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ABSTRACT: Some wind farms are located close to quarries and to open pit mines in Spain. The seismic
Spanish Standard UNE 22-381-93 establishes a range of protection for buildings and structures close
to the locations where blasting takes place. In the Spanish case, the standard is somewhat conservative
and non-selective, and only three groups of structures are defined. This standard classifies wind power
generators as group I. This involves that they are quite resistant against vibration. However, it proposes
very large protection distances. This implies that either a large protection area has been left unmined,
or some of the generators have to be relocated. By means of these blasting tests, the vibration actually
observed in the generator has been measured. We have tested that the material interface between the rock
and the foundation significantly reduces the velocity of particle transmitted to the wind power genera-
tor structure, so the protection distance can be recalculated in a more accurate and profitable way. This
fact deepens in the compatibility of these two profitable businesses, providing higher cash flows for both
companies and tax revenues for the government, and maintaining at the same time high safety standards
and work conditions.
1 INTRODUCTION
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2. To obtain a good number of tests by means Corrected charge (kg ) = FR ⋅FB ⋅QM (kg) (1)
of a seismometer. This enables to estimate the
seismic wave propagation pattern in the dunite As it is indicated in the expression, the value of
rock mass, and, properly speaking, to obtain the maximum charge weight per delay must be cor-
the relationships among the maximum charge rected by two factors: one is the so-called rock fac-
weight per delay, the distance between blasting tor (FR), depending upon rock mass features, and
and wind tower, and the vibration velocity. the other is the building factor (FB), related to the
3. To identify the distance between the blasting and characteristics of the construction to be protected
the wind towers, following the preventive crite- from blast vibration damage. These factors are
rion presently applied, and ensuring not to affect estimated according to Table 1.
generators in terms of generated vibrations. Buildings type I regards industrial or commer-
cial buildings, usually somewhat vibration resist-
ant. Buildings type II refers to residential buildings,
3 ROCK MASS FEATURES typically less resistant to vibration effects than the
previous ones. Type III refers to buildings espe-
The material to be blasted is a peridotitic rock cially sensible to vibration, such as patrimonial
with a specific weight of 27 kN/m3, composed of buildings and old churches.
basic and ultrabasic silicates, mainly olivine and To ensure safety, we have plotted in the graph of
pyroxenes. Figure 2 the results of the corrected charge and the
The rock mass is located in the northern part distance to the building. If the corresponding point
of a basic complex, with a syncline structure. It is located under line A, then no special measure-
is mainly composed of ultrabasic rocks. The frag- ments are needed. This ensures that the blast does
mentation of the rock mass is an average one. not damage the near-by buildings. If the point is
It should also be mentioned that along its geologi- located above line B, then a detailed vibrographic
cal history the structure has passed four folding study is required. Finally, if the resulting point is
phases and three metamorphic stages. found between lines A and B, then the vibration
The covering soil is a fine layer no more than
50 cm deep and quite scattered, so a few rock out- Table 1. Rock and building factor from Spanish Standard
crops can be observed. A layer from 2 to 3 meters UNE-22-381-93.
of weathered rock has been identified, and it is
located over the fresh rock. Some faults have been Seismic velocity Rock factor
identified from aerial photographs and they have Rock type m/s FR
been represented in the geological maps.
Hard > 4000 0.40
Medium 2000–4000 1.00
4 BLAST TEST DESIGN Soft < 2000 2.52
Structure factor
The design of the test to obtain all their relevant
vibration transmission information is presented Structure type Structure resistance FB
under this heading.
I High 0.28
4.1 Calculation of the minimum distances II Normal 1.00
between blast-holes and wind towers III Low 3.57
The recommendations of the Spanish Standard Selction of Vibration Study Type. Standard UNE 22-381-93
UNE 22-381-93 related to “blasting vibration 10000,00
control” are followed in terms of the relationship Previous blasting vibration test
1000,00
between charge and distance, in order to determine
Corrected charge (kg)
100,00
the minimum distance between the holes and the B A
norm, the maximum charge weight per delay, QM. 0,10 Vibration study
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velocity has to be measured, and we have to check The transmissivity pattern of the generated seis-
whether it is below the threshold specified by the mic waves can be represented in logarithmic axes,
norm. This threshold is determined according to representing particle vibration velocity (mm/s)
the type of structure and the principal frequency versus a ratio between distance to the measure-
of the vibration velocity wave. ment spot (D, m) and the square root of Q (kg of
Our study contemplates a rock factor (FR = 1) explosive per delay). This ratio is known as scaled
corresponding to a medium rock mass. The fresh distance (SD = D/Q0,5).
rock is very hard, but the occurrence of joints and For each scaled distance value, a point in the
the level of weathering reduce the rock mass qual- graph is derived, and once all the detonations
ity, so the rock is finally considered as average. are performed and registered, a set of points is
This, if not true, is at least a conservative approach obtained. This set can be adjusted to a line by
in the safe side. It enables to ensure that the explo- means of statistical techniques.
sive charge selected to perform the tests will not In the closer open pit mine, benches are around
damage the closer wind towers. 12–14 meters high and blast-hole diameter ranges
This wind towers are preliminary classified as from 89 to 110 mm, with firing sequentiation
Type II buildings (FB = 1) since, even if they are from one blast hole per delay, up to three blast
robust steel structures designed to withstand high holes per delay. Under these circumstances, the
wind pressures—and from this scope they could be maximum charge weight per delay ranges between
classified as Type I-, they also have mobile pieces 50 to 200 kg. Since the reference preventive dis-
and precision mechanisms, which suggests the tance proposed by the Mining Authority is 200 m,
more conservative option finally decided. this figure is taken in order to estimate the mag-
The obtained corrected charge is used for the nitude of the scaled distance (SD). For standard
case of points located under line A in Figure 1, bench blasting—with maximum charge weights
following the recommendations of the Standard per delay of 150 kg and a distance of 200 m—a SD
UNE 22-381-93. This makes possible to obtain the of 16 m/kg0.5 results. So this is a rough approach of
minimum recommended distance in order to per- the SD to work with. However, tests are designed
form the tests without damaging the wind towers. to sweep the range between 5 and 50 m/kg0.5, trying
Following this procedure, we have obtained— to concentrate results around the previously com-
and presented in Table 2—the minimum distance puted SD = 16 m/kg0.5.
corresponding to the different maximum charge The data universe (number of points) has to be
weights per delay. high enough so as to provide representative results.
In this way, at least three seismographs will be used
4.2 Justification of the charge level to register at least 8 detonations (8 blast-holes).
Every seismograph will register the particle veloc-
The utilized charges must be small, due to the fact ity in three directions, so for each seismograph
that the ultimate goal is not to shatter the rock but and firing, three registers will be measured, and
to generate vibrations, whose magnitude—particle so (8 detonations × 3 seismographs × 3 channels)
velocity and frequency—can be registered by blasting 72 points will be available.
seismographs located at various distances. Although
the generated seismic waves have a low magnitude,
due to the small explosive charge, the digital blast- 4.3 Drill pattern, charges and seismograph
ing seismographs—range of measurement: 0, 24 to location
250 mm/sec peak particle velocity—can be calibrated The drill pattern and locations of the seismographs
to register and measure this level of vibration. are shown in Figure 3. According to this pattern,
we have obtained the planned scaled distances.
Table 2. Minimum distances for every maxi- They have different combinations between charges
mum charge weight per delay, as derived form and distances.
the Standard UNE 22-381-93. According to this plot, 12 blast-holes will
be drilled, even if, initially, only 8 of them will
Maximum charge weights Minimum be loaded and detonated. The four auxiliary
per delay kg distance m holes will be used in case damage or problems
arise in the other 8, so a sufficient number of
0.25 17
measurements can be guaranteed. The substitu-
0.50 24
1.00 34
tion holes are marked with a (’), and will be only
1.25 38
charged and detonated in the case of fault in the
1.50 41 neighbour ones, or if more data are considered to
2.00 47 be necessary. They can also be used to detonate the
unused explosive. The theoretical charges for every
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Table 4. Specific consumption of explosive (kg/m3) to
fragmentate 1 m3 of rock, according to López-Jimeno
et al. (1994).
charge (kg)
Volume (m3 ) =
SC (kg/m3 )
(2)
2 kg
= = 6.66 m3
Figure 3. Drill pattern and seismograph locations. 0.3 kg/m3
Table 3. Blast-hole numbering, according to the
drill pattern; and its corresponding used charge— This volume represents a cube smaller than 2 m
both theoretical and actually detonated. side, so a distance of 5 meters between blast holes
is enough to avoid damage in the nearby holes.
Theoretical Actually detonated The depth of the blast-holes is designed to avoid
Hole charge kg charge kg
any flyrock. Depths of 4, 5 and 6 meters are planned,
1 0.25 1.2 according to the charge. As it has been reviewed, the
2 0.50 2.4 fragmented rock for a charge of 2 kg is small, in
3 1.00 3.6 comparison with the minimum 4 m depth at which
(3’) (1.00) the explosive will be located. Therefore, if a 3 m
4 1.25 4.8 stemming is correctly performed, flyrock is avoided.
(4’) (1.25)
5 1.50 1.2
6 2.00 2.4 5 FIELD WORK
7 1.50 1.2
(7’) (1.50) The testing was performed in October 2008. In what
8 2.00 1.2 follows, it is briefly described. Some pictures illus-
trating this fieldwork are shown in Figure 4.
blast-hole, according to the numbering in Figure 3,
are presented in Table 3.
As it is shown in Table 3, the actual charges 5.1 Explosive
were finally larger. This was due to the fact that it The explosive used in the open pit mine was also
was checked that there were no problems of dam- used in the study. This was gelatine Riogel Troner, in
age or vibration caused when these charges were 1.19 kg cartridges with 50 mm diameter and a length
increased. of 500 mm. The study was designed for 11 kg explo-
sive, but due to safety regulations, the minimum
4.4 Spacing and depth of blast-holes available quantity is a box with 20 cartridges, weigh-
ing 24 kg. It did not cause any trouble, since due
As Figure 3 illustrates, a spacing of 5 meters to the high attenuation it was possible to detonate
between blast-holes was initially selected. To charges over the estimated theoretical ones in a first
estimate this distance, we first considered the approach. This is shown in Table 3.
fragmented rock volume, which was due to the
detonation in each blast-hole (López-Jimeno et al.
5.2 Blast-hole charge and stemming
1994), according to the specific consumption (SC)
of explosive. The SC is the weight of explosive nec- The blast-holes were loaded with the quantities of
essary to fragment 1 m3 of rock. Table 4 indicates explosive indicated in Table 5, resulting the corre-
the estimated SC for different types of rocks. sponding charge lengths and stemming, also pre-
The rock is strong, but since the rock mass is sented in that table. Blast-hole number nine was
somewhat weathered, the rock type is considered used to burn the explosive left.
to be as medium resistance, according to Table 4. This increase in charge was due to the fact that,
In this way, a value of SC = 0.3 is selected. The within the first detonation, it was checked that
volume of fragmented rock is calculated for the the vibrations generated were extremely low; and
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Figure 4. Illustrations of the fieldwork. Figure 5. Firing of a blast hole.
Table 5. Blast-hole charge, charge height and stemming firing of blast-hole 9, keeping the seismographs in
for every hole as finally done. the same position as in the previous stage. This last
stage was performed in order to destroy the explo-
Charge Stemming sive left, and also to improve the number of data.
Depth Charge length length
Blast-hole m kg m m
We started the firing of holes from the furthest
ones, with the control of the vibration level on the
1 6 1.2 0.5 5.5 basis of the wind towers, and continuing closer to
2 6 2.4 1.0 5.0 the wind towers, changing the charges in order to
3 6 3.6 1.5 4.5 apply safety procedures in the wind generators.
4 6 4.8 2.0 4.0 Figure 5 illustrates the firing of a blast hole.
5 5 1.2 0.5 4.5
6 5 2.4 1.0 4.0
7 5 1.2 0.5 4.5 6 MEASUREMENTS
8 4 1.2 0.5 3.5
9 6 6.0 3.0 3.0 6.1 Seismograph attachment
It was planned to set up or place the seismographs
there existed no flyrock risk, so it was decided to
by means of anchorage in quick cement. However,
increase the charge level, since moreover, there was
due to the bad weather conditions, some were
enough explosive.
finally spiked to the ground.
In order to know the vibration level in the wind
5.3 Initiation tower, we have also placed a seismograph by means
The initiation system is conditioned by the loca- of a bolt welded to the nacelle -a strong, hollow
tion of the near-by wind towers, transformers and shell that contains the inner workings of the wind
electric lines linking wind towers and transformers. turbine in the upper part of the tower- of the
The output voltage of windmills is 690 V, increas- wind generator.
ing up to 20,000 V for the case of transformers.
These high voltages make compulsory certain pre- 6.2 Analysis of data—vibration transmissivity
scriptions in the case of the electric firing, accord- across the rock mass
ing to Spanish Mining Safety Standards (ITC
10.3.01). In order to avoid any risk derived from In order to estimate the vibration transmissivity
stray currents, it was decided to use a non-electric law, we only use the seismograph registers, directly
initiation system (NONEL). located on the rock mass (the registers 1, 2 and
3). The reason for that is that the seismographs
anchored in the wind tower foundation and on
5.4 Firing sequencing
the nacelle cannot be correlated with the previous
Starting from the plot shown in Figure 3, we have ones, since they were not in contact with the same
loaded and detonated the blast-holes in three medium across which the waves were transmitted.
stages. The order of firing is indicated in the plot The data corresponding to seismograph number 1
by the number of the hole. The first stage includes were taken by means of the seismograph Vibra-
firing blast-holes 1 to 4, with the seismographs cord, whereas those taken by seismographs 2 and 3
located in positions 2A and 3A in the plot. The were registered with seismographs Vibracord Plus,
second stage includes the firing of holes 4 to 8, capable of registering six channels, because it has
with the seismographs located in positions 2B and two geophones. All these data are presented in
3B in the plot. The third stage corresponds to the Tables 6, 7 and 8.
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6.3 Vibrations recorded in the wind tower Table 8. Measurements taken by seismograph 3.
6.3.1 Vibrations under standard work conditions Velocity (mm/s)
The seismograph welded to the nacelle, or upper Shot Charge Distance
part of the wind tower, registered vibration in # kg m Vert Long Trans
normal conditions of operation of the wind mill,
that is to say, it was only affected by wind -with 1 1.2 23.3 44.90 18.80 27.80
the blades spinning- and not by blasting vibration. 2 2.4 35.2 38.50 25.80 24.40
3 3.6 36.3 46.90 20.30 38.20
These data are presented in Table 9. 4 4.8 31.3 42.90 34.00 23.80
The geophone was oriented in such a way that 5 1.2 34.7 19.50 33.50 23.30
its longitudinal direction coincides roughly with 6 2.4 40.0 54.40 12.70 24.50
the longitudinal axis of the mill and therefore, the 7 1.2 38.6 19.40 17.90 13.00
transversal axis is normal to this one. 8 1.2 24.6 35.90 57.30 48.20
9 6.0 69.3 14.50 15.70 36.40
6.3.2 Vibrations recorded in the shell during
detonations Table 9. Vibrations registered in the windmill under
A geophone was kept welded to the nacelle or upper standard working conditions.
shell of the closest wind tower during the blast fir-
Peak Frequency Frequency
ing. Since there were no previous data, this geophone velocity (half period) (FFT)
was registering the vibration level under standard Component mm/s Hz Hz
working conditions—no blasting and the blades
of turbine spinning. The measurements indicated Vertical 25.89 51 48
vibrations with peak particle velocities higher than Longitudinal 28.44 46 45
25 mm/s, in all the channels. Then, and once stop Traverse 41.41 8 45
the turbine (the blades do not spin), it was decided
to establish a threshold level of 10 mm/s, below the
the vibration in the upper shell of the tower with
standard working conditions of the wind tower.
vibration data on the rock mass. This result indi-
In none of the blasts this threshold (10 mm/s)
cates lower threshold levels in future applications.
was attained, so it was not possible to correlate
In the seismograph anchored in the tower foun-
Table 6. Measurements taken by seismograph 1.
dation, four out of the nine shots performed were
registered. It was then possible to correlate the
Velocity (mm/s) vibration data on the foundation with the vibration
Shot Charge Distance observed on the rock mass. Briefly, the vibration
# kg m Vert Long Trans velocities on the ground located very close to the
foundation achieved maximum values of 25 mm/s,
1 1.2 92.5 6.73 16.96 10.90 whereas the upper values registered on the founda-
2 2.4 106.2 10.10 24.67 9.31 tion decreased to 4 mm/s. With regard to frequen-
3 3.6 106.4 12.43 26.72 22.07
4 4.8 102.2 14.76 35.72 20.48
cies, those originated in the ground were around
5 1.2 75.6 13.46 17.99 5.58 40 Hz, and they increased on the foundation of the
6 2.4 80.4 17.87 44.71 15.69 tower up to 60 Hz and even more.
7 1.2 79.6 12.17 21.33 7.44 All these facts indicate that the interface ground-
8 1.2 65.6 24.60 45.48 12.23 foundation plays an important role. On the one hand,
9 6.0 92.2 9.84 26.47 24.20 the particle velocities are highly attenuated, due to
the reflection occurred on the impedance change
Table 7. Measurements taken by seismograph 2. surface. On the other hand, the interface seems to be
working as a filter of low frequencies, probably due
Velocity (mm/s) to the higher impedance of the foundation.
Shot Charge Distance In a future, we should pay attention to a further
# kg m Vert Long Trans study of this topic by means of wave transmission
1 1.2 32.6 23.20 12.40 11.10
modelling, but so far it is out of the scope of our
2 2.4 45.6 25.50 13.90 12.00 study.
3 3.6 46.3 35.30 28.90 18.80
4 4.8 41.6 39.10 21.10 16.70
5 1.2 55.9 16.00 18.70 7.40
6.4 Data analysis procedure
6 2.4 60.9 19.00 36.90 8.40 First, the scale distance was calculated for every seis-
7 1.2 59.9 15.00 13.40 11.10 mograph and it is shown in Tables 10, 11 and 12.
8 1.2 45.9 38.40 25.30 9.50
9 6.0 79.4 17.00 18.00 28.60 The complete registers of the seismograph—
including distance, charge, vibration velocity and
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Table 10. Scaled distance for data taken by seismograph 1.
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registered vibration during bench production blast- Table 13. Vibration monitoring data form a previous
ing. The obtained results are presented in Table 13. vibration study in the mine.
From the data in Table 13 we have selected those
related to the exploitation ‘Mina Herbeira’, since Particle velocity
(mm/s)
the rock mass features were more similar to those Mine Q D SD
found in the area where our vibration study was (Date) kg m m/kg0’5 Vert Long Trans
carried out. If we represent these values in a vibra-
tion velocity—scaled distance graph, we will check David 130 80 7.02 5.72 3.94 6.54
how all this data would be placed under the regres- (04/07/2007) 60 100 12.91 3.87 1.78 2.35
sion line estimated from our vibration study data. Herbeira 90 140 14.76 25.4 8.13 18.00
(14/12/2007)
6.6 Charge—distance suggested relationship
Table 14. Minimum distance D (m) recommended
Starting from the attenuation law obtained, we are between wind farm, according to maximum charge
able to propose guidelines relating the minimum weight per and mine delay Q (kg).
distance suggested between the mine and the wind
farm, according to the maximum charge weight Q 54 78 106 138 175 216 312 424 554 701 866
per delay. These guidelines are presented in the D 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200
form of Table 14.
If these distances are kept, the level of vibration
in the ground where the wind towers are installed per delay used—168 kg of explosive—has been
will not overpass the maximum level of 53 mm/s conservatively determined in 90 m. This distance
as suggested by the Spanish Standard UNE could be even more reduced by diminishing the
22-381-93. maximum charge weight per delay, or by changing
the firing sequentiation.
For a maximum charge weight per delay of 168 kg,
7 CONCLUSIONS a hard rock mass (FR = 0.4) and a strong building
frame (FB = 0.28), the resulting safety distance would
The following conclusions have been derived from be 140 m—according to the Spanish Standard UNE
the present case study of vibration monitoring. 22-381-93, well over the 90 m estimated in this study.
The wind towers are structures capable of with- For closer distances, a vibration monitoring study,
standing high vibrations produced by their own as the one presented here, is in order.
work, as it has been observed from the vibration According to all this research, the performance
monitoring performed in the nacelle or upper part of these monitoring studies seems to be highly con-
of the wind towers. venient to increase the production capacities of the
The safety distance of 200 m—recommended mine as well as of the, and at the same time we can
by the Mining Authority, as a minimum distance make better benefit form natural resources.
between wind farms and mining exploitations to Further work consists in modelling the wave
avoid vibration structural damage, is overestimated behaviour and in studying the elastic response of
in this case. This can be checked accounting for the the wind tower, to better understand the attenu-
attenuation law derived from this study. ation effect produced by the interface between
The minimum distance between the wind tow- the ground and the wind tower foundation. This
ers and the mine for the maximum charge weight would help to foresee the resonance phenomenon
in the tower and its structural response.
REFERENCES
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