a regional
transtensional tectonic regime (Chihi et al., 1984; Bouaziz et al.,
2002) which locally led to the development of a NE-SW oriented
network of fractures. The limpid dolomite cement is closely asso-
ciated with the fractures which have provided circulation conducts
for the dolomitizing solutions and adequate space for the dolomite
precipitation. The E-W oriented M’rhila and Kasserine major faults
controlled the morphology of the shoal-rimmed platform and the
geographical extent of the dolomite bodies (Fig. 13). Particularly in
the Jebel M’rhila area the platform margin was cut up during the
middle Turonian into uplifts and downfaulted subsiding blocks
separated by NE-SW trending faults (Touir et al., 1987). The dolo-
mitization mainly affected the rudist lithosomes which preferen-
tially formed on the uplifts whereas in the downfaulted blocks
802 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804

Fig. 13. A, Schematic sketch representing the dolomitization interpretative model of the middle Turonian Bireno platform in Central Tunisia. Dolomitization is interpreted as a result
of a major sea-level fall correlative with SB 90.5 Ma. Dolomites first occurred in the evaporitic supratidal zone (Oued Trif area) resulting in a first dolomite phase; then simulta-
neously occurred a second dolomite phase on the margin of the platform (rudist shoal at Jebel M’rhila area) and in the intertidal zone (Jebel Sif-Jebel Réguig area).The third dolomite
phase developed along the fractures network. B, The undolomitized transgressive carbonates of the Bireno upper unit which overlay the already dolomitized and emerged Bireno
middle unit strongly suggest an early dolomitization.

there are mainly rudist-poor bedded dolomitic limestone and
undolomitized limestone.
8. Conclusions
In central Tunisia during the middle Turonian the shoal-rimmed
Bireno platform underwent polyphased dolomitization. The
resulting dolomites include three distinctive dolomite phases
which consecutively occurred in quite different diagenetic envi-
ronments. These were generated according to different mecha-
nisms, all having recourse to more or less modified marine waters.
The dolomitization was controlled by the progressive lowering of
sea level during the global 90.5 Ma sea-level fall, whereas the
geographical extent and distribution of the dolomite bodies were
mainly guided by the local tectonic trends.
The first dolomite phase consists of replacive dolomicrite and
turbid dolomicrosparite that resulted from the dolomitization of
the carbonate intercalations associated with the layered anhydrite
succession in the evaporitic supratidal zone. The dolomitization
was related to an evaporative pumping mechanism
The second dolomite phase was related to a replacive dolomi-
tization that simultaneously affected the laminated limestone in the
intertidal zone and the rudist lithosomes on the platform border. It
resulted in dolomicrite that was more or less recrystallized during
early shallow burial into turbid dolomicrosparite and dolosparite.
The dolomitization was achieved using normal marine waters
 J. Touir et al. / Cretaceous Research 30 (2009) 785–804
The third dolomite phase occurred when the marine ground-
water became adequately diluted by the meteoric water. It consists
of limpid dolomite cement that mostly precipitated within the
associated fractures and adjacent voids. The fractures have largely
controlled the dolomite cement distribution as they provided not
only a permeability network that guided the dolomitizing fluids
circulation but also a space for the dolomite precipitation. As
a result of variation in fracturation the third dolomite phase
occurred particularly in the Jebel M’rhila area and less noticeably in
the other study localities
At the end of the sea-level fall, the already dolomitized platform
emerged and subsequently underwent a vadose meteoric diagen-
esis. It mainly resulted in the dissolution of the surficial dolomites
and the development of karsts, especially in the Jebel M’rhila area
where the fractures are frequent.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the anonymous reviewer and to Dr. Z. Kirmaci
for their constructive criticisms that contributed to the improve-
ment of the first manuscript. We like to thank H. Tord and
A. M’Rabet for their useful remarks. This work has benefited from
financial support of both Laboratories ‘‘Eau/Energie/environnement’’
(L3E) of Sfax University and the Research Unit ‘‘UR/99/10- 04’’ of
Tunis-El Manar University.
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