;

C 14—prevent, control & fight fire on board===

FIRE SAFETY OBJECTIVES==

In marine terms the fire safety objectives are to:

1) Prevent the occurrence of fire and explosion

2) Reduce the risk to life caused by fire
3) Reduce the risk of damage caused by fire to the ship, its
cargo and the environment
4) Contain, control and suppress fire and explosion in the
compartment of origin.
5) Provide adequate and readily accessible means of escape
for crew

THEORY OF FIRE---

Three elements required to create combustion. The three

elements involved (fuel, heat and oxygen) are often shown as
the three sides of a triangle. These three components are inter-
dependent on each other and therefore if any one of the
components is removed combustion cannot take place. Also if
any one of the three components is reduced below an
established value, combustion will not be possible. Therefore
fires can be controlled and extinguished by the removal of heat,
fuel or air and the main aim when fighting a fire is to reduce
the temperature, remove the fuel and / or exclude the supply
of oxygen.

All matters exists in one of three states—solid, liquid or

gas(vapour). The atoms or molecules of a solid are packed
closely together, those of liquid packed loosely, and those of
vapour not packed at all.

In order for a substance to oxidize, its molecules must be well

surrounded by oxygen molecules. The molecules of solids and
liquids are too tightly packed, and therefore do not allow
oxygen molecules to surround them. Thus, only vapours can
burn.

However, when a solid or liquid is sufficiently heated, some

molecules break away to form a vapour just above the surface.
In the presence of sufficient oxygen, if there is enough heat to
rise the vapour to its ignition temperature, the vapour will
oxidize rapidly, i.e. it will start burning.

When burning takes place the heat radiates in all directions.

Part of this heat of course radiates back onto the solid or liquid
(the fuel) causing more vapour to be released, and thus
burning continues until all of the fuel is being used up.

Fire Tetrahedron==

Fire science previously used the fire triangle / pyramid to

represent three elements (fuel, heat and an oxidizing agent)
that must be present for the combustion process to occur, but
now a fourth element (an uninhibited chemical chain reaction
between those three elements) has been added to form the fire
tetrahedron.

Theory of Fire---

Four elements must be present for a fire to occur

 Fuel
 Heat
 An oxidizing agent (usually oxygen)
 A chemical chain reaction.

A fire is extinguished by removing one or more of these four

elements from the combustion process.

Chemistry of Fire---

Fire is a chemical process of combustion (combustion is a type

of oxidation reaction) involving rapid oxidation of a fuel source
at an elevated temperature, accompanied by the release of
energy and the production of heat and light and gaseous by-
products. As an energy release mechanism, it is the exothermic
reaction (a chemical reaction that produces more energy than
needed for the reaction to occur, causing the excess energy to
be released as heat) involving oxidation that produces heat.

Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in

the right proportions. For example, a flammable liquid will start
burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right proportions.
Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance
that is not directly involved in any chemical reaction during
combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more
readily.
Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires
can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat
energy in the process of combustion and may propagate,
provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.
Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements
of the fire tetrahedron.

The Four Elements for Fire—

Fuel- Fuel is any substance that can undergo combustion. It

exists in three states of matter-solids, liquids andgases. Solid
and liquids do not burn. Instead, combustion occurs in a region
of vapours above the surface of the fuel that is created by
heating the solid or liquid above its ignition temperature . It is
these escaping vapours that burn.

An Oxidising Agent—Oxygen is the most common oxidizing

agent. Oxygen supports combustion but does not burn. Normal
air contains 21% oxygen; and higher the concentration of
oxygen in the air, the more intensely a fire will burn.

Heat—Heat is produced by an exothermic reaction (a chemical

reaction that produces more energy than needed for the
reaction to occur, causing the excess energy to be released as
heat). Heat transfers from an area of higher temperature to an
area of lower temperature by three principal means—
conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction—Transfer of heat between substances that are in

direct contact with each other.

Convection—occurs in liquids and gases. Liquid and gas expand

and become less dense as they are heated. This causes them
to rise, being displaced by colder and denser liquid or gas. This
is in turn heated and also rises. The risen liquid or gas cools
and falls, with resultant convection current occurring until a
uniform temperature is attained.

Radiation—is the transfer of heat energy through

electromagnetic radiation in the infra-red part of the spectrum,
between substances that are not in direct contact with each
other.

Chemical chain reaction-

Extinguishing Fire—

Since four elements must be present for the combustion

process to occur (fuel, heat, an oxidizing agent, and chemical
chain reaction), a fire can be extinguished by removing any
one of these four elements.

In practical fire-fighting terms, this translates as starvation,

cooling, smothering and interference.
  Starvation is the process of depriving the fire or fuel, ie.
Combustible materials.
 Cooling is the process of depriving the fire of heat, eg. By
applying a substance such as water that will absorb heat
from the fire and thereby reduce the fire’s temperature
below the critical level needed to sustain the fire.
 Smothering is the process of depriving the fire of the
oxygen needed to sustain the combustion process.
 Interference is the process of applying extinguishing
agents to the fire that inhibit the chemical chain reaction
at the molecular level.

All fire extinguishers operate on this principle, with their

various extinguishing agents removing one or more of the four
elements from fire.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES----

Fires are classed according to the fuel and the most effective
extinguishing agents used.

CLASS A

Common combustible materials such as wood, wood-based

materials, cloth, paper, rubber and certain plastics.

Extinguishment: Cooling

Agents: Water, soda-acid, carbon dioxide and water. Portable

dry powder extinguishers may be used.

CLASS B

Flammable or combustible liquids such as fuel and lubricating

oils, paint, alcohol and greases. Flammable gases such as
acetylene and LPG.

Extinguishment: Cutting off the supply of oxygen to the fire;

Preventing flammable vpours from being given off.

Agents: Foam, dry power, inert gas, CO2, and steam. Asbestos
blanket and sand may be used for small fires. Water spray—
this must completely cover the surface of the burning oil. The
water spray also smothers.

CLASS C

Energised electrical equipment, conductors or appliances.

Extinguishment: Non-conducting extinguishing agents must be

used for the protection of crew members.

Agents: Dry powder, inert gas (CO2)

CLASS D

Combustible metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium,

titanium and aluminium.

Extinguishment: Use of heat absorbing extinguishing agents.

Agents: Certain dry powders that do not react with the burning
metal.

Examples of these dry powders:

a) Graphite base
b) Sodium chloride base
c) Sodium carbonate base.

TYPES OF FIRES AND METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING---

OIL FIRES:

The vapours given off from the oil can be ignited, causing a rise
in temperature of the oil so that more oil vapour is readily
given off from the oil to replace that already burnt. The
methods of extinguishing oil fires are as follows:

a) Sand, used for oil fires, it serves as a blanket so

excluding the atmosphere.
b) Water spray, this must completely cover the surface of
the burning oil, the water has a cooling effect that will
reduce the rate at which vapour is given off from the oil.
The water spry also smothers.
c) Foam, serves as a blanket to smother the fire
d) Dry powder, serves as a blanket to smother the fire.
e) Inert gas, eg. Carbon dioxide, heavier than air hence it
displaces the oxygen bearing atmosphere.
f) Steam, smothers the fire
g) Asbestos blanket, used for smothering small fires

COAL FIRES
The methods y which a coal fire is extinguished are principally
by cooling. Hence water is generally used. Soda-acid, carbon
dioxide and water portable extinguishers may be used to
extinguish small coal fires.

MATERIAL FIRES

Wood, paper, waste, bedding and other similar materials when

burning may be extinguished by cooling, principally with water
or, again, soda-acid, carbon dioxide and water. Dry powder
portable extinguishers may be used.

ELECTRICAL FIRES

Electrical equipment may take fire due to overheating of some

component or components or some other such cause. If it is
possible to interrupt the supply of current to the electrical
appliance the fire may then be extinguished by using water.

If it is not possible to interrupt the supply of current the

following may be used to extinguish the fire.

a) Dry powder
b) Inert gas e.g. CO2

FIRE DETECTION==

Early discovery of fire is essential. The fire must be confirmed,

and extinguished in its early stages, before it gets out of
control and endangers the ship and the lives of those onboard.

Various methods are employed, which include fire patrols and

the use of automatic detection system.

FIRE PATROLS

These are not normally carried out on a regular basis upon

most vessels but they should be conducted:

 Immediately prior to or upon sailing

  When the vessel has been vacated by shipyard personnel
whilst the vessel is in port undergoing repair.
 When the vessel is enroute, or in port; fire patrol is
carried out to ensure there is no fire danger for the ship.

A thorough inspection of the vessel being made especially in

hold compartments, stores, engine and boiler rooms, etc. The
patrol should, in addition to looking for fire, assess and correct
any possible dangerous situation, e.g. loose oil or paint drums,
incorrectly stored chemicals, oxy-acetylene equipment and
electrical leads for portable equipment, etc.

Selection and Location of Fire Detectors

General
Fire detectors are designed to respond at an early stage to one
more of the four major characteristics of combustion, heat,
smoke, flame or gas.
No single type of detector is suitable for all types of premises
or fires.
Detectors should be chosen for the best response to the effects
of fires, as well the need to minimise unwanted false alarm
activations.
Detectors should be located where the early stages of fire will
be detected, and ensure they are placed at regular intervals on
the ceiling. The issue of unwanted fire alarm activations from
environmental conditions must also be considered

AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION—fig(Fire alarm circuit)

Consists of normal and emergency power supplies, a fire

detection control unit, fire detectors and alarm bells.

Power Supply: The normal power supply may be from a branch

circuit of the main switchboard or by storage batteries. When
supplied by storage batteries they must be used only for the
fire alarm and detection system.

Emergency supply may be from a branch circuit of the

emergency switchboard or by storage batteries.
Fire Detection Control Unit: Consists of a drip proof enclosed
panel containing the fire alarm signaling, trouble alarm and
power failure alarm devices. These devices must register both
a visual and an audible signal.

Alarm Bells and Light: When fire is detected, the alarm lights
stay on and the bells kept ringing until a resetting device is
operated manually. A shut off device may be used to silence
the bells, but this does not extinguish the alarm lights. The
alarm lights can only be shut off with the manual resetting
device.

Fire detectors: Sense, (and initiate a signal in response) heat,

smoke, flame or some other indication of fire. Various types
are available, depending upon fire risk, position, area to be
covered, volume and height of component and atmosphere in
the space etc.

Heat Sensors: These may be fixed temperature detectors, rate

of rise detectors or a combination. Rate of rise detectors do not
respond and give alarm if the temperature gradually increases
e.g. moving into tropical region or heating switched on.
TYPES OF DETECTORS==(Fig)

[1] BI-metal Coil type Heat Detectors--

The bi-metal coil attached to a vertical support bracket are

encased in a protective metal cap. When the temperature
increases A will move to close the gap C at a faster rate than B
moves to maintain the gap, this is due to B being better
insulated from the heat than A. If the rate of rise of
temperature is sufficient, gap C will be closed and alarm given.
At a fixed temperature gap D, then C will be closed, giving
alarm.
The detector is useful for dusty atmospheres as it is completely
sealed but it does not give as early a warning of fire as other
types of detectors. May be used in control room, workshop,
paint store and above fuel tanks.

Rate of rise detectors give an alarm when the defected

temperature exceeds a fixed limit, normally this will be
between 54 and 780 C. However, detectors with a higher
temperature rating may be used in areas of high ambient
temperature such as galley, although the permissible operating
temperature must not be more than 30oC above ambient. The
detectors will alarm at lower temperatures if the rate of
increase in temperature is more than 1oC per minute.

[2] Pneumatic type Heat Detector-- (fig)

 Increase in temperature increases the air pressure inside the
hemi-spherical bulb, if the bleed of air through the two way
bleed valve from the inside of the bulb is sufficient the
diaphragm will not move up and close the contacts. If however
rate of rise of temperature causes sufficient build up inside the
bulb to close the contacts, alarm will be given. If either case a
bi-metal unit will at a pre-determined temperature close the
contacts on to the fixed temperature adjustment screw, giving
alarm.

[3] Flame Detector (Infra-red)

The infrared and ultraviolet bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum may be used for flame detection, but more commonly
it is infrared flame detectors that are found on board. Flame
has a characteristic flicker frequency of about 25 Hz and use is
made of this fact to trigger an alarm. Flickering radiation from
flames reaches the detector lens/filter unit, which only allows
infra-red rays to pass and be focused upon the cell. The signal
from the cell goes into the selective amplifier, which is tuned to
25Hz, then into a time delay unit (to minimize incidence of
false alarms, fire has to be present for a pre-determined
period), trigger and alarm circuits. The units should be immune
to false alarms caused by solar rays. If hydrogen is a particular
risk a particular type of flame detector will be required.

With this type, very early warning of fire is possible. It is

suitable for areas where fire risk is high, ie. Machinery spaces,
but not in boiler rooms where naked flame torches are to be
used for igniting oil.

Testing--- Use a naked flame.

[4]Photo-electric Cell (Light scatter type) Smoke detector—(fig-

-Optical smoke detectors)

Use a light source to determine light scatter caused by smoke

particles entering the chamber. More advanced units may use
laser technology.

A photo-cell separated by a barrier from a semi-conductor

intermittently flashing light source are light housed in an
enclosure whose containment allows smoke but not light inside.
When smoke is present in the container, light is scattered
around the barrier on to the photo-cell and an alarm is
triggered.

Smoke may be present without much heat or any flame; hence

this detector could give early warning of fire. Suitable for
machinery and boiler spaces, switchboard and control room.
Testing can be done with smoke from a cigarette.
 [5] Combustion Products (Ion-Chamber) Smoke Detector-
(fig—ionization smoke Detectors)

Two ionization chambers connected in series contain some

radioactive material which emits a continuous supply of ionizing
particles.

The detecting chamber is open, the reference chamber closed

and operating at a constant current since it contains air which
is being ionized and the applied potential ensures that
saturation point is passed. Current strength is dependent upon
the applied potential, since if the potential is low not all the
ionized particles reach the electrodes, some will combine with
electrons and thus be neutralized.
If combustion particles, visible or invisible, pass through the
open detecting chamber the current will drop since the
combustion products are made of larger and heavier particles
than normal gas molecules. When ionized, the particles are less
mobile than ionized air particles and because of increased bulk
and lack of mobility, can readily combine with particles of
opposite charge and hence be neutralized. The effect is to
greatly increase the resistance of the detecting chamber; this
change in resistance produces a substantial change in the
potential at the centre point B.

Normal voltage A to C is 220, A to B 130 volts, B to C 90 volts.

When voltage shift, due to increasing resistance in the
detecting chamber, reaches 110V across BC this is sufficient to
trigger a discharge in the valve from 2 to 3, the capacitor then
unloads itself across 2 to 3 encouraging a discharge from 1 to 3,
by-passing the chambers and causing heavy current flow
through the alarm relay and the alarm to sound.

It is a very sensitive fire alarm and a time delay circuit may be

incorporated to minimize the incidence of false alarm.

Testing--- By cigarette smoke or butane gas delivered from

aerosol container.

[6] Smoke Detection of Cargo Holds (Continuous Air sampling)

For the detection of smoke, 20mm dia sampling pipes are led
from the various hold compartments in the vessel to a cabinet
on the bridge. Air is drawn continuously through these pipes to
the cabinet by suction fans, which deliver the air through a
diverting valve into the wheel house.

When a fire breaks out in a compartment, smoke issues from

the diverting valve into the wheel house, warning bridge
personnel of the outbreak. Simultaneously, an electronic
smoke detector in the cabinet sets off audible alarms, hence if
the bridge is unoccupied (eg. In port) the notice of outbreak of
fire is still obtained.
Within the cabinet is a dark chamber wherein the sampling
pipes terminate in labeled chimneys. Diffused light illuminates
strongly any smoke issuing from a chimney, hence the
compartment which is affected by fire can easily be identified.
Below the dark chamber in the cabinet is a well-lighted
compartment fitted with a glass window and hinged flap cover.
Inside this compartment, 13 mm dia glass tubes are fitted
which are the ends of the sampling pipes, these glass tubes
protrude into the metal chimneys in the dark chamber above.
Small nylon propellers are visible inside the glass tubes in the
lighted portion of the cabinet and when the fans are in
operation these propellers will be seen to be continuously
whirling if the sampling tube is not blocked.

Changeover valves are generally situated inside the lower

portion of the cabinet, one for each of the sampling pipes. To
flood an affected compartment with CO2 gas, the operator
would first operate the appropriate changeover valve and
secondly release the requisite number of CO2 cylinders for the
compartment. CO2 gas would then pass through the sampling
pipe to the space in which the fire exists.

When a smoke detection system is to be used for the hold

compartments of a refrigerated cargo vessel the lines to the
refrigerated holds will be blanked off in the detector cabinet.
The blanks can be removed once per watch as a test (for a few
days after loading cargo) and removed altogether when the
hold is open and defrosted.

The advantage of audio-visual alarm is that even if the bridge

is unattended for e.g in port, there still will be an alarm for the
outbreak of fire.

For the cargo holds, all necessary measures have been taken
to ensure a release of a minimum of 67% of the calculated
volume into the cargo hold within 10 minutes at the same time

Carbon dioxide has significant following benefits:

 Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas that does not

conduct electricity.
 The density is about one and a half times that of air.
 It is stored in steel cylinders, and condensed to a liquid by
its own vapour pressure.
 100% natural gas
 Does not leave a residue
 Zero ozone depletion potential
 USCG and other approvals
 Environmentally friendly
Maintenance, testing and inspections :

The fire detection system is to be classed as Critical Equipment

and must be maintained in good working order. Fire-fighting
systems and appliances should be kept in good working order
and readily available for immediate use.

Maintenance, testing and inspections shall be carried out based

on the guidelines developed by the Organization.

The maintenance plan shall be kept on board the ship and shall
be available for inspections whenever required by
administration.

The CO2 gas is carried to various compartments of the ship via

small pipelines. These pipelines must be checked for corrosion
and damage, for in emergency if the correct quantity of gas is
not reached due to leakage, the fire will not be suppressed.

As the ship sails in varying temperature zones, the pipes tend

to accumulate condensed water which leads to blockage of the
line and corrosion. It is important to clear the lines by blowing
it with pressurized air at regular intervals of time.

Checks on the system:

 Pipes leading to the spaces should regularly be blown with air
to ensure that they are not blocked.
 The level in the Co2 bottles should be checked on regular
basis. If in a particular check, the difference is 10% of the
total volume, the bottle should be replaced as soon as
possible.
 Sensors should be checked periodically.
 Cabinet door alarms should also be checked on regular
interval of time.
 All the piping and connections at the CO2 bottles should be
checked regularly.

Testing-- This device always suctions air from cargo hold area
and monitors smoke concentration. Create smoke by test
smoke cans. It detects smoke from exhaust air of the cargo
hold area and will also issues fire alarms.

Linear beam smoke detectors

Linear beam smoke detectors measure the reduction of
intensity of a beam of light due to the presence of smoke
particles. They have broad response to wide rangeof smoke
types, and are particularly useful for detection applications in
large spaces. Require careful installation.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) fire detectors

CO fire detectors respond to the presence of carbon monoxide
(CO) in fires involving carbon based materials. CO is produced
due to incomplete combustion during smouldering or slow
burning fires. Not suitable for the detection of slow burning
fires. Currently should not be used as a sole detector for early
warning, but used in combination with other early warning
detectors as part of a fire engineering design. Ongoing tests
are being carried out to improve these types of detectors.

Battery Smoke Alarms

Are available in ionistaion and photo-electrical

Combination( multi-criteria ) detectors

These type of detectors are available as part of an analogue
addressable fire alarm system. They vary of the type of
combination, and can involve up to 4 separate sensing
elements, such as CO, Infra- Red Sensing, Optical and Heat
detection. The integration of continual monitoring of all the
major elements of a fire allows a quick response to any fire and
the reduction of nuisance alarm activations (false alarms)

A combination of detectors ensure the property has the best

coverage for the detection of fire.
MANUAL CALL POINTS

In addition to the detectors manually operated call points are

installed throughout the accommodation, service spaces and
control stations. There is to be one call point at each exit, and
in the corridors of each deck so that no part of the corridor is
more than twenty meters from a call point.

Special considerations

The location of smoke detectors should take into consideration

areas where false operation or no-operation is likely.

Some typical locations where the use of smoke detectors

should be carefully evaluated are as follows:

(a) In the vicinity of certain materials, such as polyvinyl

chloride (PVC), which when smouldering produce mainly large
particles to which optical detectors are more responsive.

(b) Areas where gases may be present from exhausts and

normal manufacturing processes.

(c) Kitchens and other areas subject to cooking fumes.

Photoelectric detectors are more suitable for these areas,
however not in the actual kitchen

(d) Near openings, such as doors, windows, or other inlets,

where the introduction of outside industrial gases or products
of combustion may be possible.

(e) Areas where the detector is subject to movement and

excessive vibration in particular where beam detectors are
used.

(f) Dusty areas or in areas where particulate matter, such as

aerosols, could enter the detector.

(g) In areas subject to high velocity air currents, a sampling

type detection system may be more suitable.
(h) In areas where high concentrations of tobacco smoke are
expected, ionization detectors are less susceptible to false
operation.

(i) In areas where steam or condensation vapour is expected,

ionization detectors are less susceptible to false operation.

*************