ME 239: Rocket Propulsion

Real Nozzles

J. M. Meyers, PhD

1
Most Typical Real Nozzle Effects
1) Divergence of the flow

2) Low nozzle contraction ratios ( / )

3) Boundary Layer Flow

4) Multiphase Flow

5) Unsteady Combustion

6) Chemical Reactions in Nozzle Flow

7) Transient Pressure Operation

8) Erosion of the throat region

9) Non-uniform Gas Composition

10) Real Gas Properties

11) Non-optimum expansion ratio

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 2

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
1) Divergence of the Flow
• Real nozzle flow is not 1-D

• Normally flow is axis-symmetric with a velocity profile being a function of the axial and radial
component ( , constant)

• Even at the throat the flow is not perfectly axial!

• These losses occur due to divergence angle of the wall at nozzle exit

• This loss varies as a function of the cosine of the divergence angle: 1

1 cos
2

• Losses can be reduced with the use of a contoured

nozzle

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 3

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
2) Low Contraction Ratio
• Small nozzle contraction ratios ( / ) cause pressure
losses in the chamber

• This loss in pressure will result in reduced thrust and exit

velocity

• Increasing the chamber to throat area ratio will improve

this loss but at a weight penalty

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 4

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
3) Boundary Layer Flow
• The loss owes to viscous fluid flow

• The no-slip condition at the nozzle wall causes the fluid to decelerate toward stagnation conditions

• The drop in kinetic energy results in an increase in thermal energy owing to the energy balance

ℎ
2
• For large rocket motors the viscous portion of the flow (within the BL or 99% of the free jet
velocity) is quite small when compared to the core flow

• Owing to this, the BL losses are normally between 0.5% and 1.5%

• However for micorpropulsion applications ( scale nozzles) the BL losses are much more significant

• Potential substantial loss for attitude adjustment thrusters as well

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 5

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
3) Boundary Layer Flow

Underexpanded Case

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 6

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
3) Boundary Layer Flow
Low velocity laminar
region and M<1 Peak in local temperature
gradient due to shear in
BL which is high

ℎ
2

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 7

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
4) Multiphase Flow
• For some liquid and solid propulsion systems other phases of propellant or contaminants might be
present

• Small particles (< 0.01 mm or <10 µm in diameter) tend to follow the flow and exchange energy
appropriately (equilibrium).

• Large particles (>15 µm in diameter) do not follow flow path and do not exchange energy resulting in
performance losses.
, -. /0123
! ≡ particle fraction
, 4 -1

! ⇒ 53 & 6

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 8

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
5) Unsteady Combustion
• Transients in the thrust chamber due to intermittent incomplete combustion events can
also cause losses

• This is different than transient start-up and stopping effects

• Could be a result of bad mixing or fuel/oxidizer ratio injection mass flow variations

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 9

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
6) Chemical Reactions in Nozzle
• Chemical reactions in the nozzle will change the gas composition and gas properties

• This will result in varying chamber pressure and temperature

• We will cover this in more detail in Chpt. 5 which deals with chemistry

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Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
7) Transient Operation
• Lower pressure occurs during transients

• These transient processes include motor starting, motor stopping, and motor pulsing.

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 11

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
8) Nozzle Throat Erosion
• The interaction of environmental conditions together with the usual requirement that dimensional
stability in the nozzle throat be maintained makes the selection of suitable rocket nozzle materials
extremely difficult.

• Erosion of the throat (recall throat temperature is generally the highest!)

• Gradual erosion of nozzle throat material changes 8 over time

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 12

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
8) Nozzle Throat Erosion
• Ablative cooling may be applied either to the entire combustion chamber liner or to the throat
section alone
• Typically all solid rocket boosters have ablative cooled nozzles

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 13

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
9) Nonuniform Gas Composition
• Reduces performance due to incomplete mixing, turbulence, or incomplete combustion
• Impingement of oxidizer and fuel species (for liquid motors) is key as it promotes good mixing and
atomization
• Swirl injectors which introduce a tangential velocity component to both propellants are typical for
small thrusters are often some type of coax injector.
• They usually create (due to the numerous small recirculation zones in the vicinity of the face plate) a
very good mixing and combustion performance
• They also allow as well for a simple establishment of a cooling film.

Shear coaxial injector element

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Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
9) Nonuniform Gas Composition
• A major concern of any injector is the injector/wall interaction.
• In the vicinity of the face plate where propellant mixing is poor oxidizer-rich gases mixed with cryogenic
droplets may get in contact with the combustion chamber walls.
• The result of this process, a combined physical and chemical attack, clearly visible on the wall of the
combustion chamber liner of the Vulcain engine
• This process is referred to as “blanching”.

Smooth inner wall

Visible blanching in Vulcain motor

combustion chamber

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Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
9) Nonuniform Gas Composition

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Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
10) Real Gas Properties
• Real gas properties affect the values of 9 and ℳ used in the ideal analysis

• Also depends on if frozen, chemical equilibrium, or chemical non-equilibrium assumptions are being
made as the gases expand and accelerate through the nozzle

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 17

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
11) Nonoptimum Nozzle Expansion
• Operation at nonoptimal expansion ratio reduces thrust and specific impulse

• No loss if motor operates at design point (;2 ;3)

University of Vermont ME 239: Real Nozzles 18

Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.