Advanced Chemistry For You Answers PDF

1 Atoms and electrons
1 a) Positive charge
b) i) 2 electrons ii) 6 electrons iii) 10 electrons
c) They spin in opposite directions to minimise repulsion between the pair of electrons.
2 a) Alpha particles were fired at a very thin sheet of gold foil and their subsequent path detected by a
radioactivity detector.
b) If the Plum Pudding model of the atom had been correct scientists would expect the positively charged alpha
particles to pass straight through the gold foil, but some were deflected and a few rebounded from the foil.
c) The Plum Pudding model suggested that the positive charge in an atom was spread through the atom in a
diffuse cloud of charge. To explain the results of this experiment, this was revised to propose a tiny
positively charged nucleus at the centre of the atom into which all the positive charge was concentrated.
d) Because it can be hammered into very thin gold foil (gold leaf) so the alpha particles could pass through
and not be absorbed.
3 a) The energies absorbed or emitted in electron transitions are specific fixed ‘packets’ of energy, which
appear as lines on atomic spectra. This suggests that the electrons are moving between fixed energy levels.
b) Continuous bands of light energy/electromagnetic radiation
c) i) Principal quantum number of the electron shell or energy level
ii) Electron falls from n = 3 into n = 1
iii) Electron falls from n = 4 into n = 1
iv) Electrons falling back into the n = 2 quantum shell
4 a) The energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from a mole of gaseous atoms
b) log10I.E. 801 = 2.90; 2427 = 3.39; 3660 = 3.56; 25 026 = 4.40; 32 828 = 4.52
Graph – same axes as page 12 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition)
c) The gradual rise in the first three I.E.s occurs as the second and third electrons are removed from the
same quantum shell (n = 2) but have to escape from increasingly positively charged ions. The large step
up between the 3rd and 4th I.E.s on the graph arises as the fourth electron is removed from the n = 1
quantum shell, which is much nearer to the attractive force of the positively charged nucleus.
d) i) The line gradually slopes upwards until first large step up between the 6th and 7th I.E.s, then slopes
gradually upwards again until the second large step up between the 14th and 15th I.E.s., with 16th I.E.
the highest point.
ii) The first point is the lowest with a large step up to the 2nd I.E. Then the line gradually slopes upwards
until a second large step up between the 9th and 10th I.E.s, then slopes gradually upwards again until
the third large step up between the 17th and 18th I.E.s, with 19th I.E. the highest point.
5 As shown at the bottom of page 11 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition) (without the top 4d
sub-shell).
6 a) i) 1s22s22p3
ii) 1s22s22p63s23p5
iii) 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
iv) 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2
v) 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
vi) 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2
vii) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
viii) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
b) i) Ca – The sub-shells fill up from 1s to 3p then the final two electrons go into the 4s sub-shell which is
at a slightly lower energy level than the 3d sub-shell.
ii) Cr – instead of the possible … 3d44s2 configuration Cr adopts the … 3d54s1 alternative configuration
which has the outer six electrons unpaired as this minimises the mutual repulsion between pairs of
electrons in the same orbitals.
iii) Cu – instead of the possible … 3d94s2 configuration Cu adopts the … 3d104s1 alternative configuration
which forms a complete 3d subshell.
c) i) 1s22s22p6 ii) 1s22s22p6
Oxford University Press Advanced Chemistry for You, Second Edition © Ryan Books Limited 2015 1
2 Atoms and the nucleus
1 a) Atomic number = no. of protons in an atom

Mass number = number of protons + neutrons
Relative atomic mass = the weighted mean mass of atoms of an element, taking into account the relative
proportions of its isotopes in a naturally occurring sample, on a scale which assigns carbon-12 a relative
mass of exactly 12
b) Their numbers of neutrons differ.
c) Relative atomic masses are weighted means of the masses of naturally occurring isotopes so it is highly
unlikely they will be whole numbers.
d) Mass spectrometer
2 protons neutrons electrons

a) 27 32 27
b) 47 60 47
c) 92 143 92
d) 94 148 94
e) The proportion of neutrons compared with protons increases as the atoms get larger.
f) Their stability decreases and they become more susceptible to radioactive decay.
(29.5 × 203) + (70.5 × 205)

3 a) = 204.4 (to 1 decimal place) or 204 (to 3 significant figures)
100
(51.46 × 90) + (11.23 × 91) + (17.11 × 92) + (17.40 × 94) + (2.80 × 96)
b) = 91.32 (to 2 decimal
100
places or 4 significant figures)
4 a) It is heated and vaporised.

b) The atoms or molecules are bombarded by electrons.
The electrons knock electrons from the atoms or molecules, forming positively charged ions.
c) The current flowing through the coils is varied to vary the magnetic field – this ensures that the range of
ions with different m/z values enter the detector.
d) ToF MS is quicker and less expensive (also it is sometimes desirable not to fragment the molecule
under test).
(50.52 × 79) + (49.48 × 81)

5 a) = 79.99 (to 2 decimal places or 4 significant figures)
100
b) 158 peak is caused by two bromine-79 atoms in a Br2+ ion.
160 peak is caused by a bromine-79 atom and a bromine-81 atom in a Br2+ ion.
162 peak is caused by two bromine-81 atoms in a Br2+ ion.
3 Calculations using the mole
1 a) Molar mass
b) Volume (in cm3)
c) RT
d) Concentration (in mol dm−3)
2 a) 6.02 × 1023 mol−1
b) The simplest ratio of the different elements in the compound
c) The empirical formula multiplied by a whole number will give the actual formula.
d) The relative molecular (formula) mass
For answers to questions 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 see page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd
edition).
10 a) H2 + Br2 2HBr
b) Fe2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + 2Fe
c) 2AgNO3 + Cu Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
d) 2H2O2 2H2O + O2
e) CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
For answers to questions 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 b)–e) see page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for
You (2nd edition).
16 a) After all the iron(ii) ions have been oxidised, the purple manganate(vii) ions become in excess and will
start to colour the reaction mixture a permanent faint purple/pinkish colour at the end point.
17 a)–d) Dependent on student data.

e) No, as it the third most abundant gas in the air, after nitrogen and oxygen.
4 Ionic compounds
1 Ionic; non-metal; electrons; non-metal; positively; negatively; giant; lattice; ionic; electrostatic; oppositely;
high; dissolve; molten; solid.
2 tin(ii) bromide; sodium fluoride; iron(ii) oxide; zinc chloride

The substances with giant ionic structures are made up of metal ions and non-metal ions.
3 a) Diagram of Li atom (2,1) showing electron transferred into outer shell of F atom (2,7); Li becomes Li+
(2)+, and F becomes F− (2,8)
b) Diagram of two Na atoms (2,8,1) showing each one transferring an electron into outer shell of O atom
(2,6); both Na’s become Na+ (2,8)+, and O becomes O2− (2,8)2−
4 I∙ NO3∙ SO42∙ PO43∙

Li∙ LiI LiNO3 Li2SO4 Li3PO4
NH4 ∙
NH4I NH4NO3 (NH4)2SO4 (NH4)3PO4
Ba 2∙
BaI2 Ba(NO3)2 BaSO4 Ba3(PO4)2
Cr 3∙
CrI3 Cr(NO3)3 Cr2(SO4)3 CrPO4
5 a) The group number (short version of the Periodic Table in which Al is in Group 3) is equal to the positive
charge on the metal ion.
b) Short version of the Periodic Table: 8 minus the group number of the non-metal equals the charge on its
negative ion.
Long version of the Periodic Table: 18 minus the group number of the non-metal equals the charge on its
negative ion.
c) It requires too much energy for a carbon atom to either remove 4 electrons (to form C4+ ions) or to gain
4 electrons (to form C4− ions).
d) An H atom can gain 1 electron to form an H− ion, gaining the electronic configuration of the noble gas
helium; or it can lose its only electron to form an H+ ion with no electrons.
6 a) − 2+ −
F Mg F
or
2+
Mg
b) + −
Li Br
or
+
Li
c) 2− 3+ 2− 3+ 2−
O Al O Al O
or or
3+ 3+
Al Al
7 a) 8
b) 8
c) CsCl
5 Covalent bonding
1 Sharing; covalent; pair; negatively; positively; four; melting; giant; simple; molecule; between; molecular;
Waals’; London; temporary/instantaneous; polar; Hydrogen; hydrogen; electronegative; nitrogen/fluorine;
fluorine/nitrogen; graphite
2
F F
3 a) Allotropes
b) Any fullerene/graphene
c) Diamond is very hard and does not conduct electricity whereas graphite is soft and conducts electricity.
This is explained by diamond’s giant 3D network of carbon–carbon bonds, with each carbon atom forming
4 covalent bonds to their nearest neighbouring atoms. On the other hand, graphite’s giant structure is
made up of sheets of carbon atoms arranged in hexagons, with each carbon atom forming 3 covalent
bonds to its nearest neighbours. The forces between the layers are weaker than covalent bonds, as each
carbon atom donates its fourth outer shell (2p) electron into bands of delocalised electrons located above
and below the plane of the sheets. The weaker forces between sheets make it relatively easy for layers to
slide over each other, making graphite soft (and slippery). The delocalised electrons can drift along the
layers of carbon atoms and can flow as an electric current when a voltage is applied to graphite. On the
other hand, diamond has no mobile electrons, with all its four outer shell electrons involved in its covalent
bonding, so is an electrical insulator.
4 a) Single atoms
b) van der Waals’ (London) forces
c) Instantaneous imbalances of electrons in atoms/molecules result in temporary dipoles that induce dipoles
on neighbouring atoms/molecules, producing relatively weak forces of attraction between atoms/
molecules.
d) As the atomic number increases (as the group is descended), the boiling point increases. This is because as
the atoms get larger and have more electrons, the opportunities for the number and size of instantaneous
dipole-induced dipole interactions increase so the forces between the atoms of the noble gases get
stronger.
5 a)
H N H
H
b) Dative or coordinate (covalent) bond
c) H+
H N H
d) Tetrahedral
6 a) A small square
b) Trigonal (planar)
c) 2−
O C O
d) Trigonal (planar)
7 a)
H O
H
b) Its relatively low melting/boiling point
c) Graph of melting points (vertical axis) v Mr (horizontal axis, points join with line (or ‘stick bars’ for each
hydride)
d) Water
e) 180–184 °C
f) Although the permanent dipole–dipole attractions decrease from hydrogen sulfide to hydrogen telluride (as
the dipole moment of the molecule decreases), the melting points rise as the molecules get larger and the
greater number of electrons means that the opportunities for the number and size of instantaneous dipole-
induced dipole interactions increase. Therefore the van der Waals’ (London) forces between the molecules
get stronger going from hydrogen sulfide to hydrogen telluride, outweighing the effect of the decreasing
dipole moment.
g) The presence of the relatively strong hydrogen bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in
neighbouring water molecules.
h) When the water molecules are fixed in position in ice crystals each water molecule forms two hydrogen
bonds, in an open structure which occupies a greater volume than the same mass of liquid water.
6 Metals and structures
Questions on metals
1 sea; giant; conduct; electrons; high; giant; density; close-/closely; sodium; body; alloys
2 a) Good conductors of electricity and heat, high melting and boiling points, malleable, ductile, high density
b) E.g. mercury – low melting point – liquid at room temperature – used in thermometers
c) They are good conductors of electricity (and heat).
d)
bulb
sample
being tested
3 a) Fill the bottom of a tray with balls, then add layers to sit in the holes/indentations in successive layers of
balls, leaving no gaps.
b) Make a structure in which the third row of balls are directly above the first row balls or you could make a
structure in which the first and fourth rows line up directly.
c) An ‘aba’ or an ‘abc’-type structure respectively
d) Body-centred cubic structure
e) It is more open/has more space within the structure
4 a) The bonding in a giant metallic structure, in which each metal ion has donated electrons into a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons. These mobile electrons bind the oppositely charge metal ions together.
b) Because they have donated electrons into the ‘sea’ or conduction band of delocalised electrons, becoming
positively charged ions (cations).
c) They are made up of layers of ions of the same size which can slide over each other when subjected
to forces.
d) The differently sized atoms/ions disrupt the regular arrangement of the giant metallic structure, meaning
that layers cannot slide past each other as easily – so the metal can withstand greater forces without
changing shape.
e) Melt the metals and stir them together; allow to cool and set to make the mixture.
f) E.g. test which is harder – an alloy or pure metal – by placing a tube and ball-bearing in the surface of
each; drop the same mass from the same height down the tube onto the ball-bearing; then measure
diameter of indentation made in the surface of each metal.
5 a) Na – 1s22s22p63s1
Mg – 1s22s22p63s2
Al− – 1s22s22p63s23p1
b) Na 1 electron
Mg 2 electrons
Al 3 electrons
c) Because aluminium has more electrons in the conduction band/more delocalised electrons per ion than Na
or Mg in their giant structure.
Questions on structure and bonding
1 covalent; ionic; giant; solid; dissolved; ions; non-metal; giant; high; molecules; low; graphite; inter; bonding;
dipole; Waals’; induced; metallic
2 a) C because it conducts electricity when solid (as it contains mobile, delocalised electrons)
b) B because it conducts no electricity when solid but does when molten (as the ions become mobile)
c) A and D because they have low melting points (because of the weak forces between their individual
molecules)
d) D (as it melts at 114 °C , which is well above room temperature))
e) B as molten ionic compounds are decomposed by electrolysis as they conduct electricity
f) Different intermolecular forces (factors affecting these could be the size of the molecules and any
permanent dipole moments within molecules).
3 Zinc oxide (highest melting point), ammonia, methane

Zinc oxide has ionic bonding so the forces between ions are strong as the electrostatic forces of attraction
operate in all directions within their giant lattices. Then both ammonia and methane have simple molecular
structures but ammonia has hydrogen bonding between its molecules – which is stronger than the van der
Waals’ forces between the non-polar methane molecules.
7 The Periodic Table
1 number; groups; electrons; outer; periods; d-block; f-block; metalloids; heat; hammered; wires; high; cobalt/
nickel; nickel/cobalt; low; heat; electricity; repeating; periodicity; bonding; left; right
2 a) hydrogen
b) magnesium
c) oxygen
d) scandium
e) bromine
f) lithium
g) phosphorus
h) krypton
i) strontium
j) astatine
3 a) 1s22s1
b) 1s22s22p5
c) 1s22s22p63s23p4
d) 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
e) 1s22s22p63s23p63d14s2
f) 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
g) 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2
h) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
i) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
j) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
4 a) Silicon and germanium

b) Carbon
c) Tin and lead
d) The 1st ionisation energy of lead is much smaller than that of carbon because lead’s outer electron is
further from the attractive force of the nucleus and is shielded by more complete inner shells of electrons.
These two factors outweigh the larger nuclear charge on the lead atom, making an electron in its outer
shell easier to remove than one from carbon’s outer shell.
e) Metals form positively charged ions in their reactions, so the lower 1st and 2nd ionisation energies of lead
and tin compared to the rest of the Group 4(14) elements will make it easier for them to form positive
ions in their reactions (and easier as elements to lose two outer electrons into the sea of delocalised
electrons, forming cations in their giant metallic structures).
5 a) Rises to a peak in Group 4(14), then falls away rapidly to the end of the period
b) Increase steadily across a period to Group 7(17)
c) Starts high on the left of the Periodic Table and drops abruptly on the right hand side
d) Decreases steadily across a period
e) General increase across a period (with small decreases at Group 3 and Group 6)
6 a) Giant metallic and giant covalent structures found in elements in Group 1 to 4(14), followed by the simple
molecular structures of the non-metallic elements.
b) The ability to attract the electrons in a covalent bond increases as the nuclear charge increases across a
period and the size of the atoms decreases.
c) The metals with their delocalised electrons are found on the left hand side of the Periodic Table whereas
the non-metals, with their giant covalent or simple molecular structures, have no mobile electrons available
for conduction.
d) The nuclear charge increases across a period, so the electrons that enter the same shell successively are
drawn slightly closer to the nucleus and the size of the atoms decreases.
e) As the nuclear charge increases across the period, the electrons become held more strongly to the nucleus,
making it harder to remove them. (The slight fall at Group 3 is because the p sub-shell has an electron in it
which is slightly further from the nucleus than the s sub-shell. The slight fall at Group 6 is the result of
mutual repulsion between electrons in the spin pair in the outer p sub-shell.)
7 a) Rises to a peak in Group 4(14), then falls away rapidly to Group 5 and to the end of the period
b) The periods start with giant metallic structures and the giant covalent structures of Group 4(14) elements
carbon and silicon which need lots of energy to separate their particles to form a vapour. However, from
Group 5(15) onwards the elements have simple molecular structures typical of many non-metallic elements
in which relatively weak intermolecular forces can be easily overcome.
8 a) It is the 17th element in the Periodic Table – which is the number of protons (its atomic number) and also
its number of electrons.
In the short version of the Periodic Table, it is in Group 7 – which is the number of electrons in its outer
quantum shell.
It is in the 3rd period – which equals the number of quantum shells occupied or partially occupied by its
electrons.
b) They both have outer shell configurations of …s2 ..p5/same number of electrons in their outer quantum
shell (highest energy level).
9 a) Alkali metals, as when the metals react with water they form alkaline solutions of their hydroxides.
b) Lithium, as the smallest atom in the group has its outermost electron nearest to the attractive force of its
nucleus, and this electron is also shielded less from the nuclear charge than the larger atoms, so it takes
more energy to remove the outer electron to form a lithium ion. These two factors outweigh the fact that
lithium, as the smallest atom in the group, has the smallest nuclear charge attracting its outer electron.
c) rubidium + water rubidium hydroxide + hydrogen
2Rb(s) + 2H2O(l) 2RbOH + H2(g)
d) Violent/vigorous/explosive reaction/flames (as the hydrogen released ignites)
e) Low density, soft, low melting points for metals
8 Periodicity and chemical properties
1 Period; ionic; molecular; basic; amphoteric
2 a) sodium oxide – when added to water the oxide dissolves, reacting to form a solution of sodium hydroxide,
NaOH(aq) – the alkaline solution has a pH of 14, so sodium oxide is basic.
Sulfur trioxide gas dissolves when bubbled into water, reacting vigorously to form a solution of the acid,
sulfuric acid (sulfuric(vi) acid), H2SO4(aq) – with a pH of 1, so it is an acidic oxide.
b) E.g. aluminium oxide acting as a base:
Al2O3(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
E.g. aluminium oxide as an acid:
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2NaAl(OH)4(aq)
3 a) E.g.
3rd period Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Formula of oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO3/SO2 Cl2O7/
Cl2O
b) Argon does not form an oxide because it is so unreactive.
c) Formula of oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO3/SO2 Cl2O7/
Cl2O
Moles of oxygen 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3/2 3.5/0.5
per mole of
element
d) Student graph
e) Formula of oxide Li2O BeO B2O3 CO2 NO2 O2 OF2
Moles of oxygen 0.5 1 1.5 2 2 1 0.5
per mole of
element
f) The non-metal oxides of the third period can be oxidised to a greater extent than those in the second
period because of the presence of the 3d sub-shell – which the elements can use to expand their octet,
enabling them to bond to a larger number of oxygen atoms.
4 a) The initial rise peaks at Group 2 then decreases steadily to Group 6(16) and levels off to Group 7(17).
b) The Group 1 and 2 chlorides are both high, followed by a steep fall and a levelling off at relatively low
temperatures across to the rest of period 3.
c) The ionic oxides and chlorides of Groups 1 and 2 have giant ionic structures with strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between their oppositely charged ions, operating in all directions, explaining their high
melting points. The large decrease takes place going from Group 2 to 3 in the chlorides, as aluminium
chloride exists as simple molecules, whereas aluminium oxide has a giant ionic structure and silicon dioxide
has a giant covalent structure, explaining why the steep fall occurs going from Group 4 to 5 in the oxides.
The chlorides and oxides of Group 5(15) to 7(17) are all simple molecular structures so have relatively
weak intermolecular forces, explain their low melting/boiling points.
5 a) Argon – because it has the highest nuclear charge in Period 3 whilst all Period 3 atoms are filling the same
energy level/shell with electrons.
b) The metal atoms lose electrons that can result in the loss of their outer shell so the positive ions are
smaller than the original atoms. The non-metal atoms gain one or more electrons into their outer shell,
increasing the mutual repulsion between electrons in that shell so increase in size.
c) Silicon (because it takes too much energy to either gain 4 electrons or lose 4 electrons) and argon (because
it has a complete outer octet of electrons which is a very stable electronic configuration).
6 a) Sodium and fluorine
b) Beryllium and aluminium
c) Neon and argon
d) Carbon and silicon
e) Lithium and sodium
7 a) The first two chlorides dissolve in water whereas the remaining chlorides react, being hydrolysed by water,
forming white fumes of hydrogen chloride gas and leaving acidic solutions.
b) The chlorides of sodium and magnesium are purely ionic and dissolve in water, resulting in solutions of pH
7 and 6.5 respectively. Then from aluminium chloride, with some covalent character in its bonding and a
simple molecular structure, onwards the chlorides are hydrolysed by water.
c) The high charge density on the Al3+ ion weakens the bonds in the water molecules surrounding the
hydrated ion. When an O H bond breaks in a water molecule it releases an H+(aq) ion into solution,
making the solution acidic.
d) SiCl4 has empty 3d orbital into which water molecules can donate pairs of electrons and initiate attack,
resulting in the hydrolysis of silicon chloride. There is no equivalent 2d orbital in the carbon atom of CCl4
so no attack occurs with water, and two immiscible layers form.
9 Group 2 (s-block elements)
1 s; alkali; earth; more; more; flame; yellow; (brick) red; (crimson) red; barium; basic; alkaline; hydroxide/OH−;
more; (thermally) stable
2 a) Barium, Ba – because the electron removed from its outer shell is furthest away from the nucleus and is
shielded from the attractive force of the nucleus by more inner shells full of electrons, despite it having the
largest positive nuclear charge.
b) Beryllium, Be
c) Beryllium, Be
d) Calcium, Ca
e) Magnesium, Mg, and calcium, Ca
f) Barium, Ba
g) Barium, Ba
h) Calcium, Ca
i) Calcium, Ca
j) Strontium, Sr
k) Calcium, Ca
l) Barium, Ba
3 a) Electrons gain energy from the flame and ‘jump’ into a higher energy level/shell (excited state); when they
fall back to the lower energy level energy is released as light in the visible range of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
b) The energy released on the transition of an electron to a lower energy level does not correspond to any
part of the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
c) CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
d) Calcium hydroxide/carbonate is used to raise the pH of acidic soil
4 a) They lie diagonally next to each other in the Periodic Table.

b) Na and Ca/K and Sr/Rb and Ba
c) 2Mg(NO3)2(s) 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
d) 4LiNO3(s) 2Li2O(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
5 a) Lower
b) 7s
c) 2+
d) i) RaO ii) Ra(OH)2 iii) RaCO3 iv) Ra(NO3)2
e) Violent/vigorous reaction with gas bubbles given off rapidly
f) Ra(s) + 2H2O(l) Ra(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
g) i) Radium nitrate ii) radium carbonate
h) i) Radium hydroxide will be more soluble than barium hydroxide/i.e. greater than
1.5 × 10−2 mol/100 cm3 of water)
ii) Even less soluble than barium sulfate (effectively insoluble)
10 Group 7(17) (p-block elements)
1 7/17; diatomic; Br2; lowest; most; strongest/most powerful; 1–; silver; white; ammonia; phosphoric
2 a) Student table containing data as on page 126

b) Student graph of boiling points (y-axis) v atomic number (x-axis)
c) 325–350 °C/598–623 K
d) Black/dark grey
e) At2
f)
At At
3 a) Sodium bromide
b) Ag+(aq) + Br−(aq) AgBr(s) or Ag+Br−(s)
c) Photographic film, as silver bromide decomposes in light to form grey deposits of silver metal.
4 a) NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)

b)
sodium hydrogen
chloride + chloride
conc. H2SO4 gas
c) Hydrogen chloride gas is too soluble in water.

d) White, smoky fumes
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
e) The hydrogen bromide or hydrogen iodide undergoes further reduction with concentrated sulfuric acid,
forming bromine or iodine.
f) Use concentrated phosphoric(v) acid instead of concentrated sulfuric acid.
5 a) A reaction in which the same species undergoes both reduction and oxidation.
b) 0 –1 +1
Cl2(aq) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
or
0 –1 +1
Cl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O(l)
or
0 –1 +5
3Cl2(aq) + 6NaOH(aq) 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
c) i) 0 ii) –1 iii) +5 iv) +1 v) +7
6 a) A chemical species that accepts/gains electrons from another species in a reaction

b) F2 + 2e− 2F−
c) Because its outer shell, into which an incoming electron is transferred, is nearest to the attractive force of
the nucleus and is shielded least by inner electrons, despite having the lowest positive nuclear charge.
d) A chemical species that donates/gives/transfers electrons to another species in a reaction.
e) Li Li+ + e−
f) A redox reaction
g) F + 2e− 2F−
2
+ 2Li 2Li+ + 2e−
2Li + F2 2Li+F− (or 2LiF)
11 d-block elements
1 Reactive; coloured; oxidation; Complex; ligands; catalysts
2 Any four transition metals and their uses, with relevant properties described.
3 a) i) 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2
ii) 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2
iii) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
b) V and Co form ions with a partially filled d orbital in their electronic configuration whereas Zn does not
(the Zn2+ ion has a complete 3d sub-shell).
c) A d-block element
4 a) 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
b) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
c) The chromium atom has a half-filled 3d sub-shell which minimises the mutual repulsion between electrons
in orbitals compared with a configuration of [Ar]3d44s2. Copper adopts the configuration that completes
its 3d sub-shell.
5 a) Fe2+ – 4 out of the 5 boxes for the 3d orbitals will each be occupied by 1 electron, with the other box
contains 2 electrons.
Fe3+ – The 5 boxes for the 3d orbitals will be occupied by 1 electron.
b) Cu+ – The 5 boxes for the 3d orbitals will each be occupied by 2 electrons.
Cu2+ – 4 out of the 5 boxes for the 3d orbitals will be occupied by 2 electrons, with 1 box containing a
single electron.
c) Mn2+ – The 5 boxes for the 3d orbitals will each be occupied by 1 electron.
Mn4+ – 3 out of the 5 boxes for the 3d orbitals will be occupied by 1 electron.
d) Fe3+ is more stable than Fe2+, as the 3+ ion has the half-filled 3d sub-shell, with less mutual repulsion
between electrons.
Cu+ is more stable than Cu2+, as the 1+ ion has the complete 3d sub-shell, with its symmetrical
distribution of charge around the nucleus, giving it added stability.
6 a) Because chromium has 6 electrons available to get involved in bonding – 1 4s electron and 5 3d electrons.
b) The energy involved in removing 6 electrons would be too high for an energetically stable compound to be
formed containing Cr6+ ions.
c) Chromate(vi) ions, CrO42−, and dichromate(vi) ions, Cr2O72−
7 a) Manganese, +7
b) Zinc
c) Iron
d) Chromium and manganese
e) Copper
f) Copper
g) Vanadium
h) Chromium
i) Cobalt
j) Iron
k) Copper
l) Nickel
8 a) They donate one (or more) lone pair of electrons into empty orbitals on the central metal ion, forming
dative (coordinate) covalent bonds.
b) 4
c) Tetrahedral
d) Because the complex carries a negative charge
e) E.g. 2+
H H
H O H
H O O H
Co2+
H O O H
H O H
H H
pink
This complex is cationic.
f) Linear
g) It helps distinguish between the similarly coloured silver halide precipitates formed in positive tests for
halide ions.
h) The two ligands at the points of the octahedron are further from the central transition metal ion than the
4 ligands in the same plane as the metal ion.
i) i) 3+ ii) 2+ iii) 3+
9 a) It forms only one coordinate (dative) covalent bond (or donates only one lone pair of electrons) to the
central transition metal ion in a complex.
b) E.g. H2 3+
C
H
H2C N H H
H H
N N
H CH2
Cr 3+
H CH2
N N
H
N H H
H2C
C H
H2 H
c) i) 6 ii) hexadentate iii) 2–
10 a) Fe Fe3+ + 3e−
b) Cu + e−
2+
Cu+
c) V 2+
V + e−
3+
d) 2H + VO2+ + e−
+
V3+ + H2O
e) 4H+ + VO2+ + 3e− V2+ + 2H2O
f) 2H2O + Mn 2+
4H + MnO2 + 2e−
+
or
4OH− + Mn2+ 2H2O + MnO2 + 2e−
g) 6H+ + CrO3 + 4e− Cr2+ + 3H2O
h) H2O + MnO3 2H + MnO4− + e−
+
or
2OH− + MnO3 H2O + MnO4− + e−
i) 14H+ + Mn2O7 + 10e− 2Mn2+ + 7H2O
j) Reactions in b), d), e), g) and i) are reduction reactions because the reactant is gaining electrons, and there
is a decrease in their oxidation state.
k) Fe (in a)), V2+ (in c)), Mn2+ (in f)) and MnO3 (in h)) are acting as reducing agents as they all donate
electrons (increase their oxidation state), and become oxidised themselves.
l) V2+ + VO2+ + 2H+ 2V3+ + H2O
m) 2Cu + Mn + 2H2O
2+ 2+
2Cu+ + MnO2 + 4H+
11 a) Homogeneous catalysis – the reactants and the catalyst are in the same phase.
Heterogeneous catalysis – the reactants and the catalyst are in different phases.
b) Homogeneous catalysis: 2+
Fe (aq)
e.g. 2I−(aq) + S2O82−(aq) I2(aq) + 2SO42−(aq)
Heterogeneous catalysis:
MnO2(s)
e.g. 2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
c) It can help form transition intermediates by redox reactions with reactants (see enthalpy level diagram on
page 155 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition)).
d) E.g. Fe in Haber process in manufacture of ammonia, V2O5 in Contact process in manufacture of sulfuric
acid, Ni in hydrogenation of oils in manufacture of margarine, Pt/Rh in manufacture of nitric acid.
12 a) Fe2+ Fe3+ + e−
b) 8H+ + MnO4− + 5e− Mn2+ + 4H2O
c) 5Fe + 8H + MnO4
2+ + −
5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
−
d) MnO4 : Fe is 1 : 5
2+
e) Adding potassium manganate(vii) from a burette to a conical flask containing a 25.0 cm3 portion of the
original iron(ii) sulfate solution until the solution just turned pale pink.
f), g), h) and i) See answers on page 451 of Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
13 a) [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+
b) Tetraamminediaquacopper(ii) ion
c) NH 2+
3
H3N NH3
Cu2+
H3N OH2
H2O
d) E/Z (or cis/trans) isomerism
e) Square planar
f) Z-dichlorodicyanonickelate(ii) ion
g) 2+
Cl− CN−
Ni2+
−NC Cl−
12 Introduction to organic chemistry
1 a) Ketone
b) Carboxylic acid
c) Ester
d) Alcohol
2 a) ethylamine, CH3CH2NH2, and H H

H
H C C N
H
H H
b) ethanenitrile, CH3CN, or propanenitrile, CH3CH2CN, and H H H
H C C N or H C C C N
H H H
c) ethanal, CH3CHO, and H O
H C C
H H
d) chloroethane, CH3CH2Cl, and H H
H C C Cl
H H
e) ethanamide, CH3CONH2, and H O
H C C
H
H N
H
f) ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, and H O
H C C
H O H
3 C3H6
4 a) CnH(2n + 2)
b) C11H24
5 a) H H H
H
H C C C O
H H H
b) H H H O
H C C C C
H H H H
c) H O H H H
H C C C C C H
H H H H
d) H H H H H H
H
H C C C C C C N
H
H H H H H H
e) H Br Br H H H H
H C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H
f) H H H H H H H
H C C C C C C C C N
H H H H H H H
g) H H H O
H C C C C H H
H H H O C C H
H H
h) Cl H Cl H
O C C C C H
H
H H H H
i) H H
H H H N O
H C C C C C
H H H H O H
j) F F
F C C H
H H
6 a) 2-Chloropropane
b) Propanal
c) Methanoic acid
d) 4-Chloro-2,2-difluoropentane
7 a) H H H H H H H
H C C C C C H H C H H C H
H H H H H
H H H H H
H C C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
H C H
H
b) H H H H H Cl H H Cl H Cl H
Cl C C C C H H C C C C H H C H H C C C H
H H
H H H H H H H H H H
H C C C H H C H
H H H H
c) Br H H H H Br H H H H Br H
Br C C C C H Br C C C C H Br C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H Br H H
Br C C C C Br Br C C C H Br C C C H H C H
Br H
H H H H H H H H
H C H H C H Br C C C H
Br H H H H
8 a), b) and d) See answers on page 451 of Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition)
c) H H H H
H
H C C O and H C O C H
H H H H
9 a) i) H H F H
C C C C
F Br H Br
Z-1-bromo-2-fluoroethene E -1-bromo-2-fluoroethene
ii) H3C CH3 H CH3
C C C C
H H H3C H
Z-but-2-ene E -but-2-ene
b) i) CHBrClF because it contains a carbon atom bonded to four different groups/atoms (contains an
asymmetric carbon atom or a chiral centre).
ii) H H
C C
I I
Cl Cl
Br Br
13 The alkanes
1 Saturated; C2H6; hexane; combustion; water; hydrogen; sunlight (U.V. light); incomplete; carbon; monoxide;
sulfur; nitrogen; acid
2 a) CnH(2n + 2)
b) C12H26
c) H H
H C C H
H
C C H
H H
d) No, CnH2n
e) The bond angles between carbon atoms in cyclobutane are about 90° (under strain), as they are much less
than the 109.5° tetrahedral angles between the carbon atoms in butane (which minimise repulsion
between bonding pairs of electrons).
3 a) Fractional distillation
b) Petroleum gases; petrol/gasoline; kerosene; diesel; lubricating oil; fuel oil; bitumen
c) The larger alkanes have stronger intermolecular forces/van de Waals’ forces between their molecules (as
they contain more electrons within each molecule, therefore giving rise to more instantaneous dipoles and
hence more induced dipoles on their neighbouring molecules, producing stronger forces of attraction
between molecules).
4 a) ice/water mixture
(to condense water vapour)
to water pump
(to draw gases
deposits of through the
soot (carbon) apparatus)
hexane
limewater
turns milky
sand tray water droplets collect (showing CO2
(for safety) (tested by checking is produced)
boiling point is 100 ºC)
b) Carbon dioxide – limewater turns cloudy/milky
Water – check boiling point is 100 °C/white anhydrous copper sulfate turns blue/blue cobalt chloride turns
pink
c) CO bonds strongly to molecules of haemoglobin in the blood, taking up the sites that normally carry
oxygen around the bloodstream, effectively starving cells of oxygen – this can result in losing consciousness
and ultimately death.
d) Carbon dioxide; carbon monoxide; carbon/soot particles; unburnt hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide; nitrogen
oxides
e) They remove carbon monoxide (by oxidising it to carbon dioxide) and nitrogen oxides (by reducing them to
nitrogen gas).
f) No, as they can remove carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides from exhaust emissions but the car still
releases carbon dioxide gas.
g) Premature ignition of fuel in an engine’s cylinders.
h) They add more branched alkanes and arenes to the petrol mix.
5 a) (free radical) substitution
b) C2H6 + Br2 C2H5Br + HBr
c) The Br–Br bond is broken (by energy from sunlight)
d) Initiation/homolytic fission of the Br–Br bond)
e) E.g. ·Br + C2H6 ·C2H5 + HBr
or ·C2H5 + Br2 C2H5Br + ·Br
f) Two free radicals react to form a molecule.
g) ·C2H5 + ·Br C2H5Br
·Br + ·Br Br2
·C2H5 + ·C2H5 C4H10
h) C2H4Br2; C2H3Br3; C2H2Br4; C2HBr5; C2Br6
6 a) Any sensible ideas, e.g. landfill; advantages – cheap/fast process; disadvantages – unsightly/foul smelling/
uses up potentially useful land/destroys wildlife habitats (at least for the lifetime of the site until it is
covered with soil)
b) Any sensible ideas, e.g. incineration; advantages – does not use up valuable land as in landfill sites; energy
released from burning can be put to good use, e.g. heating/generating electricity; disadvantages – can
release toxic gases if temperature is not high enough/plant is unsightly/some sorting needed before
incineration
14 The alkenes
1 double; reactive; high; double/pi; electrophiles; electrophilic; Bromine; colourless; addition
2 a) H H H Cl
C C C C
Cl Cl Cl H
b) E/Z (cis–trans/geometric) isomerism
c) There is no free rotation about the double bond in 1,2-dichloroethene.
d) Cl Cl Cl H
C C C C
F H F Cl
3 a) All three could produce carbon dioxide and water as combustion products but heptane would burn with the
cleanest flame.
b) Hept-1-ene and cycloheptene would decolourise the bromine water, but heptane would not react with it.
4 a) C2H4
b) Decane, octane and ethene
c) Cracking
d) It converts larger, less useful alkanes into smaller, more useful alkanes.
5 a) CH3CH2CH3
b) Propene, hydrogen, propane
c) Nickel
d) Finely divided to give a large surface area
e) 140 °C
f) It straightens the hydrocarbon chains in the oil molecules so they can pack together more effectively,
increasing intermolecular (van der Waals’) forces between molecules which increase the melting point of
the product compared with the oil, thus making the margarine a ‘spreadable’ solid.
6 a) An electron-deficient species, capable of accepting a pair of electrons

b) An organic ion containing a carbon atom carrying a positive charge
c) A carbocation in which the carbon carrying the positive charge is bonded to one alkyl group
d) A carbocation in which the carbon carrying the positive charge is bonded to three alkyl groups
e) The ‘uneven’ breaking of a covalent bond, forming a positively charged ion and a negatively charged ion
f) The reaction in which an electrophile bonds across the double bond in an alkene, forming a single product
g) The electron-donating effect of alkyl groups which has the effect of reducing the charge density on the
positively charged carbon atom in a carbocation
7 a) C2H4Br2
b) C2H5Cl
c) CH2FCHFCHFCH2F
d) CH3CHBrCH3
8 a) (CH3)3C+ > CH3C+HCH3 > CH3C+H2

b) The tertiary carbocation has three alkyl groups donating electrons to its positively charged carbon atom,
reducing the charge density and in effect spreading the positive charge around the whole ion, making it
more stable. The secondary carbocation has one fewer alkyl groups and the primary has only one alkyl
group exerting the inductive effect.
15 The halogenoalkanes (haloalkanes)
1 nucleophiles; substitution; lone; electrons; carbon; alcohol, alkene; elimination; amine; nitrile; less; stronger
2 a) H
H C I
H
b) Br Br H H H
H C C C C C H
H H H H H
c) Cl H H
Cl C C C H
Cl H H
d) F Br Br H
F C C C C H
H H H H
3 a) CH3CH2CH2CH2CN + Cl−; 1-chlorobutane, pentanenitrile

b) (CH3)2CHOH + Br−; 2-bromopropane, propan-2-ol
c) C2H4 + H2O + Cl−; chloroethane, ethene
d) CH3CN + I−; iodomethane, ethanenitrile
e) CH3CH2NH2 + HBr; bromoethane, ethylamine
f) (CH3CH2CH2)4N1Br−; 1-bromopropane, tetrapropylammonium bromide
4 Spider diagram illustrating uses such as refrigerants, flame retardants, aerosol propellants, blowing agents for
plastic manufacture; solvents, polymers, anaesthetics, paint strippers, dry cleaning
5 The larger relative formula mass, the stronger the intermolecular forces/van de Waals’ (London) forces
between their molecules (as they contain more electrons within each molecule, therefore giving rise to more
instantaneous dipoles and hence more induced dipoles on their neighbouring molecules, producing stronger
forces of attraction between molecules)
6 a) Heating under reflux

b) To prevent the halogenoalkane reactant and the alcohol product evaporating off.
c) A few anti-bumping granules
d) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br + NaOH CH3CH2CH2CH2OH + NaBr
or C4H9Br + NaOH C4H9OH + NaBr
e) The OH− ion acts as a nucleophile, attacking the partially positively charged carbon atom adjacent the
bromine atom in 1-bromobutane. As the OH− ion donates a pair of electrons to this carbon atom,
forming a new covalent bond, the C Br bond weakens and breaks heterolytically, forming the alcohol as
the Br− ion breaks away from the halogenoalkane molecule.
f) A tertiary halogenoalkane forms a carbocation first of all as its C Br bond breaks heterolytically, which is
then attacked immediately by the OH− ion to produce the tertiary alcohol.
16 The alcohols
1 methanol; higher, hydrogen; hydrogen; sodium; ester; catalyse; aldehyde; carboxylic; ketones; Tertiary;
nucleophilic; catalyst; dehydration/elimination; alkene
2 a) i) H H ii) H iii) H H

H
H C C O H O H O O H
H C C C H H C C C H
H H
H H H H H H
b) Propane-1,2-diol > propan-2-ol > ethanol
Because propane-1,2-diol can form hydrogen bonds from its two hydroxyl ( OH) groups as opposed to
the one hydroxyl group on the other two alcohols so it has the strongest intermolecular bonds.
Propan-2-ol has stronger intermolecular bonds than ethanol because it is a larger molecule than ethanol so
in addition to its hydrogen bonding (present in both molecules), it has the stronger van der Waals’
(London) forces acting between its molecules.
c) Yes, as they will form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, and the non-polar hydrocarbon chains are
still small enough not to dominate the effects of this hydrogen bonding.
3 a) Oxidation
b) First change – Add potassium dichromate solution, acidified with dilute sulfuric acid, dropwise to the
ethanol and heat gently (distilling off the aldehyde as it forms).
Second change – Add excess potassium dichromate solution, acidified with dilute sulfuric acid, and heat
(under reflux).
c) Ethanal, then ethanoic acid
d) Propanone
4 a) CH3CH2CH2O−Na+ + ½ H2
b) CH3Cl + HCl
c) CH3CHClCH3 + H2O
d) 3CH3CH2I
5 a) Propene and water (steam)

b) Dehydration/elimination
c) An ether
6 a) Fermentation
b) C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
c) C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH
Catalyst of conc. phosphoric(v) acid, 350 °C, 60 atm/6000 kPa
d) Hydration of ethene by steam – ethene is made in the cracking of heavy fractions from crude oil, so the
process uses a non-renewable resource as a raw material. Steam is a cheap raw material. The reaction is a
reversible reaction but can be run continuously in industry. However, it needs a high temperature and
pressure, again needing energy resources.
Fermentation of glucose – fermentation occurs at relatively low temperatures and at atmospheric pressure,
so is energy efficient but needs time to take place in a batch process. The glucose is extracted from plant
material, e.g. sugar cane, sugar beet, which is a renewable resource.
17 Aromatic compounds
1 benzene; hexagonal; delocalised/six; plane; pi; electrophilic
2 a) Carbon dioxide and water

b) C6H6 + 7.5O2 6CO2 + 3H2O
or 2C6H6 + 15O2 12CO2 + 6H2O
c) Smoky / dirty
3 a) H C H
C C
or
C C
H C H
H
b) Each of the six carbon atoms in the hexagonal ring forms 3 single/sigma bonds, to two other carbon
atoms and a hydrogen atom. This leaves each carbon atom with 1 electron in a p atomic orbital. The
lobes of these p orbitals overlap above and below the plane of the other atoms, and the 6 electrons
become delocalised around the benzene ring.
c)
C6H6 + 3H2
enthalpy
–208 kJ mol–1
C6H12
d) −360 kJ mol−1
e)
+ 3H2
enthalpy
+ 3H2
–360 kJ mol–1
–208 kJ mol–1
C6H12
f) Higher
g) 152 kJ mol−1
4 a) C6H5NO2 + H2O
b) Nitration
c) Nitronium ion/nitryl cation, NO2+; reflux benzene and the nitrating mixture of concentrated nitric and
concentrated sulfuric acids, not above 50 °C.
d) HNO3 + 2H2SO4 NO2+ + 2HSO4− + H3O+
5 a) C6H5Cl + HCl
b) One of the Cl atoms in the Cl2 molecule donates a pair of electrons into the empty p orbital on the Al
atom in AlCl3. This draws electrons away from the other Cl atom, giving it a partial positive charge.
(Alternatively, the bond between the 2 Cl atoms in Cl2 which breaks heterolytically, forming a Cl+ ion.)
This electron-deficient Cl acts as an electrophile attacking the benzene ring, forming a positively charged
intermediate and leaving an [AlCl4]− ion. The AlCl3 is regenerated when the benzene ring’s delocalised
pi-bonding system is re-established by releasing an H+ ion which accepts a pair of electrons from an
Cl in the [AlCl4]− ion.
6 a) C6H5CH2CH3
b) The HCl reacts with C2H4 in an addition reaction to form C2H5Cl.
Then:
H
+ –
CH3 C Cl AlCl3 CH3CH2 + AlCl4
carbocation
H
+ – CH2CH3
CH2CH3 AlCl4
+ H
CH2CH3 CH2CH3
–
+ H + AlCl4 + HCl + AlCl3

18 Aldehydes and ketones
1 carbonyl; oxidised; Fehling’s; orange; oxidised; tetrahydridoborate(iii); water/acid/alkali; primary; secondary;

nucleophilic; dinitrophenylhydrazine; melting; condensation/addition-elimination
2 a) O
H C
H
b) H H H H H
H C C C C C C H
H O H H H H
c) H H H H O
H C C C C C
H H H H H
3 In order of increasing melting points:

Butane has the lowest melting point as it only has weak van der Waals’ (London) forces between its non-polar
molecules.
Propanone has stronger permanent dipole−dipole interactions between its molecules as well as temporary/
instantaneous dipole-induced dipoles (van der Waals’/ London forces) so has a higher melting point than
butane.
Then propan-1-ol comes next with its hydrogen bonding between molecules which can be thought of as
stronger forms of dipole–dipole intermolecular forces.
The highest melting point is ethanoic acid because its hydrogen bonding results in the formation of dimers
(pairs of molecules) which effectively doubles its relative molecular mass resulting in much stronger van der
Waals’/London forces.
4 a) Warm the ketone and the aldehyde mixed with Tollens’ reagent in separate boiling tubes in a water bath.
The aldehyde will form a silver mirror on the inside of the boiling tube, the ketone will show no change.
b) The aldehyde can be oxidised quite easily to a carboxylic acid by the silver ions present in Tollens’ reagent,
reducing the silver ions to silver atoms – whereas the ketone cannot be readily oxidised.
c) Add a few drops of the aldehyde or ketone to Brady’s reagent. Filter, wash and dry the yellow or orange
precipitate formed and test its melting point. Check this against a table/database of known carbonyl
derivatives of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to identify the specific aldehyde or ketone.
d) NO2
CH3CH2
C O + NH2NH NO2
H
NO2
CH3CH2
C N NH NO2 + H2O
H
5 a) CH3CH2COOH
b) CH3CH(OH)CH3
c) CH3CH2C(CN)(OH)CH2CH3
d) CH3CH2CH2HC NOH
6 a) Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate(iii) in dry ether
sodium tetrahydridoborate(iii) in aqueous solution
b) The secondary alcohol, propan-2-ol
c) CH3COCH3 + 2[H] CH3CH(OH)CH3
d) H− (from LiAlH4 or NaBH4) acts as a nucleophile, attacking the electron-deficient carbonyl carbon atom,
forming a covalent bond by donating its pair of electrons to the carbon atom. Meanwhile, the oxygen
atom in the carbonyl group draws a pair of electrons in the C O bond onto itself, gaining a negative
charge. This negatively charged oxygen atom then forms an O H bond with one of the hydrogen atoms
from a water molecule.
7 a) CH3CH2COCH3 + HCN CH3CH2C(CN)(OH)CH3

b) Nucleophilic attack by the lone pair on the C atom in the CN− ion on the carbonyl carbon attaches a CN
group to it, while the carbonyl oxygen atom attracts a pair of electrons from the C O group onto itself,
gaining a negative charge. Then this oxygen bonds to an H+ ion to form the hydroxyl group and
2-hydroxy-2-methyl-butanenitrile is formed.
c) Butanal, because it only has one alkyl group donating electrons to the partially charged carbon atom of the
carbonyl group, whereas butanone has the inductive effect of two alkyl groups.
19 Carboxylic acids and related compounds
1 weak; large; molecules; hydrogen; dimer; higher; salt; carbonate; alcohol; strong; hydroxide; soap;
anhydrides; water
2 a) Add lithium tetrahydridoaluminate(iii)/LiAlH4 in dry ether, followed by water.

b) Reduction
c) Add methanol to propanoic acid in the presence of sulfuric acid and warm in a water bath/heat
under reflux.
d) Esterification
e) Methanol
3 a) CH3CH2CH2COOH + PCl5 CH3CH2CH2COCl + POCl3 + HCl

or
CH3CH2CH2COOH + SOCl2 CH3CH2CH2COCl + SO2 + HCl
b) i) CH3CH2COCl + H2O CH3CH2COOH + HCl
ii) CH3COCl + CH3OH CH3CH2COOCH3 + HCl
iii) CH3COCl + NH3 CH3CH2CONH2 + HCl
or
CH3COCl + 2NH3 CH3CH2CONH2 + NH4Cl
iv) C6H5COCl + H3CH2NH2 C6H5CONHCH2CH3 + HCl
4 a) CH3COCl + CH3COO−Na+ (CH3CO)2O + NaCl

b) (CH3CO)2O + H2O 2CH3COOH
c) (CH3CO)2O + CH3OH CH3COOCH3 + CH3COOH
d) (CH3CO)2O + NH3 CH3CONH2 + CH3COOH
e) (CH3CO)2O + CH3CH2NH2 CH3CONHCH2CH3 + CH3COOH
5 a) CH3COOCH2CH3 + NaOH CH3COO−Na+ + CH3CH2OH

b)
ethyl ethanoate
+
sodium hydroxide solution
heat
(electric
heating
mantle
could also
be used as
alternative
heat source)
c) RCOOCH2 CH2OH
RCOOCH + 3NaOH 3RCOO− Na+ + CHOH
RCOOCH2 CH2OH
6 a) CH3CH2COOH
b) CH3CH2COOH + H2O ⇋ CH3CH2COO− + H3O+
c) O H O
CH3CH2C CCH2CH3
O H O
d) Propanoic loses an H ion from its COOH group more easily than propan-1-ol loses an H+ ion from its
+
OH group. This is because the presence of the extra O atom pulls electrons away from the O H bond
in the COOH group, weakening it.
Also, of the anions formed when an H+ ion is lost, the propanoate ion is less likely to attract H+ ions
to act as a base and re-form the undissociated molecule, as the delocalisation of electrons around
the COO− group means that its negative charge is spread over all three atoms (and not concentrated on
the end O atom as it is in the propoxide ion, CH3CH2CO−).
20 Organic nitrogen compounds
1 acids; ammonium; hydrogen; ammonia; reduction; reducing; tin; Diazonium; nitrous; 0; 5; amino;
peptide/amide; hydrolysis; nucleotides; nitrogen
2 a) Ethylamine > ammonia > phenylamine

b) The ability of the nitrogen atom to donate its lone pair of electrons and bond to an acidic H+ ion is
enhanced by the inductive effect of the ethyl group in ethylamine, donating electrons to the N atom.
On the other hand, the lone pair of the N atom in phenylamine is pulled towards the benzene ring as
it becomes involved in extending the delocalised pi-bonding system; so the lone pair is less available to
donate to an H+ ion than in ammonia or ethylamine.
3 a) CH3CH2CH2NH2 + HBr
b) A concentrated solution of ammonia in alcohol at 100 °C
c) You do not just get the primary amine as the propylamine itself can react with bromopropane to give a
secondary amine; then other substitution reactions can occur to form further substituted amines.
d) Reduce nitropropane or propanenitrile with lithium hydridoaluminate(iii)/LiAlH4 in dry ether, followed by
water (or reduce with hydrogen gas over a nickel catalyst).
e) Reduce nitrobenzene by refluxing with tin and concentrated hydrochloric acid in a boiling water bath.
f) Step 1: C6H5NH2 + HNO2 + HCl C6H5N2+Cl− + 2H2O
Conditions: HNO2 made with chilled sodium nitrate(iii) solution and concentrated hydrochloric acid, add
slowly to chilled phenylamine − the temperature must not rise above 5 °C
Step 2: C6H5N2+Cl− + C6H5O− C6H5N2C6H4OH + Cl−
Conditions: Alkaline conditions/sodium hydroxide solution with phenol (to make phenoxide ion) added
to the diazonium salt made in step 1
4 a) Add potassium cyanide/KCN and ethanol, then heat under reflux

b) i) Propanoic acid
ii) Propylamine
c) i) Boil with dilute hydrochloric acid
ii) Lithium hydridoaluminate(iii)/LiAlH4 in dry ether, followed by water
5 a) chiral
H
centre
*C
COOH
H2N
CH3
b) See label on 3D formula in part a)
c) A racemic mixture/racemate
21 Polymers
1 polymers; monomers; poly(ethene); addition; condensation; any addition polymer, e.g. poly(ethene)/
poly(propene)/polystyrene/poly(phenylethene)/poly(chloroethene)/poly(tetrafluoroethene); any condensation
polymer, e.g. nylon, polyester, polyamide, Kevlar, poly(lactic acid), DNA; Thermoplastics/Thermosoftening
plastics; thermosets/thermosetting plastics; degradable; recycled
2 a) In a blocked cylinder of ethene

b) Its polymer chains were highly branched and could not pack closely together.
c) HDPE is made of straighter chain polymers than LDPE so its molecules can pack together more closely,
resulting in stronger van der Waals’ forces.
d) It is more rigid and has a higher softening temperature (so can be sterilised with boiling water).
e) An impurity in a reaction vessel proved to be an essential component of the catalyst used.
f) LDPE – e.g. plastic bags, toys
HDPE – e.g. baby’s bottles, water pipes
3 a) temporary/instantaneous dipole-induced dipole interactions, resulting in van der Waals’/London forces

b) hydrogen bonds (and van der Waals’/London forces)
c) H H H O H H H
C N C C N C C N C C
H O H H H O H
H H H O H H H
C C N C C N C C N C
H O H H H O H
d) Cross-links
e) C
f) C will be hard and rigid. B will have a greater tensile strength than A.
4 a) (C2H4)n
b) Addition polymerisation
c) H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H H H H H H
d) Poly(propene)
Isotactic – because all the methyl groups are on the same side of the chain
e) H2C CHCH3
f) E.g. carpets, trawler nets, milk bottle crates
5 a) The reaction is started by a peroxide free radical initiator which reacts with ethene, breaking the double
bond homolytically. A chain reaction follows as the alkyl free radicals bond with ethene molecules
increasing the length of the free radical until a termination step occurs when two free radicals react
together to complete a polymer chain.
b) M CH2 CH3 M CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 M CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
Ziegler catalyst
linear chain is produced with a Ziegler catalyst
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
6 a) O H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C N C C C C C C N
H H H H O H H H H H H H
b) HOOCCH2CH2CH2CH2COOH or ClOCCH2CH2CH2CH2COCl and H2NCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2
c) Water with the di-carboxylic acid or hydrogen chloride with the di-acyl chloride
d Condensation (or addition-elimination)
e) Amide link
f) Proteins
7 a) H2NCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2 and HOOCCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH or

ClOCCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COCl
b) O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C N C C C C C C N
H H H H H H H H O H H H H H H H
8 a) HOCH2CH2OH and HOOCC6H4COOH (or benzene ring drawn for C6H4)

b) Water
c) O
O CH2 CH2 O C C
n
O
d) Permanent dipole–dipole forces (and temporary/instantaneous dipole-induced dipole van der Waals’/
London forces)
e) Drawing out the polymer from a narrow jet to strengthen the intermolecular forces as the chains align
f) A thermosetting plastic (as a cross-link could form when two central OH groups from propane-
1,2,3-triol in repeating units of the adjacent polyester chains can react with a dicarboxylic acid monomer,
joining the two chains together – this could happen at any points along the chains, forming a network of
cross-links).
g) It would be more rigid and heat resistant than Terylene.
9 a)
H
C C
H H
b) Poly(phenylethene) (or polystyrene)
c) Addition
d) If the bulky benzene rings are all aligned on the same side or arranged randomly, the polymer chains could
be bent/curved compared with the straight chain with the benzene rings alternating regularly on one side
then the other. The straighter chains could pack together more tightly, giving this plastic a higher density
and a higher softening temperature.
10 a) E.g. any nylon
b) Its linear polymer chains align next to each other with extensive hydrogen bonding holding them in
position.
c) E.g. bullet-proof vests, tennis rackets; fuel tanks; fire-proof protective clothing, racing ‘leathers’
d) The synthetic polymers have fewer types of monomer (usually two) giving very regular chains with
a repeating unit compared with the different amino acids in a protein which can have very intricate
shapes and join the numerous combinations (the primary structure of proteins show the sequence
of amino acids so there is no repeating unit).
e) They both polymerise via amide (peptide)/ CONH links and can from hydrogen bonds between
amide links.
11 Discussion to include how chemists have made plastics that are biodegradable, photodegradable,
soluble in water, recyclable/reusable, incineration using scrubbers to remove acidic gases and efficient,
effective burners to ensure complete breakdown of plastics.
22 Organic synthesis
1 a) E.g. add concentrated hydrogen bromide to the ethene to form bromoethane.

b) E.g. add concentrated hydrochloric acid to the ethene to form chloroethane. Then add excess ammonia
solution to the chloroethane to form ethylamine.
c) E.g. add steam in presence of conc. phosphoric acid catalyst to make ethanol. Then oxidise the ethanol
with acidified (dil. sulfuric acid +) potassium dichromate solution dropwise, warm and distil off the ethanal
formed.
d) E.g. add steam in presence of conc. phosphoric acid catalyst to make ethanol. Then completely oxidise
the ethanol by refluxing with excess acidified (dil. sulfuric acid +) potassium dichromate solution to make
ethanoic acid. Add phosphorus(v) chloride to convert to ethanoyl chloride.
e) E.g. add steam in presence of conc. phosphoric acid catalyst to make ethanol. Then completely oxidise
ethanoic acid. Add phosphorus(v) chloride to convert to ethanoyl chloride, followed by addition of
ammonia solution to make ethanamide.
f) E.g. add concentrated hydrogen bromide to the ethene to form bromoethane. Then boil bromoethane
under reflux with potassium cyanide dissolved in ethanol to form propanenitrile. Then hydrolyse the
propanenitrile by boiling/heating under reflux with hydrochloric acid, to form ethanoic acid. This can then
be reduced by lithium hydridoaluminate(iii)/LiAlH4 in dry ether, followed by water to form ethanol in order
to make propan-1-ol.
g) E.g. add steam in presence of conc. phosphoric acid catalyst to make ethanol. Then completely oxidise
ethanoic acid. Add phosphorus(v) chloride to convert to ethanoyl chloride, followed by addition of conc.
ammonia solution to make ethanamide. Finally, add bromine and concentrated sodium hydroxide solution
to remove a carbon atom and obtain methylamine.
2 a) A = sodium ethanoate, CH3COO−Na+

B = ethanoyl chloride, CH3COCl
C = ethanamide, CH3CONH2
D = ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
E = ethanol, CH3CH2OH
F = ethyl ethanoate, CH3COOCH2CH3
b) Ethyl ethanoate
c) Hydrolysis
d) i) Dehydration / elimination
ii) Reduction / redox
3 1 = Reflux with red phosphorus and iodine/phosphorus(iii) iodide

2 = boil/reflux with hydrochloric acid
3 = sodium hydroxide solution
4 See answer on page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
23 Organic analysis
1 empirical; mass; relative; molecular; molecular; mass; radiation/waves; visible; compared; database;
finger-printing
For answers to Q2 and 3 see page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
4 a) CH3COCH2CH3
b) [CH3COCH2CH3]∙
c) It enables us to work out the molecular formula.
d) The masses measured to a greater degree of accuracy for each atom mean that there are small, but
detectable, differences in the relative molecular masses of different compounds that are unique to that
compound (and any isomers of the compound).
e) i) [CH3CO]+ ii) [CH3COCH2]+ iii) [CH3CH2]+
f) Peaks at m/z values of 72 and e.g. 14, 17, 27, 45, 55, 58
5 a) CnH(2n + 2)
b) 114
c) C8H18, with regularly-spaced peaks as the hydrocarbon chain fragments producing ions with different
numbers of CH2 units
6 a) Violet/indigo as the low end of the visible spectrum (red, orange, yellow and blue) is all absorbed by
the compound
b) The absorption bands are too broad for accurate ‘finger-printing’/not all organic compounds absorb
energy in this range of the electromagnetic spectrum
7 a) Each organic compound has many characteristic peaks that can be used to finger-print compounds/each
compound has a unique IR spectrum.
b) They absorb energy/radiation that corresponds to the resonance frequency of their bonds − which causes
the bonds to vibrate at their characteristic frequencies
c) X = O H
Y = C H
d) IR spectra are most useful for determining the bonds/functional groups present so you need a combination
of analytical techniques to be sure of the actual structure of a new compound.
8 a) A = CH3OCH3
B = CH3CH2OH
b) In A we have peaks caused by [CH3]+ at 15, [CH3O]+ at 31, and [CH3OCH2]+ at 45, as well as the
molecular ion at 46.
In B we have peaks caused by [CH3]+ at 15, [CH3CH2]+ at 29, and [CH3CH2O]+ at 45, as well as the
molecular ion at 46.
c) In A all the H atoms/protons are equivalent so there is only one peak whereas in B there is a peak for
the CH3, the CH2 and the OH H atoms/protons.
d) The relative numbers of the H atoms/protons in different molecular/chemical environments.
e) The first ( OH) peak at chemical shift 5p.p.m. would be a singlet, the next ( CH2) peak a quartet,
and the largest peak ( CH3) would be a triplet.
24 Enthalpy changes
1 exothermic; rises/increases; less; endothermic; fall/decrease; positive; 298; 100/101; combustion; change;
oxygen; standard
2 a) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

For answers to Q2 b), c) and d) see page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
e)
data
logger
temperature temp
/˚C thermometer
probe
lid lid
time /s
polystyrene beaker polystyrene beaker

50.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 NaOH 50.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 NaOH
(sodium hydroxide) (sodium hydroxide)
+ +
50.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 HNO3 50.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 HNO3
(nitric acid) (nitric acid)
f) Measurement uncertainty associated with volume of solutions (if volumes are measured out are actually
lower than 100 cm3, the value calculated for enthalpy change will be too low and vice versa) and
temperature change (if temperature change measurement is too high the value calculated for enthalpy
change will be too high and vice versa). There is also the error in the temperature readings due to energy
losses to the surroundings (this will produce a value that is too low; although the temperature change error
can be adjusted using a graph as shown on page 317).
3 a) to water thermometer
pump
thermometer stirrer copper
water calorimeter
water
alcohol
block of
wood
fuel
For answers to Q3 b), c) and d) see page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
e) Energy losses to the surroundings, as not all the energy from the burning fuel will be transferred to the
water in the calorimeter (plus some incomplete combustion).
4 a) Enthalpy of atomisation of nitrogen

b) Enthalpy of combustion of propane
c) Enthalpy of formation of propane
5 a) See page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
b)
3C + 4H2 (+5O2)
0
C3H8 (+5O2)
enthalpy
3CO2 + 4H2O
reaction pathway

b)
C(diamond) + O2
C(graphite) + O2
–395.4 kJ mol–1
enthalpy
–393.5 kJ mol–1
CO2
reaction pathway
c) As graphite has the lower enthalpy value of the two allotropes, it is chosen as the standard form of the
element carbon and given an enthalpy value of zero.
For Q7 and Q8 see page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).

b) The bond enthalpy values are average values from a range of molecular environments so calculating an
enthalpy change for a specific reaction will only provide an approximate answer (and calculation is only
valid if all substances are in their gaseous state).
25 Lattice enthalpy
1 change; one; gaseous; ionic; negative; Haber; standard; Cl−(g); NaCl(s)/Na+Cl−(s); Na(s); ½ Cl2(g); ∆H3; ∆H2,
formation; atomisation; ionisation; atomisation; affinity
2 a) Li+(g) + F−(g) LiF(s)/Li+F−(s)

b) Θ
Δ Hlattice
Li + (g) + F −(g) K + Br −(s)
Δ H2 Δ H3
Li(s) + ½F2(g)
c) Enthalpy of formation of lithium fluoride = −616 kJ mol−1
Enthalpy of atomisation of lithium = 159.4 kJ mol−1
Enthalpy of atomisation of fluorine = 79.0 kJ mol−1
1st I.E. of Li = 520 kJ mol−1
1st electron affinity of F(g) = −328 kJ mol−1
d) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).

b) i) The greater magnitude in the Born–Haber cycle values (more exothermic) than the theoretical values
arise because of the polarisation of the iodide ion by the cations, giving rise to a degree of covalency in
the bonding between the oppositely charged ions.
ii) The Be2+ ion is much smaller than the Sr2+ ion so it has a greater charge density, which results in
greater polarisation of the iodide ion in beryllium iodide compared with strontium iodide and so the
greater the discrepancy between the actual and theoretical values for the lattice enthalpies.

b) There is some/a small degree of covalent character in the ionic bonding in sodium oxide.
26 Entropy and free energy
1 disorder; system/surroundings; surroundings/system; positive; increase; Gibbs; T; negative
2 The gases, with their random arrangement and motion, have the most entropy/disorder/ways in which their
energy can be distributed. In liquids, there is less disorder, as shown by the values for steam and water, and
the least disorder is found in the two solids, with their particles fixed in position, arranged in giant lattices with
much more limited movement possible.

b) The entropy change of the system has a negative value because there are 3 moles of reactants in the
gaseous state converted into only 2 moles of gaseous products so the disorder in the system decreases.
c) and d) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
e) No, because the total entropy change for the reaction is negative.
f) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
27 Kinetics – rates of reaction
1 temperature; concentration; pressure; surface area; light; collision; concentration; volume; more; increases;
large/great/double; collisions; reaction; effective/successful; Biological; protein; active; denatured; pH
2 a) Collect the gas in a gas syringe and measure the volume of carbon dioxide given off over time.
b) Colorimeter, as the iodine formed causes the solution to become brown/coloured or measure change in
conductivity over time as the number of ions in solution decreases as the reaction proceeds
3 a) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

b) No
c) Student graph, filling more than half the area of the graph paper, axes fully labelled, sensible scale chosen,
points plotted accurately, smooth curves through points.
d) Calcium carbonate was in excess, because the volume of CO2 given off was halved when the concentration
of the hydrochloric acid was halved./If the calcium hydrochloric acid had been in excess, the volume of
gas given off in each experiment would have been the same (assuming the mass of CaCO3 was kept
constant in both experiments).
e) Steeper line, levelling off at 0.80 g of CO2 gas
4 a)
number
of particles T ˚C
(T + 10) ˚C
the number of particles
activation with energy greater than Ea
energy has roughly doubled for a
10 ˚C rise in temperature
Ea energy
At the higher temperature the reacting particles have more energy and will move around faster, resulting
in more frequent collisions but, more importantly, there will also be a much higher proportion of those
collisions with energy greater than the activation energy, i.e. a much higher rate of successful/effective
collisions (as shown by the area under the curve increasing at the higher temperature on the
Maxwell−Boltzmann distribution).
b)
number all these extra particles in the area marked
of particles now have sufficient energy to
react once the catalyst is present
energy
new Ea Ea
with catalyst
Using a catalyst lowers the activation energy, meaning that more of the collisions in any given time
between reacting particles result in a reaction/are successful/effective (as shown by the area under
the curve increasing when the value of Ea is decreased on the Maxwell−Boltzmann distribution).
Hence the rate of reaction increases with a catalyst.
c) Homogeneous catalysis occurs in a reaction in which the reactants and the catalyst are in the same state
or phase.
Fe2+(aq)
e.g. 2I (aq) + S2O8 (aq)
− 2−
I2(aq) + 2SO42−(aq)
Heterogeneous catalysis occurs in a reaction in which the reactants and the catalyst are in different states
or phases.
MnO2(s)
e.g. 2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
5 a) E.g. iron/iron(iii) oxide to make ammonia; vanadium(v) oxide to make sulfuric acid/sulfur trioxide/sulfur(vi)
oxide; Pt/Rh to make nitric acid
b) The hydrogenation straightens the hydrocarbon chains in the oils, enabling them to pack together more
closely with stronger van der Waals’ (London) forces, increasing the melting point of the oil and turning it
into a ‘spreadable’ solid.
c) They enable carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides to react together on their honeycomb structure in the
exhaust system of a vehicle, the carbon monoxide being oxidised to carbon dioxide and the nitrogen
oxides being reduced to nitrogen.
d) They convert carbon monoxide to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide/do not remove carbon dioxide from
exhaust gases.
6 a) Proteins that act as biological catalysts.

b) E.g. catalase breaking down toxic hydrogen peroxide in the liver
c) The shape of their active site changes so substrate molecules can no longer bind to it and react.
d) Fermentation
e) C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
7 a) Diagram of magnesium and sulfuric acid in a conical flask attached to a gas syringe/inverted measuring
cylinder with gas collecting over water
b) Hydrogen; a lighted splint will produce a squeaky ‘pop’
c) Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
d) Student graph, filling more than half the area of the graph paper, axes fully labelled, sensible scale chosen,
points plotted accurately, smooth curve through points.
e) Steeper curve, levelling off at 80 cm3
f) The smaller pieces have the larger surface area, so more magnesium atoms are exposed to attack by the
H+(aq) ions, resulting in more frequent collisions between them and a faster rate of reaction.
g) Lower the temperature; use less concentrated acid; use a lump of magnesium with less surface area than
the ribbon
h) About 1.0 cm3 s−1 (+ or −0.1 cm3 s−1)
28 Rate equations
1 concentration; experiments; rate; k; varies; higher; increase; powers; 3; first/1st; second/2nd; zero;
mechanism; slowest; determining; determining equation
2 a) The rate constant; mol−2 dm−6 s−1

b)−d) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
e) i)
rate
[Y]
ii)
rate
[Z]
3 a) Student graph, filling more than half the area of the graph paper, axes fully labelled (with ‘Initial rate/
mol dm−3 s−1 up the vertical (y) axis and concentration N2O5/mol dm−3 along the horizontal (x) axis),
sensible scale chosen, points plotted accurately, straight line through points.
b) As the concentration of N2O5 doubles, the reaction rate doubles.
c), d) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
e) Substitute the values from one of the experiments to determine the initial rate into the rate equation.
f) and g) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
h)
[N2O5]
/ 10–3 mol dm–3
time
i) The decay curve will have a constant half-life./The time for the [N2O5] to fall to half its value will be
constant.
4 a) The brownish colour of the iodine will fade as the reaction proceeds.
b) i) 1, 2 and 3 ii) 1, 6 and 7 iii) 1, 4 and 5
c), d) (Changing the concentration of iodine has no effect on the rate) and e) – See page 452 in Advanced
Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
f) No, because iodine must only be involved in fast steps in the mechanism of the reaction as it is zero order
with respect to iodine
g) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
5 a) As the volume of the reacting mixture changes, the level of the liquid in the narrow-bore glass tube
changes and can be measured on the scale next to the tube as time passes.
b) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
6 a) and b) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
c) Colorimeter, as the bromine formed causes the solution to become orange/yellow
or measure change in conductivity over time as the number of ions in solution decreases as the reaction
proceeds
or titration, e.g. quenching reaction ,then finding concentration of acid at different times
7 a) The C Br bond in RBr breaks heterolytically, with Br taking both electrons to form a Br− ion, and
leaving a positively charged tertiary carbocation. This carbocation is immediately attacked by an OH− ion
to form the alcohol ROH.
b) The C Br bond in RBr starts breaking as the OH− ion starts forming a bond by donating a pair of
electrons to the partially positively charged C atom in RBr. This forms an intermediate in which the
C Br bond breaks and the C O bond forms to make the alcohol ROH.
c) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
d) The rate equation would be 1st order with respect to 2-methyl-2-bromopropane (a tertiary
halogenoalkane), i.e. as we double its concentration the rate of reaction doubles. The formation of the
carbocation from 2-methyl-2-bromopropane is the rate determining (slowest) step in the reaction
mechanism. However, it would be zero order with respect to the hydroxide ions, as the hydroxide ions
are involved in the fast step, attacking the carbocation rapidly as soon as it is formed.
29 Equilibrium mixtures
1 reversible; products; equilibrium; product; constant; forward/reverse; reverse/forward; dynamic; position;

change; catalyst; established/achieved/reached; position
2 a) Shift to the left/reactants, as this produces fewer moles/molecules of gas and will reduce the pressure
b) Shift to the left/reactants, as this will reduced the concentration of hydrogen
c) Shift to the right/products, as this will lower the temperature as the forward reaction is endothermic
d) No effect on the position of equilibrium
3 a) Solution will turn orange as more dichromate(vi) ions are formed because the position of equilibrium shifts
to the right to remove H+(aq) ions.
b) Solution will turn yellow as more chromate(vi) ions are formed because the position of equilibrium shifts
to the left to replace H+(aq) ions lost when they react with the OH−(aq) ions added, forming water.
4 a) The amount of solid increases as more PCl5 is formed in order to reduce the pressure of the system
b) The enthalpy change of the forward reaction is endothermic as the position of equilibrium has shifted
to the right when the temperature was increased.
5 a) Position of equilibrium shifts to the left

b) Position of equilibrium shifts to the left
c) Position of equilibrium shifts to the right
d) Position of equilibrium shifts to the right
e) No effect on the position of equilibrium
f) Position of equilibrium shifts to the left
6 a) nitrogen + hydrogen ⇋ ammonia

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇋ 2NH3(g)
b) Air for nitrogen and natural gas/methane/steam for hydrogen
c) Iron (and iron(iii) oxide/other metal oxides)
d) 1.5 × 104 − 3.0 × 104 kPa and 400−450 °C
e) A high pressure will favour the production of more ammonia as there are fewer moles/molecules of gas
on the right hand side of the equation. A low temperature will favour a higher yield of ammonia as the
forward reaction exothermic, but quite a high temperature is used to speed up the rate of the reaction.
7 NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3

1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
? ? 2400 tonnes
2 400 000 000
=
(4 × 1.0) + (2 × 14.0) + (3 × 16.0) moles
2 400 000 000
= moles
80
Therefore mass of ammonia needed = (2 400 000 000

80 ) × (14.0 + 3.0) g
= 510 000 000 g = 510 tonnes
and
mass of nitric acid needed =
80
(
2 400 000 000
)
× [(1.0 + 14.0 + (3 × 16.0)] g
= 1 890 000 000 g = 1890 tonnes
30 Equilibrium constants
1 constant; [G]c; [E]a; [F]b; gases; pressures; py(Z); ps(T); products; equilibrium; composition; Kc; position;
Kc; Kp; constant; decreased; catalyst; constant; unchanged/not affected
[Fe(SCN)]2+
2 a) Kc =
[Fe3+] [SCN−]
b) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
c) It lies well over to the right hand side/products.
2(NO)
p
3 a) Kp =
p(N2) × p(O2)
p2(NO2)
b) Kp =
p(N2O4)
p2(HBr)
c) Kp =
p(H2) × p(Br2)
d) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
4 [Ag(NH3)2]+ is more stable compared with [Ag(H2O)2]+.

Because the stability constant is so large that in effect the reaction goes to completion (as the ammonia
complex ion would be on the top line of the expression for the equilibrium constant given).
2(NH3)
p
5 a) Kp =
p(N2) × p3(H2)
b) and c) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
d) It strongly favours the reactants/left hand side/nitrogen + hydrogen.
e) The lower temperature will favour a higher yield of ammonia as the forward reaction is exothermic, but
the rate at which ammonia would be formed at 298 K would be much too slow.
[HI]2
6 a) Kc =
[H2] × [I2]
b) As there are the same number of moles of reactants and products so the units in the equilibrium
expression cancel out completely.
c) and d) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
31 Acid/base equilibria
1 hydrogen/H+; accept; conjugate; conjugate; Cl−; strong; dissociate/ionise; dissociation/equilibrium; weaker;

concentration; −log[H+(aq)]; indicator; titration; buffer; weak; salts; alkali
2 a) Test Result with aqueous ethanoic acid Result with ethanoic acid in methylbenzene
Blue litmus paper Turns red Stays blue
Sodium carbonate Gives off CO2 gas No reaction
Magnesium ribbon Gives off H2 gas No reaction
Electrical conductivity Can conduct electricity Does not conduct
b) Water enables ethanoic acid to display its acidic properties because it acts as a base, accepting an H+ ion
from the carboxylic acid group/ COOH, so a small proportion of ethanoic acid molecules dissociate,
forming ethanoate ions/CH3COO−(aq) and H3O+(aq)/H+(aq) ions.
c) Any test, e.g. add sodium hydrogencarbonate/universal indicator/pH meter/pH sensor (probe)
For questions 3 and 4 see answers on page 463 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
5 a) A small percentage of water molecules dissociate, according to the reaction: H2O(l) ⇋ H+(aq) + OH−(aq)
As Kw of water is 1.0 × 10−14, = [H+(aq)] [OH−(aq)], the concentration of the H+(aq) ions
must be 1.0 × 10−7 mol dm−3.
Therefore the pH of water at 25 °C is −log(1.0 × 10−7) = 7.0
b) In water the concentration of the OH−(aq) is also 1.0 × 10−7 mol dm-3.
The ionic product is the equilibrium constant for water given by the expression:
Kw = [H+(aq)] [OH−(aq)]
= (1.0 × 10−7 mol dm−3) × (1.0 × 10−7 mol dm-3)
= 1.0 × 10−14 mol2 dm−3
c) See answers on page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
6 a) The expression for the equilibrium constant when an acid is added to/dissolves in water. For example:
HCN(aq) ⇋ H+(aq) + CN−(aq)
Giving the acid dissociation constant, Ka:
[H+(aq)] [CN−aq)]
[HCN]
b) Hydrocyanic acid/HCN – because it has the smallest dissociation constant (so has the least proportion of
its molecules dissociated in aqueous solution)
c) See answers on page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
7 a) b)
strong acid / strong base strong acid / weak base
14 14
pH pH
7 7
0 0
volume of base volume of base
added / cm3 added / cm3
c) d)
weak acid / strong base weak acid / weak base
14 14
pH pH
7 7
0 0
volume of base volume of base
added / cm3 added / cm3
e) It is the pH of a solution where there is an equal balance of an indicator’s coloured species in a solution
i.e. the point where it changes colour (although this appears to occur over a range of pH values).
f) pKInd gives us the pH at which an indicator has its equivalence point which should coincide a rapid change
in the pH values in an acid−base pH curve if that indicator is suitable for determining the end point of the
titration. For example, in a titration between a strong acid and a weak base, the rapid change in pH
occurs over the region below pH 7 – so an indicator with a pKInd value above 7, such as phenolphthalein,
pKInd = 9.4, will not be suitable for the titration, whereas methyl red, pKInd = 5.1, will be.
Alternatively, this can be shown diagrammatically on a pH curve.
g) Strong acid with a weak base/b) (as well as a) where any acid–base indicator is suitable)
8 a) In the ammonia/ammonium chloride buffer we have the equilibrium:

NH3(aq) + H+(aq) ⇋ NH4+(aq)
As ammonia is a weak base we have a high proportion of unprotonated ammonia molecules which will
be available to accept H+(aq) ions from the addition of acid to the buffer solution, minimising the lowering
of the pH.
The buffer also contains NH4+(aq), mainly from the ammonium chloride salt, which are ready to replace
any H+(aq) ions removed from the solution by the addition of a base (as the OH−(aq) ions from the base
react with H+ ions in the equilibrium mixture above to form water). The donation of H+(aq) ions from
the ammonium ions minimises the rise in pH on addition of the base.
b) See answers on page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
32 Redox: electrode potentials
1 loss; gain; electrode; hydrogen; electrode; predict; feasible; rate
2 a) Ag(s) Ag+(aq) + e− oxidation

b) Fe (aq) + e−
3+
Fe2+(aq) reduction
c) Br2(aq) + 2e− 2Br− (aq) reduction
d) MnO4 (aq) + 8H (aq) + 5e
− + −
Mn (aq) + 4H2O(l) reduction
2+
e) Because when one species loses electrons another reactant gains electrons or vice versa.
3 a) wire carrying electrons

to or from the half cell
hydrogen gas
(298 K, 101 kPa) glass tube
salt bridge
platinum
electrode
1.0 moldm–3 H+(aq) solution

b) 298 K; 101 kPa; 1 mol dm−3
c) It maximises the surface area of the platinum to speed up the rate of the reaction/catalyse the equilibrium
reaction on the metal’s surface, i.e.
H2(g) ⇋ 2H+(aq) + 2e−
4 a) Zn(s)|Zn2+(aq)
b) Cr(s)|Cr3+(aq)
c) I2(aq), 2I−(aq)|Pt
d) [MnO4−(aq) + 8H+(aq)], [Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)]|Pt
5 See answers on page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
6 a)
0.46 V
Zn Pb
ZnSO4(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq)
b) Salt bridge/filter paper soaked in saturated potassium nitrate solution
c) Zn(s)|Zn2+(aq) Pb2+(aq)|Pb(s)
d) From the zinc to the lead
e) See answer on page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).
f) Zn(s) + Pb2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Pb(s)

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1 Atoms and electrons

1 a) Atomic number = no. of protons in an atom

2 protons neutrons electrons

(29.5 × 203) + (70.5 × 205)

4 a) It is heated and vaporised.

(50.52 × 79) + (49.48 × 81)

17 a)–d) Dependent on student data.

2 tin(ii) bromide; sodium fluoride; iron(ii) oxide; zinc chloride

4 I∙ NO3∙ SO42∙ PO43∙

3 Zinc oxide (highest melting point), ammonia, methane

4 a) Silicon and germanium

1 Period; ionic; molecular; basic; amphoteric

4 a) They lie diagonally next to each other in the Periodic Table.

2 a) Student table containing data as on page 126

4 a) NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)

c) Hydrogen chloride gas is too soluble in water.

6 a) A chemical species that accepts/gains electrons from another species in a reaction

1 Reactive; coloured; oxidation; Complex; ligands; catalysts

2 a) ethylamine, CH3CH2NH2, and H H

d) chloroethane, CH3CH2Cl, and H H

1 double; reactive; high; double/pi; electrophiles; electrophilic; Bromine; colourless; addition

6 a) An electron-deficient species, capable of accepting a pair of electrons

8 a) (CH3)3C+ > CH3C+HCH3 > CH3C+H2

3 a) CH3CH2CH2CH2CN + Cl−; 1-chlorobutane, pentanenitrile

6 a) Heating under reflux

2 a) i) H H ii) H iii) H H

5 a) Propene and water (steam)

1 benzene; hexagonal; delocalised/six; plane; pi; electrophilic

2 a) Carbon dioxide and water

1 carbonyl; oxidised; Fehling’s; orange; oxidised; tetrahydridoborate(iii); water/acid/alkali; primary; secondary;

3 In order of increasing melting points:

7 a) CH3CH2COCH3 + HCN CH3CH2C(CN)(OH)CH3

2 a) Add lithium tetrahydridoaluminate(iii)/LiAlH4 in dry ether, followed by water.

3 a) CH3CH2CH2COOH + PCl5 CH3CH2CH2COCl + POCl3 + HCl

4 a) CH3COCl + CH3COO−Na+ (CH3CO)2O + NaCl

5 a) CH3COOCH2CH3 + NaOH CH3COO−Na+ + CH3CH2OH

RCOOCH + 3NaOH 3RCOO− Na+ + CHOH

2 a) Ethylamine > ammonia > phenylamine

4 a) Add potassium cyanide/KCN and ethanol, then heat under reflux

2 a) In a blocked cylinder of ethene

3 a) temporary/instantaneous dipole-induced dipole interactions, resulting in van der Waals’/London forces

7 a) H2NCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2 and HOOCCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH or

8 a) HOCH2CH2OH and HOOCC6H4COOH (or benzene ring drawn for C6H4)

1 a) E.g. add concentrated hydrogen bromide to the ethene to form bromoethane.

2 a) A = sodium ethanoate, CH3COO−Na+

3 1 = Reflux with red phosphorus and iodine/phosphorus(iii) iodide

2 a) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

polystyrene beaker polystyrene beaker

4 a) Enthalpy of atomisation of nitrogen

6 a) See page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).

9 a) See page 451 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).

2 a) Li+(g) + F−(g) LiF(s)/Li+F−(s)

3 a) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).

4 a) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).

1 disorder; system/surroundings; surroundings/system; positive; increase; Gibbs; T; negative

3 a) See page 452 in Advanced Chemistry for You (2nd edition).

3 a) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

6 a) Proteins that act as biological catalysts.

2 a) The rate constant; mol−2 dm−6 s−1

1 reversible; products; equilibrium; product; constant; forward/reverse; reverse/forward; dynamic; position;

5 a) Position of equilibrium shifts to the left

6 a) nitrogen + hydrogen ⇋ ammonia

7 NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3

7 a) H2NCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2 and HOOCCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH or