Report Number: R5

REPORT

ON

USE OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ENERGY DURING OVERLOADING

SUBMITTED BY:

THAKUR PAUDEL

SENIOR ENGINEER

YOGENDRA JHA

SENIOR ENGINEER

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

I.O.E. PULCHOK

LALITPUR

FEBRUARY,2018
 Report Number: R5

REPORT ON

USE OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ENERGY DURING OVERLOADING

SUBMITTED TO:

VIJAYA KUMAR YADAV

PROFESSOR OF ENGLI

SUBMITTED BY:

THAKUR PAUDEL

SENIOR ENGINEER

YOGENDRA JHA

SENIOR ENGINEER

APPROVED BY:

RABIN DEVKOTA

DIRECTOR

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

I.O.E. PULCHOK, LALITPUR

FEBRUARY, 2018
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Letters of Transmittal
Acknowledgement
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1 Hydroelectricity
1.1.1 Generating methods
1.1.2 Size, types and capacities of hydroelectric facilities
1.1.3 Types of Transmission
1.2 Solar energy
1.2.1 Net meter
1.3 Wind energy
1.4 Biogas plant
2 Discussion
2.1 Overloading
2.1.1 Transmission line overloading
2.1.2 Transformer overloading
2.2 Effect of overloading
2.3 Method of eliminating overloading in the power system
3 Conclusion
4 Recommendation
5 Bibliography

i
 List of figures

Figure 1: Cross section view of a conventional hydroelectric dam.

Figure 2: A typical turbine and generator

Figure 3: Overhead transmission line

Figure 4: Underground transmission line

Figure 5: Power system network

Figure 6: Production electrical energy from solar energy

Figure 7: Production of electrical energy from wind energy

Figure 8: Production of electrical energy from biogas plant

Figure 9: Transmission line voltage losses due to overloading

Figure 10: The power loss in the transmission line due to overloading.

Figure 11: Graph between load, temperature, and overload in transformer

Figure 12: Heating and cooling curves for a typical in the transformer

Figure 13: Simulation of system at normal condition.

Figure 14: Simulation of system at overloading

condition at time is less than 3sec

Figure 15: Simulation of system at overloading condition

at time is more than 3sec

Figure 16: The improve of power profile of the line by using this device.

Figure 17: The voltage profile improvement after using this device.

ii
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Department of Electrical Engineering

I.O.E. Pulchok Campus

Lalitpur

10th February 2018

Mr. Vijaya Kumar Yadav

Associate Professor of English

I.O.E. Pulchok Campus

Lalitpur

Dear Mr. Yadav

We submit the accompany report entitled “Use of Alternative Source of Energy

During Overloading” as the final project for English, Technical Writing.

The report discusses the effect and cusses of the overloading on the existing
power system. This project attempts method of decreases of the overloading in
Nepal. We have made an effort to provide a base for understanding the basic
structure of power system of the Nepal carried on by the NEA. Recent information
about the power system obtained by the national probe is incorporated in the
report.
iii
We are indebted to Mr. Ram Lal Adhikari of NEA who has allowed us to quote
extensively from unpublished work on national prob.

Sincerely

Thakur Paudel

Senior Engineer

Yogendra Jha

Senior Engineer

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere gratitude to Mr. Indraman Tamrakar sir for his immense
support and constant encouragement. Without his guidance, inspiration and
feedback this project would not have reached to this stage.

We are highly indebted to Department of Electrical Engineering, Pulchok

Campus, Lalitpur for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for
providing necessary information regarding the project & also for their support in
completing the project.

We would like to express our gratitude towards our parents for their
encouragement & members of Nepal Electricity Authority for their kind co-
operation which help us in completion of this project.

We would like to express our special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for
giving us such attention and time.

We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support and help of many individuals and organizations. We
would like to extend our sincere thanks to all of them.

Thanks and appreciations also go to our colleagues in developing the project and
people who have willingly helped us out with their abilities.

Finally, we thank god.

Thank you all.

v
 ABSTRACT

This project we are discussing about uses of alternative source of energy during
the overloading period. In each houses and industries which has contained
alternative source like solar energy, bio-gas plant we install a device which
operates automatically at overloading condition to synchronize the alternative
source to the main grid electrical energy. This device helps to match the required
electrcal energy at demand site to total generate electrical energy. By using this
device, the excess reactive power flow in the transmission line also control. Due
to control of the reactive power in the line the overloading current in the line
decreases and finally the power loss in the line decreases. Low loss in line
increases life span of line and the power system become economical. This project
also describes how to connect the micro hydro and Pico hydro to the main grid
during overloading condition. In Nepal contains many micro hydro and Pico
hydro power station, we also use this type of source of energy during energy
crisis. By using this concept, we can make the load shedding free of Nepal.

vi
 Page 1

1. INTRODUCTION

This report on “Use of alternative sources of energy during overloading

condition” contains the present condition of electricity in Nepal, overloading of
transmission line and use of alternative sources of energy to produce electrical
energy so that the overloading can be reduced and the losses in the transmission
line decreases. In this project we have thrown light on how alternative source of
energy can be used to produce electrical energy and how it can be used during
overloading condition.

In Nepal main source of electrical energy is hydropower known as

hydroelectricity.

1.1. Hydroelectricity:
Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015
hydropower generated 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of
all renewable electricity. The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making
it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The hydro station consumes
no water, unlike coal or gas plants. The average cost of electricity from a
hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-
hour. With a dam and reservoir, it is also a flexible source of electricity since
the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to
adapt to changing energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is
constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably
lower output level of greenhouse gases than fossil fuel powered energy plants.
1.1.1 Generating methods:

There are different methods in which some are given as following

1.1.1.1 Conventional (dams)

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Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water
driving a water turbine and generator. The power extracted from the water
depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the
water's outflow. This height difference is called the head. A large pipe (the
"penstock") delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine.

1.1.1.2 Pumped-storage:
This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water
between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, the
excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When
the demand becomes greater, water is released back into the lower reservoir
through a turbine. Pumped-storage schemes currently provide the most
commercially important means of large-scale grid energy storage and improve the
daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage is not an energy
source, and appears as a negative number in listings.

1.1.1.3 Run-of-the-river:
Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir
capacity, so that only the water coming from upstream is available for generation
at that moment, and any oversupply must pass unused. A constant supply of water
from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a significant advantage in choosing
sites for run-of-the-river.

General figure of hydroelectric dam and turbine is as follows:

Fig1: Cross section view of a conventional hydroelectric dam.

 Page 3

Fig2: A typical turbine and generator

1.1.2 Size, types and capacities of hydroelectric facilities:

1.1.2.1 Large facilities:

Large-scale hydroelectric power stations are more commonly seen as the largest
power producing facilities in the world, with some hydroelectric facilities capable
of generating more than double the installed capacities of the current largest
nuclear power stations.

Although no official definition exists for the capacity range of large hydroelectric
power stations, facilities from over a few hundred megawatts are generally
considered large hydroelectric facilities.

1.1.2.2 Small hydro:

Small scale hydroelectric facilities are those whose generating capacity is about
10MW. This type of hydropower is used in serving industrial plant. Small hydro
stations may be connected to conventional electrical distribution networks as a
source of low-cost renewable energy. Alternatively, small hydro projects may be
built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a network, or in
 Page 4

areas where there is no national electrical distribution network. Since small hydro
projects usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, they are
seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large hydro.
This decreased environmental impact depends strongly on the balance between
stream flow and power production.

1.1.2.3 Micro hydro:

Micro hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power installations that typically
produce up to 100 kW of power. These installations can provide power to an
isolated home or small community, or are sometimes connected to electric power
networks. There are many of these installations around the world, particularly in
developing nations as they can provide an economical source of energy without
purchase of fuel. Micro hydro systems complement photovoltaic solar energy
systems because in many areas, water flow, and thus available hydro power, is
highest in the winter when solar energy is at a minimum.

1.1.2.4 Pico hydro:

Pico hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power generation of under 5 kW. It is
useful in small, remote communities that require only a small amount of
electricity. For example, to power one or two fluorescent light bulbs and a TV or
radio for a few homes.[21] Even smaller turbines of 200-300W may power a single
home in a developing country with a drop of only 1 m (3 ft). A Pico-hydro setup is
typically run-of-the-river, meaning that dams are not used, but rather pipes divert
some of the flow, drop this down a gradient, and through the turbine before
returning it to the stream.

1.1.2.5 Underground hydro:

An underground power station is generally used at large facilities and makes use
of a large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or
mountain lake. An underground tunnel is constructed to take water from the high
reservoir to the generating hall built in an underground cavern near the lowest
point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower
outlet waterway.
 Page 5

Generated electricity from different power stations and sub-stations is connected

in a grid and then step up transformer is used to step up the generated voltage.
Voltage is stepped up because when there is high voltage in transmission line then
there is low loss due to less current at high voltage. At the other end of
transmission line stepdown transformer is used to step down the transmitted
voltage. Stepped down voltage is provided to different large industry. Again the
voltage is stepped down to provide small consumers and to distribute to houses.

1.1.3 Transmission can be done in two ways:

1.1.3.1 Overhead line:

An overhead power line is a structure used in electric power
transmission and distribution to transmit electrical energy along large distances. It
consists of one or more conductors(commonly multiples of three) suspended
by towers or poles. Since most of the insulation is provided by air, overhead
power lines are generally the lowest-cost method of power transmission for large
quantities of electric energy. Figure of OH line is as follows:

Fig3: Overhead transmission line

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1.1.3.2 Underground transmission line:

Underground transmission line is the replacement of overhead

cables providing electrical power or telecommunications, with underground
cables. This is typically performed for aesthetic purposes, but also serves the
additional significant purpose of making the power lines less susceptible to
outages during high wind thunderstorms or heavy snow or ice storms.
Undergrounding can increase the initial costs of electric power transmission and
distribution but may decrease operational costs over the lifetime of the cables.
Figure of underground transmission line is as follows:

Fig4: Underground transmission line

Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it
carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers.
Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the
transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with the
use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power
 Page 7

to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution

transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage used by lighting,
industrial equipment or household appliances. Often several customers are
supplied from one transformer through secondary distribution lines. Commercial
and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines
through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may
be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the sub-
transmission level.

Generation, transmission and distribution system in one figure:

Fig5: Power system network

Generation, transmission and distribution system of hydroelectricity in Nepal is

under control of Nepal Electricity Authority(NEA). Demand of this electricity is
increased during morning and day time which is also known as peak time. Use of
electricity at this time increase loss line. If we use other sources of electricity
during peak time then losses in line can be decreased. Hence, to decrease the loss
in line alternative source of electricity must be used rather than electricity
obtained from NEA during peak time.
 Page 8

Alternative sources of electricity other than hydroelectricity that can be installed

in houses or industry are as follows:

1.2 Solar energy:

Solar energy is arguably the cleanest, most reliable form of renewable

energy available, and it can be used in several forms to help power our home or
business. To produce electricity from solar energy solar-powered photo voltaic
panels or simply solar panels are used. Solar panels, also known as modules,
contain photovoltaic cells made from silicon that transform incoming sunlight into
electricity rather than heat (“Photovoltaic” means electricity from light — photo =
light, voltaic = electricity.).

Solar photovoltaic cells consist of a positive and a negative film of silicon placed
under a thin slice of glass. As the photons of the sunlight beat down upon these
cells, they knock the electrons off the silicon. The negatively-charged free
electrons are preferentially attracted to one side of the silicon cell, which creates
an electric voltage that can be collected and channeled. This current is gathered
by wiring the individual solar panels together in series to form a solar photovoltaic
array. Depending on the size of the installation, multiple strings of solar
photovoltaic array cables terminate in one electrical box, called a fused array
combiner. Contained within the combiner box are fuses designed to protect the
individual module cables, as well as the connections that deliver power to the
inverter. The electricity produced at this stage is DC (direct current) and must be
converted to AC (alternating current) suitable for use in our home or business. The
inverter turns the DC electricity generated by the solar panels into 120-volt AC
that can be put to immediate use by connecting the inverter directly to a dedicated
circuit breaker in the electrical panel.

The inverter, electricity production meter, and electricity net meter are connected
so that power produced by your solar electric system will first be consumed by the
electrical loads currently in operation. The balance of power produced by our
solar electric system passes through our electrical panel and out onto the electric
grid. Whenever we are producing more electricity from our solar electric system
 Page 9

than we are immediately consuming, our electric utility meter will turn
backwards!

1.2.1 Net meter:

In a solar electric system that is also tied to the utility grid, the DC power from
the solar array is converted into 120/240 volt AC power and fed directly into the
utility power distribution system of the building. The power is “net metered,”
which means it reduces demand for power from the utility when the solar array is
generating electricity – thus lowering the utility bill. These grid-tied systems
automatically shut off if utility power goes offline, protecting workers from power
being back fed into the grid during an outage. These types of solar-powered
electric systems are known as “on grid” or “battery-less” and make up
approximately 98% of the solar power systems being installed today.

This electricity produced can then be used to supply renewable energy to our
home or industry or business.

Figure for production of electricity and its distribution from solar energy is as
below:
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Fig6: Production electrical energy from solar energy

1.3 Wind energy:

Wind consists of kinetic energy which can be used to rotate the wind turbine.
Wind power converts the kinetic energy in wind to generate electricity or
mechanical power. This is done by using a large wind turbine usually consisting
of propellers; the turbine can be connected to a generator to generate electricity, or
the wind used as mechanical power to perform tasks such as pumping water or
grinding grain. As the wind passes the turbines it moves the blades, which spins
the shaft. There are currently two different kinds of wind turbines in use, the
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT) or the Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
(VAWT). HAWT are the most common wind turbines, displaying the propeller or
‘fan-style’ blades, and VAWT are usually in an ‘egg-beater’ style.

To create electricity from wind the shaft of the turbine must be connected to a
generator. The generator uses the turning motion of the shaft to rotate a rotor
which has oppositely charge magnets and is surrounded by copper wire loops.
Electromagnetic induction is created by the rotor spinning around the inside of the
core, generating electricity.

The electricity generated by harnessing the wind’s mechanical energy must go

through a transformer in order increase its voltage and make it successfully
transfer across long distances. Power stations and fuse boxes receive the current
and then transform it to a lower voltage that can be safely used by business and
homes. Figure for production of electrical energy from wind energy is as below:
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Fig7: Production of electrical energy from wind energy

1.4 Biogas plant:

Biogas is the gas resulting from an anaerobic digestion process. A biogas plant
can convert animal manure, green plants, waste from agro industry and
slaughterhouses into combustible gas. Theoretically, biogas can be converted
directly into electricity by using a fuel cell. However, this process requires very
clean gas and expensive fuel cells. In most cases, biogas is used as fuel for
combustion engines, which convert it to mechanical energy, powering an electric
generator to produce electricity. Hence the produced electricity can be converted
in required form and used home or business or industry and if it is produced in
high capacity then it also can be connected in grid.

Figure for production of electrical energy from biogas plant is as below:

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Fig8: Production of electrical energy from biogas plant

Hence, the produced electricity can be used to connect either in grid or to feed
directly to consumers to overcome the overloading condition in line.

Even though the project has tried to cover all that has been possible in the context
of its topic, it has some limitations and exceptions on connecting produced energy
to grid and connecting devices in houses to initiate the use of other electrical
energy source during overloading.

This work may improve the condition of lines and hence decreases the losses by
overcoming the overloading cases.
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2. DISCUSSION

2.1 Overloading:
When the system operates in the emergency state (defined as the steady-state
operating point at which some electrical circuits are overloaded and/or some nodal
voltage magnitudes are violated) one may attempt to alleviate the emergencies
with some load shedding. When the demand site power required is greater than the
generated power then the system is called overloaded system. Almost everyone
will at one point in their life overload a circuit or drop cord with too many devices.
Instead of us running another circuit or extension cord to a different circuit to split
the electrical load, we just keep adding devices until the circuit breaker trips.
Electrical circuit overloads happen when more amperage is put across an electrical
wire or circuit than it can handle. For instance, a #14 wire can safely carry 15 amps
and should be protected by a 15-amp breaker.

Electrical power systems must be designed to serve a variety of loads safely and
reliably. Effective control of short-circuit current, or fault current as it is
commonly called, is a major consideration when designing coordinated power
system protection. In order to fully understand the nature of fault current as it is
applied to electrical power system design, it is necessary to make distinctions
among the various types of current available, normal as well as abnormal. It is
also important to differentiate between the paths which the various types of
current will take. Both current type and current path, as well as current
magnitude, will affect the selection and application of overcurrent protective
devices.

2.1.1 Transmission line overloading :

Power system transmission lines are becoming more heavily loaded and this
affects system security and stability. Power flow control is essential to ensure
preserving lines loading security, mange the congestion of power system, alleviate
line overload, and semi-equally utilize the available transmission lines as far as
possible. Power systems are continuously becoming more complicated due to the
 Page 14

steady increase of electrical energy consumption, the population increase, and the
industrial development. The transmission lines which are used to transfer bulk
power from generation stations to load centers are experiencing continuous
loading increase. The normal uncontrolled flow of power in transmission line is
usually not the best possible. The normal flow may lead to increased losses, one
line or more being overloaded while others are under loaded, operation in a state
which is close to insecurity and instability, and experiencing increased voltage
deviations. Building of new transmission lines is not preferred for the high
installation costs and many other reasons as the environmental constraints and
public policies. The available transmission lines should be well utilized before
construction of new ones. A great need is arising for enhancing transmission lines
capacity and controlling power flow in specific paths in addition to ensuring
power system security and stability during faults and outages occurrence. The role
of a power flow controller in power system network is becoming more essential.
A controller provides the ability of transmission line available transfer capability
enhancement, ensures better utilization of the available transmission lines, and
helps in shifting the amount of overload of the overloaded lines to the lightly
loaded ones. Figure shows a portion of a power system with a controller. Among
FACTS controllers, the unified power flow controller (UPFC) has the ability of
voltage and power flow control and the advantage of independent active and
reactive power flow control. SEN Transformer ST is a new emerging converter-
less FACTS controller. Transmission line overload alleviation is an essential
power system practice to ensure secured and stable system operation and prevent
occurrence of cascade components outage. The main causes of overloading in the
transmission line due to excess flow of reactive power in the line. By controlling
the reactive power in the line. We can also control the overloading of
transmission line. The overloading in transmission line causes the power loss
during the energy transmission for once place to another place.

When the generated power become less than the required power. At this situation
the voltage at the receiving end become higher than the sending end voltage, due
to this region the direction of reactive power flow in the transmission line become
reverse and the current in the transmission line also increases. This increasing
current causes the voltage drop in the transmission line. Overloading also causes
 Page 15

the electrical instruments which are connected to the power system like
transformer, generator, motor etc.

2.1.2 Transformer overloading:

Overload is when a transformer is subjected to voltages and/or currents that

exceed its design specifications. During overloading conditions, excess heat will
cause the insulation system to break down, resulting in decreased life expectancy
of the transformer. The evaluation of transformer overload capabilities definitely
leads into complex variables affecting the functional life of the power and
distribution transformer. The combined effect of thermal overloads, mechanical
stresses due to transient over-voltage and other parameters relating to the
transformer components other than windings must be taken into account. A
transient analysis and temperature rise program is implemented on the information
system. Overloaded transformers are found in industry as a result of a
combination of factors. Often times rapid plant expansion without adequate
capacity planning can lead to overloaded transformers. This, combined with the
transformer to become heavily loaded. Whatever the cause, an overloaded
transformer presents an obstacle to future plant expansion and heavily overloaded
transformers can overheat and pose a potential fire hazard.

The A.I.E.E. transformer subcommittee has planned an extension of the scope of

the Institute publication relating to the operation of transformers to include
recommendations for the short-time overloading of oil-immersed transformers in
service. These recommendations take advantage of the heat storage capacities of
the materials of the transformer to supplement present recommendations relating
to the continuous overloading that is possible when the ambient temperature is
lower than the standard ambient temperature. This report gives a brief review of
the considerations upon which the proposed changes are based and includes the
new material in the form in which the subcommittee has prepared it. It is
submitted to the Institute for constructive criticism.
 Page 16

The basic criterion which limits the transformer load capabilities is the
temperature of the winding and
insulation. Several studies to measure the quantitative loss of transformer life due
to the effect of
thermal ageing has been carried out since 1930. Loading beyond name plate rating
and cumulative loss of transformer functional life has been basic considerations in
the well-practiced IEC 354,161ANSI C 57.92 and NEMA Guides for loading oil-
immersed power and distribution transformers with 6C average winding
temperature rise. These loading guides have been applied by the Utilities and there
have been no known adverse consequences. The ambient temperature and hottest
spot temperature in the winding cover the transformer overload condition. Loss of
half the tensile strength of the cellulose insulation as a result of thermal ageing has
been decided as the quantitative end of life criterion. The generally accepted
relationship for thermal ageing properties of insulation material, which is
described by the Arrhenius Reaction Rate Law, is used as the basis here. An
assumption is made that a single reaction rate is predominant and is applicable
over the full range of temperatures from those occurring during normal load
applications to those used for overload conditions leading to accelerated loss of
transformer life.

2.2 Effect of overloading:

The main effect of overloading is line losses. Due to the overloading excess of
current flow in the transmission line and it make power and voltage losses in the
line. Efficiency and life span of transmission line is decreases due to the power
losses in the transmission line. The power loss in the form of heat then it can
damage the insulation of the transmission line. Due to insulation break down the
short circuit exists in the power system. Due to the voltage loss in the power
system the instability occurs in the power systems. The instability in the power
system make damage the device or instruments which are connected with the
power system.

The flowing equation describe the relation between the power loss in the line,
current flow in the line and the line resistance.
 Page 17

Ploss = I2*R ……………………………………………………. (1)

From equation 1, we can say that by increases the current, the power loss
increases exponentially. Hence current play important role in the transmission line
losses in the power system.

The reactive power flow increases during the overloading. If reactive power
increases then the voltage drop in the line and current in the line also increases.
Due to the current make power loss and the voltage make instability in the power
system. The in stability in the power system means change the line voltage
according to the load change in the power system. But in any power system the
voltage and frequency must be same or constant. By change in frequency different
types of harmonics produce in the transmission line which make also loss in the
power system. By change in the voltage with time the voltage gradient become
change which can killed electrical and electronics devices.

The active and reactive power flow in the transmission line is given by the
following formula.

The formula for complex power (units: VA) in phasor form is:

S=VI*=|S|<¥……………………………………. (2)
Where V denotes voltage in phasor form, with the amplitude as rms, and I denotes
current in phasor form, with the amplitude as rms. Also by convention, the
complex conjugate of I is used. This is done such that a leading current (capacitive
load, negative reactance), results in negative reactive power.
Other forms of complex power (units in volt-amps, VA) is derived from Z, the
load impedance (units in ohms, Ω).

S=|I|2 *Z=|V|2/Z*…………………………………. (3)

Consequentially, with reference to the power triangle, real power (units in watts,
W) is derived as:

S=S*cos(¥)=|I|2*R=|V|2/|Z|2*R…………………..(4)
For a purely resistive load, real power can be simplified to:

P=|V|2/R…………………………………………. (5)
R denotes resistance (units in ohms, Ω) of the load.
Reactive power (units in volts-amps-reactive, var) is derived as:
 Page 18

Q=sin(¥)*S=|I|2*X=|V|2/|R|*X……………….. (6)
For a purely reactive load, reactive power can be simplified to:

Q=|V|2/X…………………………………… (7)
X denotes reactance (units in ohms, Ω) of the load.
Combining, the complex power (units in volt-amps, VA) is back-derived as:

S=P + j Q………………………………. (8)

and the apparent power (units in volt-amps, VA) as

S=√(𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 )………………………….. (9)

These are simplified diagrammatically by the power triangle.
From above equation it is clear that the power loss in the transmission line
depends upon the line current. During the overloading the line current increases
by the 10% to 50% according to the condition of the overloading. Due to this line
current the power loss in the transmission line. Hence by controlling the over
loading in the power system we can control power loss and increases the line
efficiency.

2.2.1 Effect of overloading in the transmission line:

The voltage and power in the transmission line to or even beyond its limits, device
is applied for evaluating power system security at planning and operating stages.
The device condensed the contingency likelihood and the severity into
probabilistic risk indices, which can be used in control room decision making for
understanding potential network problems, such as overloads, cascading
overloads, low voltages, and voltage instabilities. A risk-based approach was
discussed in to monitor and manage the probability and the consequence of
potential cascading outages for reliable operations. The risk-based approach to the
security assessment provided more information to guide secure operating
decisions than the traditional N-1 security criterion. Ni et al. developed a software
implementation for online RBSA. It computed indices based on probabilistic risks,
which describes the system security level as a function of existing and near-future
network conditions. System risk assessment includes a wide range of analysis on
 Page 19

generation, transmission, and distribution assets. In terms of the transmission

security, the transmission line overload risk assessment is a crucial task, which
includes assessing the cumulative risk associated with overload security for mid-
term power system planning, optimally controlling system security levels
associated with overloads, deriving a more robust overload risk index for
describing the total vulnerability level of power systems, and exploring the
overload risk with the consideration of probability and consequence of line flow
fluctuations. Wind energy has been widely deployed throughout the world and is
playing more and more important roles in emerging electric energy systems.
Volatility and uncertainty of wind energy poses new challenges for the grid
security and potentially increases outage risks. A smart grid should accommodate
new technologies of renewable generation and provide the high level of security.
There has, however, been relatively little work done on assessing the risk-based
security of wind-integrated power systems. Existing studies fall into the general
category of operating risk analysis, which involves evaluating the contribution of
wind power on the load carrying capability in power systems, assessing the impact
of high wind penetration on the generation adequacy, and committing additional
generation sources for maintaining the system reliability.

Fig9: transmission line voltage losses due to overloading

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Fig10: the power loss in the transmission line due to overloading.

2.2.2 Effect on transformer due to overloading:

Effects of overloading on the life of oil-immersed self-cooled power transformers

are discussed in this paper. Experience has shown that under average loads and
ambient temperatures, a transformer rated for a temperature rise of 55 degrees C,
has a very long life, and can be overloaded considerably for short periods with
little loss in life. formation for telling the user of a transformer what the effect on
the life of the transformer is, when it is operated at either high or low ambient
temperatures, or when it is operated at high overloads for relatively long periods
resulting in temperatures too high to operate continuously with safety. Any
operation of the transformer consumes some of its life. Present A.I.E.E. rules
allowing overloads at low ambient temperatures, and overloads allowed as given
in the paper entitled ' 'Overloading of Power Transformers,'' b y V. M. Montsinger
and W. M . Dann, published in the October issue of ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING, p. 1353-5, are very satisfactory from many standpoints, and yet
they still leave something to be desired. deterioration is a function of both
 Page 21

temperature and time. The higher the temperature the greater the rate of
deterioration; experience indicates that the rate of deterioration doubles with every
8-degree C increase in temperature. Most transformers are single rated, 55-degree
C rise, and good for operation at an ambient temperature of 40 degrees C. This
means that the hot spot temperature in the transformer is 105 degrees C. Present
rules of the A.I.E.E. might indicate that a reasonably long life of 15 to 20 years
could be obtained if the transformer were operated continuously at this
temperature. This is not correct. Tests made by placing different kinds of
insulating material in oil for a period of 5 years at a temperature of 90 degrees C
show that the material at the end of that time has aged to such an extent that it is
exceedingly brittle; a transformer with insulation in this condition would fail from
mechanical injury of the insulation, if there was any movement of the insulation.
Tests also have been made on insulation for very short periods of time and at
much higher temperatures.

Fig11: Graph between load, temperature, and overload in transformer

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Fig12: Heating and cooling curves for a typical in the transformer

2.3 Method of eliminating overloading in the power system:

Steady-state power system insecurity such as transmission lines being overloaded

creates cascade outages, which may initiate complete blackout. To ensure power
system security during normal operation and during contingencies, the operator
must be familiar with the system state at any instant. Contingency analysis is
performed to predict which contingencies create line overloads, and then the
contingencies are ranked according to their relative severity, so as to take the
corrective actions to return the system back to operating within limits, as
discussed by Hassan (2005). Alleviation of the transmission lines overload is an
important practice in the secure operation of a power system. The engineers in the
control center must take corrective actions in the minimum time so as to get rid of
the line’s overloads and maintain operation within the security limits, in order to
avoid the risk of damaging the equipment, or perhaps even worse, a cascading
outage resulting in the blackout of the entire system. To make a quick decision to
alleviate overload of the transmission components and to turn back the power
system to a secure operating point, it appears that a simple, fast, and efficient
algorithm for evaluation of a schedule that is reasonably accurate and can be
implemented in real-time to mitigate emergencies is more important than an
evaluation of a very accurate schedule that cannot be implemented in real time.

Some research has been conducted to evaluate transmission line overload

alleviation by generation rescheduling and load shedding. Talukdar et al. (2005)
proposed a method of congestion management by generation rescheduling and
load shedding. It is hoped that this technique will offer an economical operation
plan for security studies and will be a valuable support to the system operator.
 Page 23

Hazarika et al. (2006) discussed an algorithm for determining line outage

contingency that took into account overloaded line effect in remaining lines,
which leads to possible islanding of the power system. Hazarika and Das (2014)
proposed a technique for overloaded line alleviation by regulating power flow in
another line having series power flow controller. The technique determined the
sensitivity relation between the overloaded line and the power flow of the line
with series power flow controller. Arya and Koshti (2014) presented an algorithm
for transmission line overload alleviation using learning-based optimization based
on load shedding. Based on the sensitivity of severity index with respect to load
shed, the buses are selected for load shed in this algorithm. An interactive line
switching is presented by Arya et al. (2000) for transmission line overload
alleviation under line outage. In this algorithm line power flow is determined
using line outage distribution factors.

But our project team make a device which is responsible for decrease the loss. By
implement this device in our house which has contains an electrical source like
solar energy, bio-gas plant, and other types of energy, this device detects the
power system in the normal condition or Overloading condition. If the system in
overloading condition then the device activate the alternative source of energy
which contains in the house. Due to this reason the power drawn from the main
grid decreases. Hence the overload condition in the grid is decreases.

The simulation of the device in the house which contain alternative source (S1,
like solar). If the power drawn by the appliances is less than 1kW then the system
is normal i.e. there is no need of another types of energy in this home. At this
situation the relay remains off and the all lamp are driven by grid source(S). The
simulation of the system at normal condition as shown in figure below.
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Fig13: Simulation of system at normal condition.

When the power drawn by the appliances is more than 1kW than the system goes
in the overloading condition than the relay is ‘ON’. It means that the lamp L1 and
L2 drawn the power from the alternative source S1. Finally, the total power drawn
from the main grid is decreases and the system goes in the normal condition. The
following figure show the simulation circuit during overloading condition.

Fig14: simulation of system at overloading condition at time is less than 3 sec.

Here the power drawn by the system is 2.134kW(2143.0W), after some time (i.e.
more than 3sec) the power drawn by the system decreases. The lamp L4, L1 and
L2 drawn the power from the alternative source S1 and the lamp L3 drawn the
 Page 25

power from the main grid source S. The simulation diagram after 3sec is as shown
below.

Fig15: Simulation of system at overloading condition at time is more than 3sec.

From figure 13 and figure 14, it can be clearly show that the power drawn by the
home appliances from the main grid is decreased but the system in overloading
condition because the power drawn by the system is more than the 1kW. From
above simulation it can be shown that the overloading power drawn by the system
is decreased.

By install this device in each home and industries which has contained the
alternative source like solar energy, we can effectively use the energy in the
system and decreasing the overloading condition.

Fig16: the improve of power profile of the line by using this device.
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Fig17: The voltage profile improvement after using this device.

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3. CONCLUSIONS

We are aware of the problem of overloading or simply losses in power system and
conscious of its duty to control and overcome it. However, the measures it has
taken have not been able to overcome it 100%. Restrictions such that we have
considered that the wires used in power system has zero resistance which is not
possible. The problem is not solved totally because of losses while connecting
electricity produced from sources other than from water to national grid. Another
difficulty is that not every person may use the system discussed above which is
operated during peak time(overloading) to decrease the losses. This does not mean
that there is no scope of this system. Application of this system overcome the
overloading problem up to 90% and hence increases the efficiency of the power
system which leads to save high amount of electricity and money.
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4. RECOMMENDATIONS

The following measures should be taken to decrease the loss and to prevent from
overloading so as to provide lossless power system network.

1. Wire with very low resistance should be produced so that this resistance
does not come in measure and hence the overloading decreases.
2. Connections should be done in such way that there should not occur any
leakage i.e, synchronization should be leakage proof.
3. Device discussed above to interface alternative electrical energy sources
during overloading must be placed in every house and industries.
4. Micro hydro should be installed in many places to increase the capacity of
input power.
5. Transformers having very low losses should be used.
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5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gupta, J.B. A Course in Electrical Power. 5th or later edition. India: S.K. Kataria
& Sons, 2013.

Gupta, B.R. Power System: Analysis and Design. 5th or later edition. New Delhi,
India: S. Chand & Company Ltd, 2016.

“Hydroelectricity.” Wikipedia.

“How do solar systems produce energy?”<

http://www.nwwindandsolar.com/solar-power-in-seattle-and-the-northwest/how-
do-solar-systems-produce-energy/ >

“Wind energy basics.” < http://windeis.anl.gov/guide/basics/ >

“Electricity generation from biogas plant.” <

https://energypedia.info/wiki/Electricity_Generation_from_Biogas / >

Shandilya, A. Gupta, H. and Sharma, J. (1993) “Method for generation

rescheduling and load shedding to alleviateline overloads using local
optimization”. IEE Proceedings: Generation, Transmission and Distribution,
Volume: 140, Issue: 5, p.p 337-342 2

“How to Prevent Electrical Circuit Overload.” <

https://www.thespruce.com/what-is-electrical-circuit-overload-1152861 / >