You are on page 1of 50

Chapter one

Introduction

Page | 1
1.1 Introduction :
English is an international language. Today, it has become a media for linking oneself
with international communication channels and moving through information highways.
Even the teaching and learning of English has already taken a stable place in the
education system of Bangladesh. In the changing global circumstances, it is assumed
that in future English will claim even more attention in our national level of education.
However, the issue of English Language Teaching (ELT) is high on the incumbent
government's agenda.

Present state and status of English in Bangladesh : In the constitution of Bangladesh,


Bangla is declared as state language and there is no mention regarding the status that is
to be given to English. During Pakistan period, English enjoyed the status of official
language in this territory. It was used in the administration, higher education and as a
link language between educated speakers of Bengali and Urdu.
Now in Bangladesh, English is taught as a foreign language in the curriculum. Since
1992, it is introduced as a compulsory subject and remains so until 14th grade in the
national curriculum. Outside the government funded institutions, there are innumerable
language centers, English medium schools and a good number of private universities
who teach English according to their own curriculum and syllabuses.

At present, there are no training institutes exclusively for English teachers in


Bangladesh. The usually followed methodology for classroom language teaching is
Grammar-Translation method. In the examination system ranging from primary to
tertiary level, the topics of prime focus usually include questions based on prose and
poetry, grammar items, reading comprehension, translation, paragraph writing, letter
writing and composition writing. Besides, the evaluation of the contents of English text
books shows mat students' ability of communication through language is given
secondary consideration whereas thematic or knowledge of society is given the primary
consideration. As a result, students are often deprived of the varieties of language inputs
necessary for their everyday life of communication. Moreover, the students listening and
writing skills are not at all measured in our testing system. However, communicative
system has been introduced at secondary and higher secondary levels.

Page | 2
As for classroom teaching methodology, most of the language teachers come
without a background in ELT or any practical training in the field. Even until now, there
has not been any formal graduation course in Enghsh Language Teaching (ELT) in
Bangladesh. Among the universities, Dhaka University, at present, offers only a one
year course titled 'Applied linguistics and ELT' at the masters level.

Need for learning English : In present world, English is not just a language rather it
acts as indispensable resource for the countries. Because,
First, English as a international language is essential and common language III'
international communication. It provides a common means of expressing Views and
voices of the people all over the world. Thus, it is more essential I for the people of a
country like ours as large number of our youths are not lihli 1 to compete in this
competitive world.

Second, unemployment is one of the greatest problems of our country. A large number
of our educated youths are unemployed. However, they are not fit for competing in
international job market. One of their incompetence in this regard is lack of proficiency
in English. Because, those who have the proper knowledge of English language and
communication skills, can easily move throughout the world and maintain a suitable job.

Third, the modern age is the age of science and technology. Almost all the technological
and scientific terms and versions are in English. Hence, those have no proper knowledge
of English language, they cannot acquire the knowledge of science and technology. So,
for a country like ours, where the level of scientific and technological development is at
the bottom line, the fleet! for learning English as second language is unanimous. Even
technologically developed countries like Japan have also made English the second
language.

Fourth, against the down fall of our garments sector, the most foreign exchange earner,
government should look for other options. In this regard remittance is the second largest
sector earning foreign exchanges. Thus government should undertake effective
programs to increase the export manpower all over the world and seek for new markets.
In this regards, priority programs is a must to make our youths proficient in English and

Page | 3
make them able to take raining in the technical fields and communicate with the people
of different languages.

Steps to be taken: We have compulsory English from grade one to fourteen, Even,
communicative system has been introduced upto grade twelve, However, these
initiatives are not producing the desired end result. The most dominant factors
responsible for such a negative result are—
i) little or no opportunity for the students to use English in their real life;
ii) absence of a appropriate ELT system in the country; and
iii) lack of appropriate training for the teachers.
So, to address these issues both short and long term steps sfiould be taken
simultaneously.

Short term steps


1. Introduce short non-formal English Language proficiency course : Side by side
with the mainstream compulsory courses, non-formal English Language proficiency
courses should be introduced. With policy and technical support of the government,
these courses will be run at the government colleges and schools on a self-finance basis.

2. Introduce crash training programs : Outside the training courses in ELT offered at
the Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs) and Primary Training Institutes (PTIs) for the
secondary and primary teachers, crash training programs should be introduced
throughout the country. For this, local and private initiatives underpinned by
government support would be a step forward.

Long trim steps


Training both short and long term courses is crucial for improving English language
teaching and learning. Thus, in order to give English a second language status, a
permanent ELT system has to be developed in the country.

Page | 4
1.2 Aim of the research:
The aim of this research is to find out the effects of materials and to select material on
Second language in Bangladesh. The purpose of this investigation is to explore the
possible role of alternative learning materials in the subject of English through a
research project. The aim is to investigate the participating students' engagement and
comprehension of the texts used in the project.

1.3 Significance of the study


The study is significant because by examining the reading skill in light of the theoretical
developments in the field, it will be possible to find out the Bengali medium students '
weaknesses and strengths in second language and the study will make suggestions to
overcome the weaknesses to improve Bengali medium students' reading skills.
Identifying particular strengths and weaknesses of the students' reading skills through
this evaluation will help the teachers to take decisions about the way of teaching reading
skills. This also gives teachers a brief idea about the second language.

1.4 Objectives of the study


The followings are the underlined objectives of the study. The main objective is
Comparing second language success and attitude toward English in Bangladesh. To find
out the Comparing second language success.

1.5 Limitation of the Study:


As this research was conducted to fulfill the partial academic requirement for M.A in
English within a specified period of time, it was not possible for the researcher to cover
a large area of the country, which would have involved a lot of money, manpower and
time. Therefore, the sample size was rather small and limited to one college. However,
this small universe and sample size were examined closely and carefully to find out the
common problems of reading of the students. We also defined the problem in that
particular context. Significance, objective, methodology and the limitation of the study
have been discussed in this chapter.

Page | 5
Chapter Two
Methodology

Page | 6
2. Methodology
2.1 Participants
The participants were 180 students, 94 persons (52.2%) male and 86 persons (47.8%)
female, randomly chosen from different secondary schools of Bangladesh. There were
58 students (32.2%) in the first year, 68 students (37.8%) in the second year, and the
third year students were 54 (30%). They were from three fields of study: Basic Sciences
(BS), Life Sciences (LS), and Social Sciences (SS). There were 58 BS students (32.3%),
62 LS students (34.4%), and 60 SS students (33.3%). As the boys and girls study
separately at the secondary stage in the Libyan schools, different schools were chosen to
represent both genders’ attitudes towards learning English language.

2.2 Design
The design of this study is quantitative in nature i.e., descriptive and inferential as well.
Thus, an adapted questionnaire was employed as a measuring instrument. The
participants were required to answer all the items of the questionnaire honestly, giving
their own perceptions about their attitudes towards learning English language in terms
of the emotional, cognitive and behavioral aspects of attitude as well as their
demographic profile i.e., gender, year and field of study.

2.3 Instrument
The measuring instrument was an attitude questionnaire which focused on the attitudes
towards learning English. Additionally, it aimed to explore the differences in the
participants’ attitudes by their demographic information. The items were partly adapted
from the attitude questionnaire test employed in a study by Boonrangsri et al. (2004).
Other items were taken from Attitude and Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) designed by
Gardner (1985).
Furthermore, there were some items based on the researchers’ experiences in teaching
English (Appendix). On the whole, there were 45 items concerning language attitudes in
terms of: behavioral, cognitive, and emotional aspects of attitude. Overall, 30 items
were positive and 15 items were negative. The items were put in a 5-point Likert scale
from Level 1: Strongly Disagree to Level 5: Strongly Agree.

Page | 7
2.4 Reliability
A pilot study was conducted to measure the reliability level of the questionnaire items.
To do so, 30 students were randomly selected from the target population. These students
did not take part in the actual study. They were required to present their personal
information based on the Likert scale of the questionnaire items. By using The
Statistical Package for the Social Science Program (SPSS) version 17.0, an analysis of
item reliability was determined through the reliability coefficient test. The acceptable
value of Cronbach Alpha was 0.878 which shows acceptable consistency of reliability.
This shows that the questionnaire items were completely appropriate for research goals.
Table 1 indicates the reliability of the questionnaire items in terms of the three aspects
of attitude separately. The value of Cornbach’s Alpha regarding the behavioral aspect is
0.731, the cognitive aspect obtained 0.772, and the Cronbach’s Alpha value of the
emotional aspect is 0.677.

2.5 Validity
To investigate the validity of the questionnaire items, the questionnaire was given to two
specialists, a psychologist and an expert in TEFL, chosen from the teaching staff of
University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Their comments were taken into consideration and
they advocated that the items of the questionnaire are valid and reliable to investigate
the research objectives.

2.6 Administration
English teachers in the chosen schools were required to explain the instructions of the
questionnaire form to the participants. Respondents were asked to signify the extent to
which they agree or disagree with the items of the questionnaire. The total
administration to complete answering the questionnaire lasted about 25 minutes.

2.7 Data Analysis


The collected data was analyzed by the SPSS Program aiming to answer the research
questions quantitatively. To answer the first research question, descriptive statistics was
conducted to determine the frequency, the mean, the variance and the standard deviation
of the gathered data. Besides, the independent sample T- test was conducted to answer
the second research question. In addition, the One-way ANOVA analysis test was the
other type of statistical analysis to examine the third and fourth research questions. The
findings are indicated in the next section.

Page | 8
Chapter Three
Second language

Page | 9
3.1 Second language
A second language is any language other than the first, or native, language learned; it
is typically used because of geographical or social reasons. The term is to be
distinguished from foreign language; linguist Eric Lundeberg uses second language in
his critical period hypothesis to mean a language consciously learned or used by its
speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and
comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. Historically in
Europe, the most widely used second language (or lingua franca) was Latin. It was used
by the Church; by the Law (as it still is today); in Medicine (starting much later);
Horticulture and biological classification of plants, animals, fruits, nuts, etc. Latin was
used so much across Europe that it was called the vulgar (or common tongue);this is
why the Latin version of the Bible is called the Vulgate. Nowadays, English is
considered the world's most widespread second language; it is usedin areas as diverse as
the internet, television and radio, and international aviation. The success of English
throughout the world stems from two major causes: the far reaching influence of the
British Empire, and the 20th century (and continuing)dominance of the United States in
the fields of business and entertainment. French was for a time the lingua franca in
Europe. In history, both England and France were ruled by a single crown - the language
used by the royal court was French (English was considered "the peasant's language").
Afterwards, as was the case with English, the French empire spread its language through
colonization. French continues to be one of the world's most widely spoken languages.
Mother tongue or first language is perhaps the most favorite thing for any person.
Language is an important aspect of our lives. In Bangladesh language played a key role
inour liberation movement. In 1952, we observed the Language Movement which
culminated into a nine month long liberation war in 1971. Today, Bangladesh is an
independent country. Bangladesh is considered to be a monolingual country in which
more than 98% of the population is speakers of Bangla language. However, there
aremore than ten languages in such a small country like Bangladesh. Monipuri, Urdu,
Chakma, Santali, Garo, Rakhain, Tipra- are just some of the other languages present in
Bangladesh, but another language that gained lots of importance over the year is English

Page | 10
Bangladesh was ruled by the British for two hundred years. Hence, English has been
used for quite some times in our country. Though English does not have the status it
used to have during the colonial period it still plays a very important role in our country.
Along with Bangla, English is taught to students in schools and colleges in our country
but in the constitution of Bangladesh, there is no mention of English language. English
language has been used in Bangladesh for quite sometime. During British period and
Pakistan period, English enjoyed the status of official language. It served as a lingua
franca between people of two different nations. During British period, English enabled
communication between people of the subcontinent and Europe. In Pakistani era, it
enabled communication between Urdu speakers and Bengali speakers. Post
Independence, there was a surge in nationalism and the government tried to implement
Bengali language in every sector. However, teaching of English continued in primary,
secondary and tertiary level not because it was the official language but it became the
language of trade and commerce. Over the years, the prominence of English continued
to rise but the government yet failed to clarify its position in Bangladesh. On the other
hand we can not live in isolation. We have to be in contact with the speakers of other
languages The interesting thing is that Urdu is a Indo-European language but written in
Arabic script, Santali belongs to the Mono-Khemar language family while Chakma
belongs to the Chinese-Barmese language group. So, although Bangladesh is often
portrayed as a country of linguistic unity based on Bangla language in reality it has
notable linguistic diversity. To communicate with the speakers of other languages we
either need to know their language or communicate in a Lingua-Franca that
incomprehensible to both of us. English language is dominantly present in every side of
our national life while on the other hand in our constitution it is clearly declared that the
language of the country is Bangla. In fact, nothing is said about the status of English
language in our constitution. On one hand, economic activities in the private companies
are carried out in English while there is a government law (Bangla procholon ain1987)
that government offices must use Bangla in their official works. So from the
government point of view Bangla is the national- official language of Bangladesh and
English is the most important foreign language. But in reality English is the second
language of the country and in many places English is more important than Bangla in
Bangladesh.

Page | 11
Today, the world has become a global village. Thanks to the advancement
of communication system and technology. Every country is dependent on others for
trade and commerce, education, politics etc. As a result, to constantly communicate with
other countries and speakers of other languages. Third world countries like Bangladesh
have to depend on foreign aid because they are not self-sufficient. As a result, many
foreigners come to Bangladesh. A third factor is the factor of religion. The sacred
language of the Muslims is Arabic, Sanskrit for Hindus, Pali for the Buddhists and Latin
for the Christians. All these factors remind the necessity for learning other languages in
addition to our mother tongue. According to this reality many countries of the world
have adopted European language as second language which is often used in education,
law court, economic activities and government works. These languages have most of the
time official status in the constitution of those countries. Many of the cases the countries
have adopted the language of their past colonial rulers as the second language.
Sometimes these languages are also called official language. In many African countries
we can see this picture. On the other hand, some European languages have become very
important in

3.2 History of English Language in Bangladesh


Through history, Bangladesh has gone through various phases of development in
English language. From the time of the English rule to Pakistani regime and finally
Bangladeshi system, English language has evolved not only in methods but also in
fundamental aspects like use of language and governance. During the British rule,
education was mainly reserved for the wealthy class. The language of pedagogy was
English as schools were run by religious nuns and other British people. The few natives
who were fortunate to receive education were either from wealthy families (Nawabs) or
whose family had ties with the British governing body. For one to receive higher
education, such as a university degree, to become a professional, one had to attend
schools in England. As native people were treated as second-class citizens, education
was largely deprived from the general population. Thus at that time Bangladeshi people
knew little or almost nothing about English language.

After the British had left the Indian Subcontinent, the territory presently known as
Bangladesh came under Pakistani regime as the state of East Pakistan. Education during

Page | 12
this period was still very scarce but those who had the means of acquiring it were no
longer considered second-class citizens. The state language, however, was Urdu: the
mother tongue of Pakistan. In the region of East Pakistan, the native language was
Bengali and not Urdu. Hence, a conflict over language was eminent. School systems
were still largely functioned in the English language as few schools, such as the Holy
Cross and numerous Cadet Colleges, were still taught by the British and the nuns.
However, in order to obtain government jobs, one had to know Urdu as it was the state
language. Bengalis did not want to learn Urdu as the felt obliged to submit their rights to
the Pakistanis. As such, after a long and bloody language movement, Bengalis were
given the practice the language Bengali in their own homeland. So, to recap, during the
Pakistani era, the educational system was mainly to indoctrinate students to the Urdu
language. But through all these, English language evolved in to being used in schools,
colleges, and in universities. Most primary schools now taught English in fact it had
become a compulsory subject in some Bengali medium schools. After the liberation war
of Bangladesh in 1971, the People's Republic of Bangladesh became an independent
nation free to choose its own educational destiny. As Bangladesh was, and still is, a
secular state, many forms of education were permitted to co-exist. The formidable
British system was, and still is, largely practiced. English medium schools emerged as
being available to all.

3.3 Development of English Language through time


The tentative beginnings of English language acquisition in Bengal date from the
1630swhen the first English factories started being set up, first at Balasore and then at
Hughli. In 1651 the East India Company was born, which marked the beginning of the
political domination of the British in Bengal and India, also ushered in the use of the
English language. Though today English is no longer the official language as it was
during the British Raj, it is the most important foreign or second language in
Bangladesh.

Page | 13
3.4 Theories of Second Language Acquisition
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the study of how students learn a second
language (L2) additionally to their first language (L1). Although it is referred as Second
Language Acquisition, it is the process of learning any language after the first language
whether it is the second, third or fourth language. Therefore, any other language apart
from the first language is called a second language (SL) or also referred to as a target
language (TL). To distinguish between Second Language and Foreign Language, The
Collins Dictionary defines Second Language as the language that a person learns after
his or her native language and Foreign Language as a language that is used in a country
other than one’s native country (2013). There are different ways to acquire second or
foreign languages. It can be in a formal way as in a classroom environment or informal
way such as when the learner picks up the language by being culturally active
participant of the society. This can be done by attending school in the target country,
watching local television, listening to radio or/and reading newspapers in L2. By being
actively involved in the learning environment, the learner is constantly in contact with
the target language through normal daily routines. It is extremely important in second
language acquisition to look at the learning environment and investigate if the age factor
has any effect. Also, motivation is another significant factor of SLA that needs to be
discussed to find out if it is related to higher language competences as Gardner and
Lambert (1979) have thoroughly investigated. Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and
Early Language Learning (ELL) have been thoroughly investigated over the years and
there is a popular belief that second language acquisition among children is achieved
relatively fast and without effort (Nikolov and Djigunovi'c, 2006). However, more
recent studies post criticism on this widely spread claim of the effortless and quick
second language competence among children (Haynes 2007, Genesee 2006). Although
age plays a significant role in SLA, the benefit of motivation and exposure can provide
better results in achieving complete second language proficiency.

There are various factors that have impact on learning a second language and it is
important to discuss the theories behind second language acquisition and try to find out
how we learn a language and what elements needs to be present for a successful
language acquisition. This chapter will discuss three SLA theories, the Creative
Construction Theory, Communicative Language Teaching and the Cognitive Approach.

Page | 14
As indicated by Altenaichinger (2003) during the seminar about “The interface between
theory and practice”, the Creative Construction Theory, often referred to as the
Naturalistic Approach, deals with the assumption that we are born with a special
language system that we use to acquire a language. Altenaichinger explains that Stephen
Krashen is among scholars that singled out the differences between acquisition and
learning by explaining that acquisition supposedly is a subconscious process that results
in fluency while learning is conscious process that involves learning rules and
structures. Additionally, Altenaichinger cites Krashen’s discussions and argues that
there are three internal elements involved in second language acquisition. Those
elements from Krashen’s book include a “filter”, an “organizer” and a “monitor”. He
mentions that the “filter” deals with how the learner is influenced in a social context and
how he reacts in various social environments. The “organizer” determines the
arrangement of the learners language system and “the usage of incorrect grammatical
constructions as provisional precursors of grammatical structures, the systematically
occurrence of errors in the learner’s utterances as well as a common order in which
structures are learnt” (Krashen 1983, as cited in Altenaichinger, 2003). The “monitor”
operates the conscious learning part where the learners correct their speech according to
their age (Altenaichinger 2003). Those highly debatable SLA elements, which are often
fuelled by criticism, are based on the following five hypotheses from Brown (2002) as
cited in Altenaichinger:
1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: An acquisition is a “subconscious and
intuitive process of constructing the system of a language” (p. 278) while
learning is a conscious process that students are aware of their learning process
and what is expected of them.

2. The Monitor Hypothesis: Is the learning process with the purpose to “monitor”
the learning progress and propose improvements to what has already been
learned.
3. The Natural Order Hypothesis claims that we acquire the rules of a language in a
predictable order.
4. The Input Hypothesis bolsters the importance for the learner to understand the
language a bit beyond his or her understanding with an influence such as
motivation.

Page | 15
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis suggests that language is acquired more easily if
certain emotion factors are met, such as being mentally stable and not angry,
anxious or bored. This means that positive attitude seems to be important in SLA
(Brown 2002 as cited in Altenaichinger, 2003, p. 8-9).
The second theory discussed by Altenaichinger revolves around Communicative
Language Teaching and is completely learner centred. Communicative Language
Teaching has been highly favoured for the last 20 years and scholars agree that this
theory is excellent because it focuses on communicative proficiency in language
teaching. In fact, one of the most important aspects of Communicative Language
Teaching is a language competence, or in other words, the knowledge and ability to use
the target language. As well, it is essential to incorporate activities that influence the
learner to communicate in the target language. Through these activities, students need to
be able to use the language in a meaningful way and they need to be motivated and
aware of the importance of learning the language in order to benefit significantly from
the learning process (Altenaichinger 2003).

The 3rd SLA theory from Altenaichinger’s paper is the Cognitive Approach. Scientists
claim that one of the main features of SLA is to build up a system of knowledge that can
be unconsciously automatically recollected. Due to that fact, the learner has to be
provided with knowledge and exposure to the target language to understand and socially
participate in a social context. Once the learner has experienced the language enough, he
or she should be able recall the language automatically and focus on to improve other
more complicated language skills. Indeed, the main function of the Cognitive Approach
is the process of being able to construct and use the language automatically
(Altenaichinger, 2003, p.10-11).

Altenaichinger moves on to show the relationship between these three theories and how
they inter-relate. Moreover, she mentions that many teachers will apply teaching
strategies that involve all of the three theories. Those teachers who are native speakers
of the target language might prefer the Natural Approach to others. Communicative
Language Teaching today is an extremely important element of language learning and
can be found in almost every language classroom and nearly every language
schoolbook. However, the Cognitive Approach is a relatively new theory of Second
Language Acquisition and might not be so popular yet to apply inside the classroom
Page | 16
(Altenaichinger 2003). Nevertheless, it is important for instructors to understand the
three approaches and use them properly as a guide to aid their students towards
successful second language acquisition.

3.5 The Five Stages of Second Language Acquisition


The process of Second Language Acquisition occurs in stages. In order to examine SLA, it
is important to look at the 5 stages of second language acquisition. According to Haynes
(2007), the first stage is Preproduction and is also referred to as “the silent period” where
learners gradually build up their vocabulary to about 500 words without speaking the
language but more echoing the language. Then there is the second stage called Early
Production and at this stage learners will have around 1000 word vocabulary with the
capacity of constructing words in short phrases and memorize and use short language forms
although not necessarily correctly (Haynes 2007). Haynes talks about the third stage, Speech
Emergence, where learners have acquired around 3000 words and should be able to speak
short sentences and simple phrases. By now, learners should be able to engage in
conversation and ask simple questions. Also they can understand short stories if they are
supported with pictures. The 4th development stage, Intermediate Fluency, he explains that
the learners have an active vocabulary of 6000 words. Also, he adds that students can now
form longer and more complex phrases both spoken and written with grammatical errors but
demonstrate excellent comprehension. The last developing stage is called Advanced Fluency
and as he points out, it takes around 5- 10 years to achieve proficiency in second language
acquisition and by now the learners are considered near-native. Indeed, Haynes says that on
the surface it might look quite effortless to learn a second language but there are various
factors that can have impact on the learning process such as motivation and age.

3.6 Children’s Language Acquisition


It is argued that second language acquisition is learned among children in two ways,
simultaneously or sequentially as demonstrated by Halgunseth (2009) as she cites Tabors
(2008). Young children acquire L1 and L2 languages what it seems to be almost without
any effort through a process that is called simultaneous second language learning.
According to her, simultaneous learners are children under the age of three who are exposed
to their mother tongue at home and another language in an early educational context such as
kindergarten or other early program. However, those learners can also be children from a
multi-language home where the child is exposed to two different languages at home, for

Page | 17
example Spanish from mom and English from dad (Halgunseth 2009, as cited by Tabors,
2008). She points out that although being exposed to two different languages at home,
children learn both languages the same way without favouring one or the other. As their
brain mechanism allows them to learn more than one language, they construct two separate
language systems in their brains for each language. Similarly, this language system is
almost identical to the process that children develop through exposure to one language
(Halgunseth 2009). When the child reaches the age of 6 months, they are able to distinguish
between the two languages and at this point they may begin to favour one language over the
other. If parents expose their child to one language more than the other, the child might
focus more on the language that it receives more exposure from (Espinosa, 2008; Kuhl,
2004; Kuhl et al., 2006; Tabors, 2008).
In sequential language learning environment, the child speaks its native language but is also
exposed or introduced to a second language. For example, when a Spanish speaking child
attends class where English is the dominant language spoken. Halgunseth states that
contrary to simultaneous language learning, sequential learning is not related to any age
factor, but it can be stimulated or influenced by elements like motivation. There are four
stages of sequential second language learning according to her, which are the following:

Stage 1: Home Language Use: Children might refuse to use their native language
even though others do not understand them.
Stage 2: Silent Period: Children can hardly speak but rely on nonverbal
communication. It is argued that the younger the child is, the longer the
silent period might last.
Stage 3: Telegraphic and Formulaic Speech: At this stage children will start to speak
in the target language but only using short phrases or repeat the words of
others.
Stage 4: Productive Language, children construct their own sentences. Those
sentences might be very basic and incorrect but with time it will improve
(Helgunseth 2009).
Although children are exposed to two languages at the same time at an early age, it does not
have to mean that they confuse the languages easily. As mentioned, children become
bilingual sometimes when one parent converses in one language while the other converses
in the second language. Additionally, parents might converse to each other in both
languages so children are exposed to both languages. However, being bilingual has its
downside also (Helgunseth 2009).

Page | 18
Chapter Four
The Role of Content Instruction in Offering a
Second Language

Page | 19
4.1 The Role of Content Instruction in Offering a Second Language
(L2)
• Numerous models of content-based language programs exist, each illustrating a
different balance between content-area and second-language learning outcomes.
Student second-language proficiency levels, the nature of the content material
and the amount of time devoted to the program all need to be considered in
choosing an appropriate model for any given context.
• Students in time-intensive content-based language teaching (CBLT) programs,
such as French immersion, are typically able to master complex content material
effectively, despite less than native-like proficiency in the language of
instruction.
• In programs where students have limited second-language proficiency and less
time is devoted to second-language learning, the concrete and highly-
contextualized content found in content-based language teaching programs
makes it the most effective.
• In terms of language learning, content-based language teaching is a time-
efficient and effective way of promoting the development of general second-
language skills.
• The development of second-language grammatical accuracy needs to be
explicitly promoted in content-based language teaching classrooms. This can be
accomplished through the integrated teaching of language structures and
vocabulary.
• Ultimately, one of the main benefits of content-based language teaching is its
ability to encourage students to make connections between second-language
study and the outside world. This, in turn, can increase motivation and reinforce
learning across the curriculum.

Given the demonstrated benefits of L2 learning (see Section I of this report), it is not
surprising that the integration of L2 instruction into elementary and secondary school
programs has attracted considerable attention. At the same time, those who have
endeavoured to implement such programs have often been faced with the dilemma of
how to maximize the students’ exposure to the L2 without overly detracting from the
amount of time devoted to other curricular areas. The integration of L2 and content

Page | 20
instruction, or content-based language teaching (CBLT), seems to offer at least a partial
solution to this problem. Marguerite Snow, a noted expert in the field, defines CBLT as
“the concurrent study of language and subject matter, with the form and sequence of
language presentation dictated by, or, at least, influenced by content material” (1999, p.
462).
In Canada, the best-known CBLT programs at the elementary and secondary levels have
been French immersion and bilingual education programs, though these are by no means
the only contexts to which the insights of CBLT can be applied. Indeed, the model has
been actively used in English as a Second Language (ESL) and L2 classrooms at both
the K–12 and postsecondary levels in Canada and elsewhere.
The following sections will review the recent literature in the field of CBLT. First,
influential models of CBLT will be presented. This will be followed by a discussion of
the results of empirical studies that have addressed the learning of content and the
development of L2 skills in CBLT contexts. Finally, other attested benefits of CBLT
approaches will be addressed.

4.2 Models of Content-based Language Teaching


Met (1998) identifies a continuum of approaches to CBLT, ranging from those where
content is the primary organizational framework to those where the structure of the L2
itself acts as the driving force. This variety of possibilities is illustrated in the diagram
below (reproduced from Met 1998, 41).

As shown above, total immersion programs are the CBLT context in which content
plays the most important organizational role. This stems from the fact that in immersion
classrooms, teachers typically structure units around the outcomes of the mathematics,
science, social studies or other content-area programs of study. Outside of the
immersion language arts period, any specific language instruction that occurs is based
on the particular linguistic demands of the content areas. It is therefore content, rather
than language, that drives the instructional organization of such classrooms.

Page | 21
At the other end of the continuum are more traditional L2 classrooms, where content is
used simply to supplement formal L2 instruction. For example, if students were
studying the language structures used in expressing opinions, analytic and functional
language study might be supplemented with a project in which students research a
science theme, such as cloning, and write letters to the editor expressing their opinions
on the topic. In such classrooms, content-area outcomes do not act as a driving or
unifying force. Indeed, the choice of themes used is often largely divorced from the
content-area programs of study. The L2 outcomes alone are used to organize instruction.

Brinton et al. (1989) identify a similar range of CBLT models. In this case, however, the
authors conceptualize the continuum as one that delineates the space between the more
traditional L2 classroom, where students have little opportunity to interact with native
speakers of the L2, and the mainstream classroom, where students are fully integrated
into an L2 content classroom. This is illustrated in the following diagram (adapted from
Brinton et al. 1989, pp. 21–23).

In Alberta, the most common manifestations of Brinton et al.’s adjunct CBLT model are
found in ESL programs in which students are gradually integrated into the mainstream
English-language program. Few opportunities exist for members of the majority
language group (English in Alberta) to participate in adjunct-model L2 programming.
This stems from the fact that there are relatively few content programs targeted at
speakers of other languages into which L2 learners could be integrated. On the other
hand, Brinton et al.’s sheltered model, where a relatively homogeneous group of L2
learners receives content instruction in the L2, closely resembles the situation found in
Albertan immersion classrooms. Theme-based models are the CBLT structures most

Page | 22
commonly associated with L2 classrooms where less time is devoted to L2 study than in
immersion. In such classrooms, instruction related to L2 outcomes is integrated into a
series of thematic units, such as “Media” or “The Environment,” which may or may not
be related to other content-area curricular outcomes. The main focus of such instruction
remains on the language itself, and assessment reflects this. This approach has a number
of benefits, including its amenability for use with students at even relatively low
proficiency levels and the relative ease with which content-based thematic units can be
integrated into more traditional L2 classrooms (Stryker and Leaver 1997).

4.3 Language Learning in Content-based Language Classrooms


Numerous studies have compared the levels of language proficiency attained by students
in content-based and traditional L2 programs. As might be expected, immersion
programs that devote a significant amount of time to instruction in the L2 (usually more
than 50% of the school day) have been found to lead to levels of L2 proficiency superior
to those attained by students in L2 programs with more limited time commitments (e.g.,
Stevens 1976, Genesee 1987). On the other hand, studies comparing time-matched
programs have also generally noted more positive L2 learning outcomes in CBLT
classrooms when compared to those employing traditional L2 methodology.

In one such study, Leaver (1997) compared the ultimate L2 attainment of adult L2
students in the intensive American Foreign Service Institute Russian program using
content-based and traditional approaches. The study found that more than 83% of
students in the CBLT program, where content focused on such areas as Russian culture,
diplomacy, history and geography, achieved advanced levels of proficiency. In contrast,
only 52% of students in cohorts that received more traditional L2 training attained
equally advanced levels. In this case, the CBLT program quickly integrated more
Russian language into the cultural content material over the first weeks of the program,
and students continued to receive notional-functional instruction. Eventually, virtually
all instruction occurred in Russian. Stevens (1976) also notes positive L2 learning
results stemming from CBLT programs. Her study compared Grade 7 late immersion
students in an activity-centred program that occupied 50–55% of the school day to
equivalent students in a teacher-centred immersion program where 85% of the day was

Page | 23
spent in L2 learning. Students in the activity-centred immersion program, which
included a significant theme-based component, performed at levels only slightly below
those of students in the more traditional teacher-centred immersion program, despite the
fact that they spent only approximately 60% as much time in the L2 as those in the
teacher-centred program. Stevens therefore concludes that with respect to language
learning, “activity-centred learning is more economical of time than teacher-centred
instruction” (160).

Wesche (1993) reports similar findings with respect to advanced students in the
University of Ottawa’s adjunct CBLT courses where students, in addition to receiving
specific content-based L2 support, were integrated into L2 content-area courses with
native speakers. Students in this CBLT program were consistently found to make L2
proficiency gains comparable to those of students in regular skills-based L2 courses,
despite the fact that the CBLT students had fewer hours of language instruction. Such
gains were particularly notable in reading, speaking and listening skills, as well as in
measures of confidence, such as willingness to use the L2 outside of class. In addition,
content matter results were equal to those of students taught in their L1.
Further to these observations, Musumeci (1993) argues that L2 content instruction
provides a crucial context for the development of a wide range of language functions
and structural features, particularly those related to the written modality and more
formal registers of language. By providing guidance and instruction to enable students
to access and comprehend complex, authentic L2 content-area texts, CBLT classrooms
provide students with important input that they might not otherwise encounter. This, in
turn, enables students to make substantial gains in linguistic competence while at the
same time learning content matter. CBLT is thus an effective context for the acquisition
of L2 skills.

Page | 24
Chapter Five
Comparing and Contrasting First and Second
Language Acquisition

Page | 25
Introduction
Various theories are put forward to describe first language (L1) acquisition and second
language (L2) acquisition. In order to understand the nature of L1 and L2 language
acquisition, various aspects were examined, compared, and contrasted. Results from
these comparisons and contrasts have valuable implications for language teachers which
can help them to design their syllabuses, teaching processes and classroom activities.
These results also enable the language teacher to understand his/her students’ learning
processes. Many characteristics of L2 acquisition were highlighted by studies conducted
on the issue of Inter language. Inter language theory was developed in the 1970s and
1980s to emphasize the dynamic qualities of language change that make the Inter
language a unique system. Selinker (1969, cited in McLaughlin, 1987) defines Inter
language as the interim grammars constructed by second language learners on their way
to the target language. Inter language is the learner's developing second language
knowledge and has some characteristics of the learner's native language, of the second
language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in
all or most Inter languages. It is systematic, dynamic and constantly evolving. Inter
languages have some common characteristics with L1 acquisition, because both share
similar developmental sequences. Some of the characteristics of L2 acquisition show
similarities with L1 acquisition, whereas others show differences.

5.0 Similarities between First and Second Language Acquisition


5.1 Developmental Sequences
Researchers have carried out numerous studies to understand the nature of first and
second language acquisition. These studies have revealed that both first and second
language learners follow a pattern of development, which is mainly followed despite
exceptions. Rod Ellis (1984) covers the idea of developmental sequences in detail and
outlines three developmental stages: the silent period, formulaic speech, and structural
and semantic simplification. Research in natural settings where unplanned language,
such as the learner language that results from attempts by learners to express meaning
more or less spontaneously, is used to show that both first and second language learners
pass through a similar initial stage, the silent period. Children acquiring their first
language go through a period of listening to the language they are exposed to. During
this period the child tries to discover what language is. In the case of second language

Page | 26
acquisition, learners opt for a silent period when immediate production is not required
from them. In general, however, many second language learners - especially classroom
learners- are urged to speak. The fact that there is a silent period in both first and second
language learners (when given the opportunity) is widely accepted. However, there is
disagreement on what contribution the silent period has in second language acquisition.
While Krashen (1982) argues that it builds competence in the learner via listening,
Gibbons (1985, cited in Ellis, 1994) argues that it is a stage of incomprehension. The
second developmental stage is termed formulaic speech. Formulaic speech is defined as
expressions which are learnt as unanalysable wholes and employed on particular
occasions (Lyons, 1968, cited in Ellis, 1994). Krashen (1982) suggests that these
expressions can have the form of routines (whole utterances learned as memorized
chunks - e.g. I don't know.), patterns (partially unanalyzed utterances with one or more
slots - e.g. Can I have a ____?), and Ellis (1994) suggests that these expressions can
consist of entire scripts such as greetings. The literature points out that formulaic speech
is not only present in both first and second language acquisition but also present in the
speech of adult native speakers. In the third stage the first and second language learners
apply structural and semantic simplifications to their language. Structural
simplifications take the form of omitting grammatical functors (e.g. articles, auxiliary
verbs) and semantic simplifications take the form of omitting content words (e. g.
nouns, verbs). There are two suggested reasons why such simplifications occur. The first
reason is that learners may not have yet acquired the necessary linguistic forms. The
second reason is that they are unable to access linguistic forms during production. These
three stages show us that L1 and L2 learners go through similar stages of development
with the exception that L2 learners are urged to skip the silent period. However, learners
do not only show a pattern in developmental sequences, but also in the order in which
they acquire certain grammatical morphemes.

5.2 Acquisition Order


Researchers have tried to find out if there is an order of acquisition in acquiring
grammatical morphemes. The findings are important but contradictory and have
implications on first and second language acquisition. Morpheme studies aimed to
investigate the acquisition of grammatical functions such as articles or inflectional
features such as the plural -s. An important research in this field is that of Roger Brown

Page | 27
(1973, cited in McLaughlin, 1987). According to Brown, there is a common - invariant -
sequence of acquisition for at least 14 function words in English as a first language -
noun and verb inflections, prepositions, and articles. Findings of these studies pointed
out that there is a definite order in the acquisition of morphemes in English first
language learners. Other morpheme studies were carried out on various functors
suggesting that an order of acquisition does exist. Lightbown and Spada (2006) review
studies which have proposed that the acquisition of question words (what, where, who,
why, when, and how), show a great similarity in first and second language acquisition.
Based on the morpheme studies in L2 acquisition, Krashen (1982) put forward the
Natural Order Hypothesis which he developed to account for second language
acquisition. He claimed that we acquire the rules of language in a predictable order. This
acquisition order is not determined by simplicity or the order of rules taught in the class.
Thus far it seems as if L1 acquisition and L2 acquisition follow similar routes, however,
other morpheme studies have shown that not all first language learners follow the order
of acquisition predicted. There appears to be inter-learner variation in the order of
acquisition. Wells (1986b, in Ellis, 1994) proposes inter-learner variables affecting the
order of acquisition as sex, intelligence, social background, rate of learning, and
experience of linguistic interaction. Furthermore, McLaughlin (1987) claims that
evidence from research shows that the learner's first language has an effect on
acquisitional sequences which either slows their development or modifies it. He adds
that, considerable individual variation in how learners acquire a second language, such
as different learning, performance, and communication strategies, obscure the
acquisitional sequences for certain constructions. Therefore, McLaughlin (1987) argues
that "Krashen's claim that an invariant natural order is always found is simply not true”
(p. 33). The above arguments show that there seems to exist an order of acquisition in
both first and second language acquisition. Hence, one should be careful not to claim for
an invariant order of acquisition but for a more flexible order of acquisition and be
aware of the variations affecting this order.

Page | 28
5.3 Linguistic Universals and Markedness
There are two approaches to linguistic universals. The first approach was put forward by
Greenberg (1966, in Ellis 1994) and termed typological universals. Typological
universals are based on cross-linguistic comparisons on a wide range of languages
drawn from different language families to discover which features they have in common
(e.g. all languages have nouns, verbs etc.). The second approach is the generative school
represented by Chomsky. The aim is to study individual languages in great depth in
order to identify the principles of grammar which underlie and govern specific rules.
This approach was later termed as Universal Grammar (Ellis, 1994). The most relevant
aspect of both approaches that relates to L1 and L2 acquisition is that some features in a
language are marked and some are unmarked. According to typological universals,
unmarked features are those that are universal or present in most languages and which
the learners tend to transfer. Marked rules are language specific features which the
learner resists transferring. According to Universal Grammar, core rules, such as word
order, are innate and can be arrived at through the application of general, abstract
principles of language structure. Peripheral rules are rules that are not governed by
universal principles. Peripheral elements are those that are derived from the history of
the language, that have been borrowed from other languages, or that have arisen
accidentally. These elements are marked. Peripheral aspects are more difficult to learn
(Ellis, 1994; McLaughlin, 1987). Even though neither of these approaches aimed at
explaining first or second language acquisition, the results of both are applicable. The
findings show that unmarked features are learned earlier and easier than marked rules in
both the first and the second language while unmarked forms require more time and
effort by the learner.

5.4 Input
Input is defined as "language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she
can learn” (Richards et al., 1989, p. 143) and its importance is widely accepted.
Behaviorist views hold that there is a direct relationship between input and output. In
order to obtain favorable habits the language learner must be given feedback, which
constitutes the input. Interactionist views of language acquisition also hold that verbal
interaction, or input, is crucial for language acquisition. Stephen Krashen (1982) has put
forward the Input Hypothesis which reveals the importance he places on input. He

Page | 29
argues that the learner needs to receive comprehensible input to acquire language.
Information about the grammar is automatically available when the input is understood.
Krashen argues that the input a first language learner receives is simple and
comprehensible at the beginning and is getting slightly more complicated. With this
argument, he supports his next argument that input should be slightly above the level of
the language learner (i+1). Only in doing so can the second language learner move
forward. He argues that the second language learner should be exposed to the target
language as much as possible and that the lack of comprehensible input will cause the
language learner to be held up in his development (Ellis, 1994; McLaughlin, 1987).

5.5 Differences in First and Second Language Acquisition


The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
Krashen (1982) claims that there are two ways for an adult to approach a second
language: "adults can (1) 'acquire,' which is the way children 'get' their first language,
subconsciously, through informal, implicit learning. Once you have acquired something
you're not always aware you have done it. It just feels natural; it feels as if it has always
been there. Quite distinct from acquisition is (2) conscious learning. This is knowing
about language, explicit, formal linguistic knowledge of the language." (p.17)

Krashen continues to argue that learning does not turn into acquisition. He obviously
sees first language acquisition and second language acquisition as two different
phenomena. Yet, he suggests that acquisition may occur in the classroom when
communication is emphasized through dialogues, role playing, and other meaningful
interaction. As a language teacher, one should be careful when evaluating the claims
related to acquisition and learning. Through focused input and focused practice learning
may turn into acquisition.

5.6 The Critical Period Hypothesis


The Critical Period Hypothesis holds that there is "a biologically determined period of
life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is
increasingly difficult to acquire” (Brown 1994, p. 52). This hypothesis is based on the
ideas of the psychologist Eric Lenneberg. His argument was that various capacities
mature according to a fairly fixed schedule during which language emerges in children

Page | 30
when anatomical, physiological, motor, neural, and cognitive development allow it to
emerge. He added that there is a critical, biologically determined period of language
acquisition between the ages of 2 and 12 (McLaughlin, 1987). Originally the notion of
critical period was connected only to first language acquisition but later it was applied to
second language acquisition as well. Consequently, it is argued that a critical period for
second language acquisition is due until puberty. In order to explain the validity of the
critical period in second language acquisition neurological, psychomotor, and cognitive
arguments were examined (Brown, 1994). These have mostly tried to explain why adult
language learners are not able to reach full competence and native like pronunciation in
the second language.

Neurological Considerations: There is an attempt to explain the difference between first


and second language acquisition through lateralization in the brain. Steinberg (1997)
explains lateralization as follows, "the brain assigns, as it were, certain structures and
functions to certain hemispheres of the brain. Language, logical and analytical
operations, and higher mathematics, for example, generally occur in the left hemisphere
of the brain, while the right hemisphere is superior at recognizing emotions, recognizing
faces and taking in the structures of things globally without analysis. This separation of
structure and function in the hemispheres is technically referred to as lateralization". (p.
179)

Thomas Scovel (1969, in Brown, 1994) put forward that there is a relationship between
lateralization and second language acquisition. Scovel suggests that the plasticity of the
brain before puberty enables first and second language acquisition to take place easily.
After puberty, the brain looses its plasticity and lateralization is accomplished. He
argues that lateralization makes it difficult for people to be able ever again to easily
acquire fluent control of the second language or native-like pronunciation.

There is a counter argument related to the cognitive development of the brain.


Cognitively, this lateralization enables the person to reach the capability of abstraction,
of formal thinking, and of direct perception which start from puberty on. This shows
that adults posses superior cognitive capacity due to left hemisphere dominance. Then,
the following question arises: How come that adults who have a cognitive superiority
are not able to learn a second language successfully? Researchers are still trying to find
Page | 31
an answer to this question. A tentative answer to this question is that the dominance of
the left hemisphere leads the adult to tend to overanalyze and to be too intellectually
centered on the task of second language learning (Brown, 1994). Again, there are adults
who are able to learn a second language successfully, but factors like affective variables
seem to play an important role in such cases.

Psychomotor Consideration: These considerations try to explain the reason why adult
second language learners cannot obtain native-like pronunciation in the second
language. Starting from birth, speech muscles gradually develop until after the age of 5.
Then, until puberty the speech muscles maintain their flexibility. Scientists argue that
the flexibility of children's speech muscles is the reason for why they can easily acquire
native-like pronunciation both in the first and in the second language. The decline of the
flexibility in the speech muscles, however, prevents adult second language learners to
reach native-like pronunciation in the second language (Brown, 1994).

Affective Considerations: Although the affective domain includes many factors such
as inhibition, attitudes, anxiety, and motivation, this paper will examine only the first
two. While anxiety and motivation are mainly related to adult second language learning,
child first language learners have not developed or are just in the process of developing
such affective factors.
While inhibitions pose no difficulty for children acquiring their first or second language,
they propose to be intervening in adult second language acquisition. Inhibitions can be
defined as ego boundaries the person builds in order to protect his or her ego. As the
child matures it develops a sense of self-identity and towards puberty it acquires the
feeling to protect this self-identity and develop inhibitions which are heightened during
puberty. Alexander Guiora (cited in Brown, 1994) proposed the idea of the language ego
to account for the identity a person develops in reference to the language he/she speaks.
Through puberty the child's ego is flexible and dynamic but as the child reaches puberty
the language ego becomes protective due to physical, cognitive, and emotional changes
at this stage. The language ego tries to protect the ego of the young adult by clinging to
the security of the native language. Acquiring a second language means also acquiring a
new language ego which can be very difficult for adults who have built up inhibitions to

Page | 32
protect their ego. Mistakes can be seen as threats to one's ego. With the fear to make
mistakes the adult language learner can resist to speak in the classroom.
A second affective factor, which is formed by the cognitive development of a person,
that can make second language acquisition difficult for an adult is attitude. Young
children are not cognitively enough developed to possess attitudes towards races,
cultures, ethnic groups, and languages. As the child reaches school age, attitudes are
acquired. It is agreed that negative attitudes towards the target language, target language
speakers, the target language culture, and the social value of learning a second language
can impede language learning while positive attitudes can enhance learning (Ellis, 1994;
Brown, 1994).

Stephen Krashen has developed The Affective Filter Hypothesis to account for the
effects of affective variables on second language acquisition. He argues that affective
variables can act as a mental block, also termed affective filter, and prevent
comprehensible input to be absorbed. When the learner is unmotivated and lacks
confidence the affective filter goes up. When the learner is not anxious and wants to be a
member of the group speaking the target language the filter goes down. He adds that
children are at an advantage when learning a first or second language because their
affective filter is low while adults are likely to have a higher affective filter due to
events that occurred in adolescence (Krashen, 1982; McLaughlin, 1987).

The critical period shows concrete differences between L1 and L2 acquisition because it
is based on the internal factors of the learner. The arguments of the critical period are
mainly based on pronunciation, neglecting grammatical and semantic competence.

5.7 Fossilization
Fossilization is used to label the process by which non-target norms become fixed in
Interlanguage. The possible causes for fossilization are suggested to be age (learners'
brains loose plasticity at a critical age, therefore, certain linguistic features cannot be
mastered), lack of desire to articulate (learners' make no effort to adopt target language
norms because of various social and psychological factors), communicative pressure
(the learner is pressured to communicate ideas above his/her linguistic competence),
lack of learning opportunity, and the nature of the feedback on learners' use of L2

Page | 33
(positive cognitive feedback leads to fossilization while negative feedback helps avoid
fossilization)(Ellis, 1994; McLaughlin, 1987).

5.8 Social Factors


Ellis (1994) differentiates between two social contexts in second language learning and
outlines them as follows:
a. Natural Contexts
Second language learning in majority language contexts: the target language serves as
the native language and the language learner is a member of an ethnic minority group
(e.g. Turkish workers in Germany).
Second language learning in official language contexts: the second language
functions as an official language (e.g. English in Nigeria).
Second language learning in international contexts: the second language is used for
interpersonal communication in countries where it is neither learnt as a mother tongue
nor used as an official language (e.g. in arts, science, academic, etc.)
b. Educational Contexts
Segregation: the second language is taught to learners in a separate context from the
native speakers of the target language.
Mother tongue maintenance: learners of minority groups are either given classes in their
mother tongue or they are educated through the medium of their mother tongue.
Submersion: right from the beginning L2 learners are taught with native speakers.
The language classroom: the target language is taught as a subject only and is not
commonly used as a medium of communication outside the classroom.
The difference of the contexts of first and second language acquisition play an important
role in the acquisition process. While it is possible to learn a second language in various
contexts, first language acquisition takes place only in a natural context and in the social
group the child is growing up and where the child gets L1 input only. The different
contexts for second language acquisition can also lead to variations in second language
proficiency due to affective factors.

Schuman (1986, cited in McLaughlin, 1987; Ellis, 1994) has put forward the
Acculturation Theory to account for second language acquisition development in natural
settings. He defines acculturation as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture

Page | 34
and his claim is that contact with the target language and culture is crucial. The process
of acculturation requires both social and psychological adaptation. Learning the
appropriate linguistic habits to function within the target language group is one part of
this process. Acculturation is determined by the degree of social and psychological
'distance' between the learner and the target-language culture. According to this
hypothesis, the greater contact with L2 speakers and culture takes place the more
acquisition occurs.

Another social factor that leads to a difference between first and second language
acquisition is that of the learner's choice of target language variety. SLA assumes that
learners are targeted at the standard dialect of the L2. Beebe (1985, in Ellis, 1994)
observed some deviations in L2 learners' from Standard English. She suggests that these
may not be errors but a reflection of a dialect which the learner has targeted (e.g. Black
English). The choice of the reference group is determined by the social context and the
learner's attitude to that variety of language. In settings where the L2 is an official
language (such as in India), the reference group may be educated users of the L2 in the
learner's own country rather than a native speaker.

Page | 35
Chapter Six
Attitudes towards Learning English Language

Page | 36
6.1 Introduction
It is argued that language learning is regarded as the cornerstone of human existence.
Knowing the language can help us to express our opinions, hopes, and even our dreams
(Tavil, 2009). In foreign Language learning context, there are various factors that
influence the learning process such as motivation, attitudes, anxiety, learning
achievements, aptitudes, intelligence, age, personalities, etc. (Gardner, 1960; Lehmann,
2006, cited in Shams, 2008). The matter of learner’s attitude is acknowledged as one of
the most important factors that impact on learning language (Fakeye, 2010). This study
looks into the concept of attitude as one of the major affective factors for success in
learning a foreign language. More specifically, it investigates Libyan secondary school
students’ attitudes towards learning English language, taking into consideration the three
aspects of attitude i.e., emotional, cognitive, and behavioral. Additionally, it attempts to
determine the influence of students’ demographic profile i.e., gender, year and field of
study on their attitudes towards learning English.

6.2 Literature Review


As attitude is one of the key predominant factors for success in language learning,
numerous studies have already been conducted in the field of language attitude
(Alhmali, 2007; Ghazali et al., 2009). In addition, Saidat (2010) mentions that language
attitude research has been considered in the previous 50 years because of the growing
relation between the importance of the language use and the nature of individuals.
However, the information concerning the language attitudes of Arab students, especially
the Libyan students is not sufficient. For that reason, this study investigates the attitudes
of EFL learners towards English language at secondary schools in Bangladesh.

Page | 37
6.3 Definitions of Attitude
Researchers in the fields of psychology and education, especially language learning,
consider several definitions of attitude which mention different meanings from different
contexts and perspectives (Alhmali, 2007). Based on the theory of planned behavior,
Montano and Kasprzyk (2008, p. 71) state,

“Attitude is determined by the individual’s beliefs about outcomes or attributes of


performing the behavior (behavioral beliefs), weighted by evaluations of those outcomes
or attributes. Thus, a person who holds strong beliefs that positively valued outcomes
will result from performing the behavior will have a positive attitude toward the
behavior. Conversely, a person who holds strong beliefs that negatively valued
outcomes will result from the behavior will have a negative attitude.”
Gardner (1985) also points out that attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referent or
attitude object, inferred on the basis of the individual’s beliefs or opinions about the
referent. “Attitude is thus linked to a person’s values and beliefs and promotes or
discourages the choices made in all realms of activity, whether academic or informal.”
Gardner’s argument led Wenden (1991) to present a comprehensive definition of the
attitude concept. He classified the term “attitude” into three interrelated components
namely, cognitive, affective and behavioral. The cognitive component involves the
beliefs, thoughts or viewpoints about the object of the attitude. The affective component
refers to the individual’s feelings and emotions towards an object, whether he/she likes
or dislikes. The behavioral component involves the tendency to adopt particular learning
behaviors.

6.4 Importance of Attitude


Reid (2003, p. 33) declared, “Attitudes are important to us because they cannot be
neatly separated from study.”
Attitude is considered as an essential factor influencing language performance (Visser,
2008). Achievement in a target language relies not only on intellectual capacity, but also
on the learner’s attitudes towards language learning. This means that learning language
should be approached primarily as a social and psychological phenomenon rather than
as a purely academic one. Kiptui and Mbugua (2009, cited in Tella et al, 2010)

Page | 38
investigated that negative attitude towards English is the most affective and
psychological factor that results in the students’ poor performance in English among the
secondary schools in Kenya.

6.5 Language Attitude


Besides the intellectual perspective, the nature of language learning has psychological
and social aspects and depends primarily on the learners’ motivation and attitude to
learn the target language (Padwick, 2010). Gardner and Lambert (1972) have concluded
that the ability of the students to master a second language is not only influenced by the
mental competence or, language skills, but also on the students’ attitudes and
perceptions towards the target language. They also advocated that attitude concept could
enhance the process of language learning, influencing the nature of student’s behaviors
and beliefs towards the other language, its culture and community, and this will identify
their tendency to acquire that language. In 1992, Baker proposed a comprehensive
theoretical model, focusing on the importance of conducting attitudinal research in the
field of language learning. Baker (1992, p. 9) states that, “In the life of a language,
attitudes to that language appear to be important in language restoration, preservation,
decay or death.” Recently, De Bot et al. (2005) assert that language teachers,
researchers and students should acknowledge that high motivation and positive attitude
of students facilitate second language learning. Thus, if a learner does not have the
interest and tendency in acquiring the target language to communicate with others, this
learner will possess a negative attitude and will not be motivated and enthusiastic in
language learning. Therefore, learners’ attitudes could incorporate in language learning
because it may influence their performance in acquiring the target language.

6.6 Aspects of Language Attitude


Learning process is regarded as a positive change in the individual’s personality in terms
of the emotional, psychomotor (behavioral) as well as cognitive domains, since when
one has learned a specific subject, he/she is supposed to think and behave in a different
manner and one’s beliefs have been distinguished (Kara, 2009). Furthermore, learning
process has social as well as psychological aspects besides the cognitive approach.
Attitude

Page | 39
concept can be viewed from these three dimensions. Each one of these dimensions has
different features to bring out language attitude results. Accordingly, the attitude
concept has three components i.e., behavioral, cognitive and affective. These three
attitudinal aspects are based on the three theoretical approaches of behaviorism,
cognitivism and humanism respectively. In the following, the three aspects of attitude
concept i.e., behavioral, cognitive, and emotional aspects are briefly described.

6.6.1 Behavioral Aspect of Attitude


The behavioral aspect of attitude deals with the way one behaves and reacts in particular
situations. In fact, the successful language learning enhances the learners to identify
themselves with the native speakers of that language and acquire or adopt various
aspects of behaviors which characterize the members of the target language community.
Kara (2009) stated that, “Positive attitudes lead to the exhibition of positive behaviors
toward courses of study, with participants absorbing themselves in courses and striving
to learn more. Such students are also observed to be more eager to solve problems, to
acquire the information and skills useful for daily life and to engage themselves
emotionally.”

6.6.2 Cognitive Aspect of Attitude


This aspect of attitude involves the beliefs of the language learners about the knowledge
that they receive and their understanding in the process of language learning. The
cognitive attitude can be classified into four steps of connecting the previous knowledge
and the new one, creating new knowledge, checking new knowledge, and applying the
new knowledge in many situations.

6.6.3 Emotional Aspect of Attitude


Feng and Chen (2009) stated that, “Learning process is an emotional process. It is
affected by different emotional factors. The teacher and his students engage in various
emotional activities in it and varied fruits of emotions are yield.” Attitude can help the
learners to express whether they like or dislike the objects or surrounding situations. It is
agreed that the inner feelings and emotions of FL learners influence their perspectives
and their attitudes towards the target language (Choy & Troudi, 2006).

Page | 40
Chapter Seven
Findings and Discussion

Page | 41
7 Findings and Discussion
7.1 Students’ Attitudes towards Learning Second Language
Concerning the first research question, the result of descriptive analysis shows that the
overall mean score of English Language Attitude (ELA) among the participants is
2.6167 (SD= 0.59177). This result reveals that the participants have a negative attitude
towards learning English. In addition, the mean scores of the three aspects of attitudes
towards English among the respondents differ. As seen in Table 2, the mean score of
Behavioral Aspect of Attitude (BAA) is 2.5711 (SD= 0.60468), that of the Cognitive
Aspect of Attitude (CAA) is 2.6722 (SD= 0.63402). Yet, the mean score of responses
regarding the Emotional Aspect of Attitude (EAA) is 2.6067 (SD= 0.63262). Similarly,
(2008) reported that most of the participants in his study showed a negative attitude and
it was also proposed that the reason of such a negative attitude might have been a
reaction to the instructional and traditional techniques used by some of the English
language teachers. This is overlapping with the current status of English teaching
strategies in the Libyan educational system.

7.2 The Behavioral Aspect of Attitude towards Second Language


As shown in Table 2, the behavioral aspect of attitude towards English language
represents the lowest mean score (2.5711). That is, the participants have negative
behavioral attitude and feel not relaxed whenever they have to speak in English class.
The item “studying English helps me to have good relationships with friends” obtained
the second rank (M= 2.89, SD= 1.153), while the lowest mean score is (2.22) and
demonstrates that the participants do not pay any attention when English teacher is
explaining the lesson with standard deviation of 1.231 (Table 3).
Shams’ (2008) study also explored that most of the participants were confused and
nervous when they started speaking English in front of other students. Besides, the
results of the current study disclosed that some of the students agreed that they do not
pay any attention when English teacher is explaining the lesson. Thus, they show
negative behaviors in the English classes. This could be due to the belief among the EFL
learners that learning English is not needed and important as other results of this study
showed that most of the students never ask their friends or teachers for the homework
and what has been taught when they miss the English class (M= 2.27) and they put off
English homework as much as possible (M= 2.71).

Page | 42
7.3 The Cognitive Aspect of Attitude towards Second Language
The cognitive aspect represents the highest mean score of attitudes towards English (M=
2.6722, SD= 0.63402). The findings indicate that the majority of the respondents
showed negative cognitive attitude and agreed that they could not summarize the
important points in the English subject content by themselves. This response among the
respondents represents the highest mean score 3.02 with (SD=1.153). This result is
similar to the findings of a study by Boonrangsri et al. (2004); the descriptive statistics
revealed that 121 participants out of 219 from eight streams of study showed a moderate
attitude in their ability to summarize the important points in English subject. Besides,
the respondents showed that they could not apply the knowledge from English in their
real lives (M= 2.99, SD= 1.081). However, some of them believed that people who
speak more than one language are very knowledgeable. This response represented the
lowest mean score 2.35 with (SD= 1.179) (Table 4).

7.4 The Emotional Aspect of Attitude towards Second Language


The responses regarding the emotional aspect of attitude towards English are quite
different from those of cognitive aspect and the mean score is 2.6067 (SD= 0.63262).
As can be seen in Table 5, most of the participants showed that they preferred studying
in their mother tongue rather than any other foreign language, representing the highest
mean score (3.81) with (SD= 1.157). This result is in line with that in (2010) that
examined the attitudes of Saudi teachers and students towards using Arabic as a
facilitating tool in English classes. It was revealed that the teachers and the students
showed generally positive attitudes about using Arabic rather than English language.
However, few of the respondents in this study had a positive attitude and wished to
speak English fluently. This finding highlights the importance of encouraging the
students to participate in collaborative dialogues and activities in which they can acquire
the language effectively and this can enhance EFL learners to observe and assess their
progress in learning English language.

Page | 43
7.5 Attitudes towards Learning English regarding Participants’
Demographic Profile
This section discusses whether there is any statistically significant difference in the
participants’ attitudes towards English in terms of their demographic profile.

7.5.1 Language Attitudes and Participants’ Gender


The inferential statistical analysis was employed to answer the second question
concerning the differences in the participants’ attitude towards English by gender
variable. The results in Table 6 show that the mean score of language attitude among
female students is 2.7599 and standard deviation is 0.54763 while they are 2.4856 and
0.60298 respectively among male students. These descriptive results show that the
attitudes of female secondary school students towards English are slightly higher than
that of male ones. The independent sample T-test analysis was carried out to explore the
probability of the difference in the participants’ attitudes towards English by gender.
Table 7 illustrates Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances. The SPSS output showed
that the p-value was 0.023 (F= 5.268). Since the p-value is less than 0.05, the
assumption of equal variances of the attitude by gender groups was not met.
Furthermore, the T-test for Equality of Means was to examine the differences in the
participants’ attitudes due to gender variable. From the output of SPSS program, it was
shown that the p-value was 0.002 i.e., less than 0.05. Hence, the first research
hypothesis was rejected.
These results are in line with those in a study by Shoaib and Dornyei (2005). They
advocated that gender is an important perspective under second language learning
investigations and concluded that females show more interests, positive behaviors and
performances compared with the males.

The differences between the male and female respondents’ attitudes may be due to the
diversity of English teaching strategies and classroom activities employed by English
language teachers to teach female and male students, on the one hand, and the design
and the content of English curriculum may not meet the interests and needs of the male
students, on the other hand. So, they do not show a positive reaction towards Learning
English.

Page | 44
7.5.2 Language Attitudes and Participants’ Field of Study
Table 8 indicates that the mean score of attitudes among BS students is 2.4566 (SD=
0.52877), the mean score of attitudes among LS students is 2.6357 (SD= 0.64013), and
the mean score of attitudes among SS students is 2.7446 (SD= 0.56557). It is clear that
SS students showed the highest attitudes towards English contrasted with the BS
students who indicated the lowest. The investigation of the probability of the difference
in the participants’ attitudes towards English regarding their specialization was
conducted by using One-way ANOVA test. Table 9 shows the test of homogeneity of
variances. The results displayed that the p-value of homogeneity of variances is 0.214.
Thus, the assumption of equal variances is met because p-value is greater than the Alpha
level (0.05). One-way ANOVA analysis was to look into the differences in the attitudes
of respondents towards English in terms of their specializations. In Table 10, the SPSS
output shows that there is a difference in language attitude among the three groups of
specializations (F= 3.523, p= 0.032 < 0.05). Accordingly, the second research
hypothesis is rejected as p-value is less than 0.05. So, it is concluded that there is a
statistically significant difference in the participants’ attitudes towards learning English
language regarding the field of study. The analysis of Multiple Comparison was also
conducted to determine which groups are statistically different. In Table 11, the Tukey
HSD test demonstrates that the statistical difference is significant between SS students
and BS students since the p-value is less than Alpha level (p= 0.025 < 0.05). Moreover,
the mean difference between the two groups of SS students and BS ones is 0.28807.
This result shows that the SS students’ attitude towards English is higher than that of BS
ones. These finding are in line with a study conducted by Rad (2009) to probe the
English Language Major Student’s beliefs and attitudes towards learning English.
Regarding the specialization variable, the SPSS results showed that there was a
significant difference in the respondents’ perceptions about English as a foreign
language. It was concluded that Literature students beliefs about three aspects of
studying English i.e., aptitude, difficulty, and nature represented higher level than that
among Teaching students. The current research results point that the differences in the
attitudes regarding the fields of study may be influenced by the content of the
curriculum and the nature of these specializations. The SS students study the social
subjects, literature, and languages, while the BS students study mathematics, physics,
biology and chemistry.

Page | 45
Hence, it is proposed that specialization can influence the nature of attitude towards the
subjects in general and English language in particular.

7.5.3 Language Attitudes and Participants’ Year of Study


Table 12 shows that the attitudes mean scores among first, second and third-year
students are 2.6985 (SD= 0.51455), 2.5941 (SD= 0.55893), and 2.5572 (SD= 70107)
respectively. It can be seen that there is a difference among the three groups in their
attitudes towards English. The first year students showed a slightly higher attitude,
compared with the other two groups. The output of homogeneity of variances test was
conducted to determine the assumption of equal variances among the three groups of
study year variable. Table 13 indicates the p-value is 0.009 which is less than the Alpha
value 0.05. Hence, the assumption of equal variances is not met. The analysis of One-
way ANOVA was utilized to illustrate the differences in the participants’ attitudes
towards English regarding their years of study. The SPSS output demonstrates that there
is not any difference in the respondents’ attitudes towards English due to the year of
study variable as the p-value is greater than 0.05 (p= 0.419 > 0.05, F= 0.875). Based on
the ANOVA results, it can be said that the third research hypothesis fails to be rejected
(Table 14).
Al-Zahrani’s (2008) study also revealed similar findings and the descriptive statistics
showed that the respondents in the three years had the same level of attitude towards
learning English. Perhaps, the result of the current study highlights the similarity in the
content and design of English curriculum among the three secondary years in each
specialization. Therefore, all secondary students from three years showed no difference
in their attitudes towards learning English.

Page | 46
Chapter Eight
Recommendations and Conclusion

Page | 47
8.1 Recommendations
Regarding the observed negative attitude towards English, the EFL teachers are
recommended to create an encouraging atmosphere in the English classes to promote the
students’ positive attitudes towards English. They should also motivate the students to
learn English, highlighting its importance. This can be achieved by implementing the
appropriate methods and activities of teaching English effectively. Furthermore, they
should integrate up-to-date materials and supplementary resources in addition to the
English text books. This can help them capture students’ attention to learn English
successfully. Moreover, the EFL teachers should consider the role of gender perspective
in language learning, exposing various approaches to improve the students’ attitudes,
motivation and language performance as well.

They are also recommended to teach the English curriculum as it is supposed to be


taught, focusing on the communicative approach. The EFL teachers must be aware that
communicative approach encourages EFL learners to collaborate and discuss their
experiences and other issues regarding language learning. This can increase their
attitude, enthusiasm and their motivation to acquire the language.

Furthermore, curriculum makers should review the content and the design of the
curriculum to meet the needs and the interests of the students. They are recommended to
consider that the EFL learners have different perceptions about learning other languages
due to their differences regarding gender, specialization, year of study, etc. Thus, taking
all these issues into account, the curriculum design should be reevaluated so that
students could see something different concerning the activities, content, topics,
teaching practices etc. and be more motivated to learn English.

Page | 48
8.2 Conclusion
The respondents’ obvious negative attitude towards English may lead to conclude that
they are not well aware of the importance of English and learn it as a compulsory
subject. Briefly, attitude concept is considered as an essential component in language
learning. So, a positive attitude should be the umbrella of language learning. EFL
teachers should respect and think about students’ feelings, beliefs and behaviors before
the cognitive abilities. English curriculum and classroom activities should involve
affective aims according to the students’ needs and their individual differences to build
up positive attitudes towards English. It is so important to study learners’ personalities.
Cognitive performance can be achieved if the EFL learners possess positive attitudes
and enjoy acquiring the target language. For that reason, the affective perspective,
especially attitude, should be considered in language research.

Page | 49
References
1. Burns, A., & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on speaking. Sydney: National Center for
English
2. Language Teaching and Research, 1997.
3. David Numan, Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers,
Hertfordshire, Prentice Hall, Page # 39 – 62 (Chapter Three, “Speaking in a
Second Language”), 1991.
4. O'Malley, M., & Pierce, L.V. Authentic assessment for English language
learners:
5. Practical approaches for teachers . New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing,
1996.
6. Document from the website of American Academy of Neurology . [Online]
Available:
7. https://www.aan.com/PressRoom/Home/PressRelease/121 9. (11th May 2014).
8. Document from the website of The Daily Mail. [Online] Available:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk (4th September 2014)
 Baker, C. (1992). Attitudes and Language. Clevedon, England: Multilingual
Matters.
 Boonrangsri, K., Chuaymankhong, D., Rermyindee, N. & Vongchittpinyo, N.
(2004). The Attitude towards English Language Learning of the Students in
Vocational Certificate Level under Curriculum in 2002. A Case Study of
Ayutthaya Technical College studied by Naresuan University, Thailand.
 Choy, S. C. & Troudi, S. (2006). An investigation into the changes in
perceptions of and attitudes towards learning English in a Malaysian college.
International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education,
 18(2), 120-130. [Online] Available: http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/ (August 9, 2011)
 De Bot, K., Lowie, W. & Verspoor, M. (2005). Second language acquisition: An
advanced resource book. London: Routledge.

Page | 50

You might also like