CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIRCRAFT DESIGN
Aircraft Design Project-II is a continuation of Aircraft Design Project-I. As mentioned in
our earlier project, Business jet is a term describing a jet aircraft, usually of smaller size,
designed for transporting groups of up to 19 business people or wealthy individuals. Business jets
may be adapted for other roles, such as the evacuation of casualties or express parcel deliveries,
and a few may be used by public bodies, governments or the armed forces. The more formal
terms of corporate jet, executive jet, VIP transport or business jet tend to be used by the firms
that build, sell, buy and charter these aircraft. In our Aircraft Design Project-I, we have
performed a rudimentary analysis. We have carried out a preliminary weight estimation, power
plant selection, aerofoil selection, wing selection and aerodynamic parameter selection and
analysis. Apart from the above mentioned, we have also determined performance parameters
such lift, drag, range, endurance, thrust and power requirements.
Aircraft Design Project-II deals with a more in-depth study and analysis of aircraft
performance and structural characteristics. In the following pages we have carried out structural
analysis of fuselage and wings and the appropriate materials have been chosen to give our aircraft
adequate structural integrity. The flight envelope of our aircraft has also been established by
constructing the V-n diagram. We have also determined the landing gear position, retraction and
other accompanying systems and mechanisms. The study of all the above mentioned
characteristics, has given us insight into the complexity of designing a subsonic multi-role 8
seater business jet.
1.2 DESIGN OF AN AIRPLANE
Airplane design is both an art and a science. It’s the intellectual engineering process of
creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying machine to
 meet certain specifications and requirements established by potential users (or as
perceived by the manufacturer) and
 pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology
The design process is indeed an intellectual activity that is rather specified one that is
tempered by good intuition developed via by attention paid to successful airplane designs that
have been used in the past, and by (generally proprietary) design procedure and databases(hand
books etc.) that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

1
1.3 PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN

The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are carried out in
sequence. They are

 Conceptual design
 Preliminary design
 Detailed design
1.4 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
The design process starts with a set of specifications (requirements) for a new airplane or
much less frequently as the response to the desire to implement some pioneering, innovative new
ideas and technology. In either case, there is a rather concrete good towards which the designers
are aiming. The first steps towards achieving that goal constitute the conceptual design phase.
Here, within certain somewhat fuzzy latitude, the overall shape, size, weight and performance of
the new design are determined.
The product of the conceptual design phase is a layout on a paper or on a computer
screen) of the airplane configuration. But one has to visualize this drawing as one with flexible
lines, capable of being slightly changed during the preliminary design phase. However the
conceptual design phase determines such fundamental aspects as the shape of the wings (swept
back, swept forward or straight), the location of the wings related to the fuselage, the shape and
location of the horizontal and vertical tail, the use of an engine size and placement etc , the major
drivers during the conceptual design process are aerodynamics, propulsion and flight
performance.
Structural and context system considerations are not dealt with in any detail. However
they are not totally absent. During the conceptual design phase the designer is influenced by such
qualitative as the increased structural loads imposed by a high horizontal tail location trough the
fuselage and the difficulties associated with cutouts in the wing structure if the landing gear is to
be retracted into the wing rather than the fuselage or engine nacelle. No part of the design is ever
carried out in a total vacuum unrelated to the other parts.
1.5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the configuration layout
(indeed, if major changes were demanded during this phase, the conceptual design process has
been actually flawed to begin with. It is in the preliminary design phase that serious structural
and control system analysis and design take place. During this phase also, substantial wind tunnel
testing will be carried out and major computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations of the
computer flow fluid over the airplane configurations are done.
2
 It’s possible that the wind tunnel tests the CFD calculations will in cover some
undesirable aerodynamic interference or some unexpected stability problems which will promote
change to the configuration layout. At the end of preliminary design phase the airplane
configuration is frozen and preciously defined. The drawing process called lofting is carried out
which mathematically models the precise shape of the outside skin of the airplane making certain
that all sections of the aircraft property fit together
The end of the preliminary design phase brings a major concept to commit the manufacture of the
airplane or not. The importance of this decision point for modern aircraft manufacturers cannot
be understated, considering the tremendous costs involved in the design and manufacture of a
new airplane.
1.6 DETAIL DESIGN
The detail design phase is literally the nuts and bolts phase of airplane design. The
aerodynamic, propulsion, structures performance and flight control analysis have all been
finished with the preliminary design phase. The pressure design of each individual rib, spar and
section of skin now take place. The size of number and location of fastness are determined. At
this stage, flight simulators for the airplane are developed.
1.7 OUTLINE AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT 2
The structural design of the aircraft which is done in aircraft design project 2 involves:
 Determination of loads acting on aircraft
 V-n diagram for the design study
 Gust and maneuverability envelopes
 Schrenk’s Curve
 Bending moment diagram
 Shear force
 Centre of gravity

3
 Table 1.1 Specifications of Business Jet From Design Project-I

S.NO DESIGN PARAMETER MAGNITUDE UNIT

1. Cruising speed 990.29 ft/s

2. Wing span 64.3 ft
3. Aircraft length 68.5 ft
4. Wing area 488.68 ft²
5. Height 20.66 ft
6. Aspect ratio 8.4 (No unit)
7. Wing loading 95.27 lbs/ft²
8. Empty weight 25641.3 lbs
9. Maximum take-off weight 40967.092 lbs
10. Payload 6500 lbs
11. No. of engines 2 (No unit)
12. Take-off Thrust 8729 lbs
13. Range 45 × 106 ft
14. Service ceiling 40000 ft
15. Mach no. 0.85 (No unit)
16. Thrust/weight ratio 5.52 (No unit)
Table1.1 describes the technical specifications of the business jet where the
respected values taken from the Aircraft Design Project-I.

4
 CHAPTER II

V-N DIAGRAM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Flight regime of any aircraft includes all permissible combinations of speeds, altitudes,
weights, centre of gravity, and configurations. This regime is shaped by aerodynamics,
propulsion, structure, and dynamics of aircraft. The borders of this flight regime are called flight
envelope or maneuvering envelope. The safety of human onboard is guaranteed by aircraft
designer and manufacturer. Pilots are always trained and warned through flight instruction
manual not to fly out of flight envelope, since the aircraft is not stable, or not controllable or not
structurally strong enough outside the boundaries of flight envelope. A mishap or crash is
expected, if an aircraft is flown outside flight envelope.
The flight envelope has various types; each of which is usually the allowable variations of
one flight parameter versus another parameter. These envelopes are calculated and plotted by
flight mechanics engineers and employed by pilots and flight crews. For instance, the load
masters of a cargo aircraft must pay extra caution to the centre of gravity location whenever they
distribute various loads on the aircraft. There are several crashes and mishaps that safety board's
report indicated that load master are responsible, since they deployed more loads than allowed, or
misplaced the load before take-off. Nose heavy and tail heavy are two flight concepts that pilots
are familiar and experienced with, and are trained to deal with them safely.
The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increase in weight
requires stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increase in weight & so
on. Excess of structural weight means lesser amounts of payload, affecting the economic viability
of the aircraft.
Therefore there is need to reduce aircraft’s weight to the minimum compatible with safety.
Thus to ensure general minimum standards of strength & safety, airworthiness regulations lay
down several factors which the primary structures of the aircraft must satisfy. These are
Limit Load: the maximum load that the aircraft is expected to
experience in normal operation.
Proof Load: product of the limit load and proof factor
Ultimate Load: product of limit load and ultimate factor
The maneuverability of the aircraft is also dictated by the loads falling on the structures
during the maneuvers. Both the aerodynamic and structural limitations for a given airplane are
illustrated in the V-n diagram, a plot of load factor versus flight velocity. Fig 2.1 shows the
typical maneuverability V-n diagram.

5
 Fig 2.1 Typical maneuverability V-n diagram

2.1.1 Gust V–n Diagram

The atmosphere is a dynamic system that encompasses variety of phenomena. Some of
these phenomena include turbulence, gust, wind shear, jet stream, mountain wave and thermal
flow. In this section, we concentrate on only gust, since it is not predictable, but is happening
during most high altitude flights. When an aircraft experiences a gust, the immediate effect is an
increase or decrease in the angle of attack.
This indicates that gust will change load factor and will generate a load called gust load. The
loads experienced when an aircraft encounters a strong gust may sometimes exceed the maneuver
load. Thus we must pay attention to gust load when plotting V-n diagram. As soon as we know
the gust velocity, we are able to determine gust load. It is very hard to measure gust velocity,
since it happens suddenly. Fig 2.2 shows the typical gust V-n diagram.

Figure 2.2 Typical gust V-n diagram

6
2.1.2 Combined V–n Diagram
This section is about combination technique of basic V-n diagram with gust V-n diagram.
Since the gust in the atmosphere is a true story, aircraft designers must predict the gust load and
add them to the aircraft regular load (maneuver load), to have a safe and strong structure in flight
operations. The maximum combined load factor is usually higher than separate load factor. Fig
2.3 shows the typical combined V-n diagram.

Figure 2.3 Typical combined V-n diagram

The V-n diagram for the aircraft is drawn for the two cases namely,
 Intentional maneuver (pilot induced maneuver)
 Unintentional maneuver (gusts)
2.2 MANEUVERABILITYENVELOPE

For High Maneuvering Aircraft

𝑛𝑝𝑜𝑠 = 3.5

𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 = -1.5

Dive Speed

𝑉𝐷 = 1.4 𝑉𝐶

𝑓𝑡
= 1386.406
𝑠

F& G coordinates in v-n diagram

F(3.5,1386.406) and G(-1.5,1386.406)

7
to find A,B,J,K coordinates in v-n diagram

2.𝑚.𝑔
𝑉𝑆 =√𝜌.𝑆.𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

2×25609.78×32.1768
𝑉𝑆 =√0.07637×488.68×2.522 = 132.325 ft/s

𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑠 = 132.325
𝑠

Top Curve

POSITIVE LOAD FACTOR ,

𝐿 0.5𝜌.𝑉 2 .𝑆.𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
n =𝑊= 𝑊
0.5×1.225×488.68×2.522𝑉 2
= 25609.78×32.1768

n = 5.711×10-5×V2
3.5 = 5.711×10-5×V2
V = 247.558 ft/s
for point B (3.5 , 247.558)
bottom curve

−2.𝑚.𝑔
𝑉𝑆𝑖 =√𝜌.𝑆.(−𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

−1648081.538
=√0.07637×488.68×(−1.5)

= 171.581 ft/s

NEGATIVE LOAD FACTOR ,

−𝐿 0.5𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆(−𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
-n = =
𝑊 𝑊

0.5×0.07637×𝑉 2 ×488.68×(−1.5)
= 25609.78×32.1768

= -0.0094266 V2

-1.5 = -3.3967×10-5 V2

V = 210.14 ft/s

8
FOR POINT J ( -1.5 , 210.14)

COORDINATE POINTS FOR V-n DIAGRAM

O = (0 , 0)

A = (1 , 132.325)

B = (3.5 , 247.558)

F = (3.5 , 1386.406)

G = (-1.5 , 1386.406)

J = (-1.5 , 210.14)

K = (-1 , 171.581)

V-n diagram

2
n- load factor

1 Series1

0
0 500 1000 1500

-1

-2
v-velocity ft/s

Fig 2.4 V-n Diagram

Fig 2.4 represents the basic V-n or maneuverable V-n diagram of the business aircraft
which can be graphed from their respected velocity (V) and load factor (n).

9
 CHAPTER III

GUST ENVELOPE
3.1 GUST ENVELOPE

The movement of air in turbulence is known as gusts. It produces changes in wing

incidence, thereby subjecting the aircraft to sudden or gradual increases or decreases in lift from
which normal accelerations result.
These may be critical for large, high speed aircraft and may possibly cause higher loads
than control initiated maneuvers.
Thus in the gust analysis, the change in load factor due to the gust is calculated. The BCAR
has given standard gust velocities for stall, cruise, dive speeds as 66, 50, 25ft/s respectively. The
small change in load factor ∆n due to the gust is calculated by assuming a sharp gust.
𝜌×𝑈×𝐶
The change in load factor ∆n = [ 2×𝑊⁄ 𝐿]× 𝑉∞
𝑆

Where, 𝜌 → Density at cruising altitude

U → Gust velocity
𝐶𝐿 → Coefficient of lift
𝑉∞ → Velocity of the aircraft
𝑊⁄ → Wing loading
𝑆
In the above formula, gusts are assumed to be sharp but it is usually graded, hence a relief
factor called gust alleviation factor K is introduced in the term.
0.88𝜇𝑔
Where, K =5.3+𝜇𝑔 ,

2 × 𝑊⁄𝑆
𝜇=
𝜌 × 𝑔 × 𝐶 × 𝐶𝐿
Where 𝜌 is the density, g is is the acceleration due to gravity, C is the mean aerodynamic
chord, 𝐶𝐿 is the coefficient of lift
The mean aerodynamic chord C = 7.6 ft
𝐅𝐎𝐑𝐌𝐔𝐋𝐀𝐄 𝐔𝐒𝐄𝐃

𝐾𝑔 𝑉𝐺𝐸 𝑉𝐸 𝑎𝜌𝑆
𝑛 =1+
2𝑊
0.88𝜇𝑔
𝐾𝑔 =
5.3 + 𝜇𝑔

2𝑚
𝜇𝑔 =
𝜌𝐶̅ 𝑎𝑆

10
 2𝜋
𝑎= 2
1+
𝐴𝑅

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,

𝑚 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝑉𝐺𝐸 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑔𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝑉𝐸 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝐶̅ = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑

AIRCRAFT OPERATING AT SEA LEVEL CONDITION

𝑏2
A.R = 𝑆

b = √𝑆 × 𝐴. 𝑅

= √488.68 × 8.4

b = 64.3 ft
𝑆 488.68
𝐶̅ = = = 7.6 ft
𝑏 64.3

2𝜋 2𝜋
a= 2 = 2 =6.1099 ft
1+ 2 1+
𝐴.𝑅 44.9672

2𝑚 2×25609.78
𝜇𝑔 = 𝜌𝐶̅𝑎𝑆 = 0.07637×7.6×6.1099×488.68 = 29.5153

0.88 𝜇𝑔 0.88 ×29.5153

Kg = 0.55+𝜇 = = 0.86405
𝑔 0.55+29.5153

For business jet with cruise altitude of 40,000 ft has gust wind velocity, 𝑉𝑔𝐸 is ± 25 ft/s
𝐾𝑔 𝑉𝑔𝐸 𝑉𝐸 𝑎𝜌𝑆
N = 1+ 2𝑊

0.86405×(±25)×𝑉𝐸 ×6.1099×0.07637×488.68
= 1+ 2×25609.78×32.1768

n = 1±2.9596 ( VE=Vc=990.29 ft)

= 1+2.9596

n+ve = 3.9596

when gust wind velocity 𝑉𝑔𝐸 is ± 12.5 ft/s

𝐾𝑔 𝑉𝑔𝐸 𝑉𝐸 𝑎𝜌𝑆
n = 1+ 2𝑊

11
 0.86405×(±12.5)×𝑉𝐸 ×6.1099×0.07637×488.68
= 1+ 2×25609.78×32.1768

n = 1±2.07177 ( since, VD =1386.406 ft/s)

n+ve = 1+2.0717 = 3.0717

n-ve = 1-2.0717 = -1.0717

AIRCRAFT MAXIMUM SPEED AT 10,000FT,

At 40,000ft altitude, the air density is 0.02581 lb/𝑓𝑡 3

2𝑚
𝜇𝑔 =𝜌𝐶̅𝑎𝑆

2×25609.78
=0.02581×7.6×6.1099×488.68

𝜇𝑔 =87.453
𝑜.88μg
Kg=
5.3+μg

0.88×87.453
= 5.3+87.453

K g =0.87449

The gust velocity is ±25 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 , the load factor will be:
Kg VgE VE a𝜌S
n =1+ 2W

0.87449×(±25)×𝑉×6.1099×0.02581×488.68
=1+ 2×824040.7691

n =1±0.01022V

Since the equivalent speed(VE ) for 0.02581 lb/ft3is 575.698 ft/s

n = 1±0.01022× (575.698)

=1±5.8836

n+ve=6.8836

n-ve=-4.8836

The average gust speed is Vg =±12.5 𝑓𝑡/𝑠

Kg VgE VE a𝜌S
n =1+ 2W

0.87449×(±12.5)×𝑉×6.1099×0.02581×488.68
=1+ 2×824040.7691

n =1±0.01022V

12
 Since the equivalent speed(V𝐸 ) is 805.97 ft/s

n = 1±0.01022 × (805.97) = 1±8.237

n+ve=9.237

n-ve =-7.237

2
Load factor n

0 Series1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

-2

-4

-6

Velocity ft/s

Fig 2.5 Gust Load Diagram

A Fig 2.5 represents a gust load diagram which varies from maneuver V-n Diagram. The
gust load diagram changes based on air turbulence at the certain altitude.

13
 CHAPTER-IV

COMBINED V – N DIAGRAM

The technique to plot the basic V-n diagram is introduced. And, the technique to plot the
gust V-n diagram is presented. This section is about combination technique of basic V-n diagram
with gust V-n diagram. Since the gust in the atmosphere is a true story, aircraft designers must
predict the gust load and add them to the aircraft regular load (maneuver load), to have a safe and
strong structure in flight operations. The maximum combined load factor is usually higher than
separate load factor in each diagram. A typical combined V-n diagram for an aircraft is
illustrated.
The V-n diagram is unique for each aircraft, and pilots and flight crew are required to fly
and operate inside this flight envelope. The following example demonstrates details of the
technique to plot the combined V-n diagram for an business aircraft. And, Fig 4.1 describes the
combined formation of basic V-n diagram and gust V-n diagram. Table 4.1 shows a values to
plot the combined form of basic V-n diagram and gust V-n diagram.

Fig A typical combined V-n diagram for an aircraft

14
Load factor n

Velocity ft/s

Fig 4.1 Combined V-n Diagram

Velocity (V) Load Factor (n)

1386.406 -1.5

1386.406 3.5

132.325 1

247.558 3.5

210.14 -1.5

171.581 -1

1386.406 -1.0717

990.29 -1.9596

0 0

Table 4.1 Combined V-n Diagram values

15
 CHAPTER-V

CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE

5.1 LANDING DISTANCE

Actual landing distance is the distance used in landing and braking to a complete stop (on
a dry runway) after crossing the runway threshold at 50 ft. and required landing distance derived
by applying a factor to the actual landing distance
The analysis of the landing performance of an airplane is somewhat analogous to that for
take-off, only in reverse. Consider an airplane on a landing approach. The landing distance, as
sketched, being when the airplane clears an obstacle, which is taken to be 50ft. in height. At that
instant the airplane is following a straight approach path with angle θa as noted. The velocity of
the airplane at the instant it clears the obstacle, denoted byVa , is required to be equal to 1.3Vstall
for commercial airplanes.
 The angle of approach is defined (θa ) as the angle between the ground and the line
drawn between the front tire (nose landing gear) the lowest – hanging of the vehicle at
the front overhang.
 The flare velocity(Vf )is a velocity in which the aircraft precedes the touchdown and
roll-out in the landing. And, Fig 5.1 describes the process involved in aircraft during
landing.

Fig 5.1 Landing approach of aircraft

16
The flight path radius,

𝑓𝑉 2
R = 0.2𝑔

𝑉𝑓 2 = 1.23× 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙

= 1.23×132.325

𝑉𝑓 2=162.759

(162.759)2
R = 0.2×32.1768

R =4116.434 ft

The flare height is,

ℎ𝑓 = R(1-COS𝜃𝑎 )

= 4116.434(1-0.998)

ℎ𝑓 = 5.64 ft

The approach distance is,

15.24−ℎ𝑓
𝑆𝐴 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑎

= 183.15 ft

The flare distance,

𝑆𝑓 = R× 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎

= 4116.434×sin(3)

= 215.437 ft

The ground roll distance,

𝑊
2𝑊 𝑗 2 ×( )
𝑆
𝑆𝑔 =j× 𝑁 √𝜌∞×𝑠×𝐶 + 𝑔×𝜌∞×𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ×𝜇𝑟

2(25609.78) 12 ×(1686.24)
= 1× 3√0.02581×488.68×2.522 + 32.1768×0.02581×2.522×0.4

𝑆𝑔 = 2133 ft

Total landing distance,

17
 SL= 𝑆𝐴 +𝑆𝑓 +𝑆𝑔

SL= 2531 ft

5.2 TAKE OFF DISTANCE

Take off is a phase of flight in which an Aerospace vehicle goes from the ground to flying
in the air from the runway.

Consider an airplane standing motionless at the end of a runway. This is denoted by

location 0. The pilot releases the brake and pushes the throttle to maximum take-off power, and
the airplane accelerates down the runway. At some distance from its starting point, aircraft lifts
into the air. This is the central question in the analysis of take-off performance. Called the ground
level and denoted by Sg . The total take-off distance also includes the extra distance covered over
the ground after the airplane is clears an obstacle of a specified height. This is denoted bySa . The
height of the obstacle is generally specified to be 35ft. for commercial aircraft. And, Fig 5.2
describes the process involved in aircraft during Take-off.

Fig 5.2 Take-off approach of aircraft

18
The ground roll,

1.21(W/S)
𝑆𝑔 =𝑔×𝜌∞×𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ×(𝑇/𝑊)

1.21(1686.24)
=32.1768×0.07637×2.522×(0.50)

𝑆𝑔 = 4968.24 ft

The flight path radius,

6.96×𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 2
R= 𝑔

6.96×132.3252
= 32.1768

= 3787.47 ft

The flight path angle,

𝜃𝑂𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (1 − ℎ𝑜𝑏 /𝑅)

50
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (1 − 3787.47)

𝜃𝑂𝐵 = 9.32

The airborne distance ,

𝑆𝐴 = R ×sin 𝜃𝑂𝐵

= 3787.47 × sin(9.32)

𝑆𝐴 = 613.374 ft

The total take-off distance:

ST = 𝑆𝑔 + 𝑆𝐴

= 5581.614 ft

Result From Landing and Take-off Calculation:

The Total Landing distance, SL = 5581.614 ft

The Total Take-off distance, STO = 2531 ft

19
 CHAPTER-VI

LOAD ESTIMATION ON WINGS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The solution methods which follow Euler’s beam bending theory (𝜎/y=M/I=E/R) use the
bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular section of the beam
due to combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse direction . Most
engineering solution methods for structural mechanics problem (both exact and approximate
methods) use the shear force and bending moment equation to determine the deflection and slope
at a particular section of the beam . Therefore these equation are to be obtained as analytical
expression in terms of spanwise .The bending moment produced here is about the longitudinal(x)
axis.
6.1.1 Loads Acting On Wing

As both the wings are symmetric ,let us consider the starboard wing at first there are the primary
loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction where it can cause considered shear force
and bending moment on it. They are as follows
 Lift force (given by schrenk curve)
 Self weight of wing
 Weight of power plant
 Weight of fuel in wing

6.2 SCHERNK CURVE CALCUATION

Schrenk curve calculation is given by

𝑌1 +𝑌2
Y= 2

Where,
Y1 is linear variation of Lift along semi span also named as L1
Y2 is Eliptic lift distribution along wing span also named as L2
Wing tip= 0.5𝜌𝑐𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 v2cr
Wing root=0.5𝜌𝑐𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 v2𝑐𝑡
6.2.1 Linear Lift Distribution Curve

The known values of our business aircraft,

Root chord of the wing, Croot = 8 ft
Tip chord of the wing, Ctip = 7.2 ft

20
Area of the wing plan, S = 488.68 𝑓𝑡 2

wing span, b = 64.3 ft

Density, 𝜌 = 0.0702 lb/𝑓𝑡 3

Coefficient of lift, CL = 2.522

Velocity, V∞ = 1.3Vmax

Vmax =1012.71 ft/s

Therefore,

V∞ = 1316.523 ft/s

Substituting the known values in equations,

1 2
Lift at wing root, Lroot =2 × ρ × V∞ × 𝑆 × CL × Croot

Lroot = 0.5ρV∞ ²SCL Croot

= 599,823,742.8 lbs

Ltip = 0.5ρV∞ ²SCL Ctip

= 539,841,368.4 lbs

𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 −𝐿𝑡𝑖𝑝
𝑦1 = 𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 − 𝑏 ×𝑥
2

= 599823742.8 – 1865703.7x

21
Table 6.2.1 Linear Lift Distribution

The Table 6.2 shows the values from the calculation of linear lift.
S.NO WING SEMI SPAN 𝐋𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭 − 𝐋𝐭𝐢𝐩
𝐲𝟏 = 𝐋𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭 − ×𝐱
(ft) 𝐛
𝟐
1 0 599823742.8
2 2.9227 594370850.6
3 5.8454 583465066.2
4 8.7681 567106389.6
5 11.6909 545294634.2
6 14.6136 518029986.6
7 17.5363 485612446.8
8 20.4590 447142014.8
9 23.3818 403518504.0
10 26.3045 354442101.1
11 29.2272 299912805.9
12 32.15 239930431.9

700000000
600000000
Lift Distribution(lb/ft)

500000000
400000000
300000000
200000000
100000000
0
0 10 20 30 40
Wing semi span (ft)

Graph 6.1 Wing semi span Vs Linear Lift Distribution

The Graph 6.1 describes the linear lift distribution of an aircraft for their respected span
length.

22
6.2.2 Elipitical Lift Distribution
Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight ,It is used to find y2 .Table 5.2.2 shows the values to plot elliptical lift graph.
And, Graph 5.2 shows a plot between wing semi-span and elliptical lift distribution.
L 𝜋×a×b1
Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get, =
2 4
2W
Where , b1 =π×a
(2X25609.78)
b1 = = 507.113
(π×32.15)

Equation of elliptic lift distribution,

2𝑏1
𝑌2 =
𝑎
√(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) = 1015.07 √(1033.62 − 𝑥 2 )

Table 6.2.2 Elliptical Lift Distribution

S.No Wing semi span 𝐄𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐢𝐟𝐭 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐛𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
1 0 32634.46
2 2.9227 32499.33
3 5.8454 32090.52
4 8.7681 31397.35
5 11.6909 30400.33
6 14.6136 29068.29
7 17.5363 27352.28
8 20.4590 25173.92
9 23.3818 22398.60
10 26.3045 18763.51
11 29.2272 13595.52
12 32.15 0

35000
Elliptical distribution

30000
25000
(lb/ft)

20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
wing semi span (ft)

Graph 6.2 Elliptical Lift Distriution Vs Wing Semi Span

23
6.2.3 Schrenk’s Curve

Schrenk curve calculation is given by

𝑌1 +𝑌2
Y= 2

Table 6.2.3 Schrenk’s Curve

S.No Wing Semi Span (ft) 𝐍𝐞𝐭 𝐋𝐢𝐟𝐭 (lb/ft)
1 0 299928188.6
2 2.9227 297201675.0
3 5.8454 291748578.4
4 8.7681 283568893.5
5 11.6909 272662517.3
6 14.6136 259029527.4
7 17.5363 242819899.5
8 20.4590 223583594.4
9 23.3818 201770451.3
10 26.3045 177230432.3
11 29.2272 149965784.7
12 32.15 119972013.7

350000000
Schrenk curve
300000000
Net Lift Distribution (lb/ft)

250000000

200000000

150000000
Schrenk curve

100000000

50000000

0
0 10 20 30 40
Wing Semi-span (ft)

Graph 6.3 Net Lift Vs Wing Semi Span

24
 6.3 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
The shear force at a section of a beam is the force that along sum of all force including
the reactions acting normal to the axis of the beam either to left or right of the beam.
Formulas Required :
2𝑦
1. 𝑏

4𝑆 2𝑦 2
2. (𝜋𝑏)(√(1 − ( 𝑏 ) )

4𝑆 2𝑦 2
3. C 𝐶𝐿 = (𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 × (𝜋𝑏)(√(1 − ( 𝑏 ) ) 0.5

4. 𝐶𝐿,𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = C 𝐶𝐿 ÷ 𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑊
5. W = 𝐶𝐿,𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 × 𝑆

Table: 6.3.1 Calculation Of weight of wing

The Table 6.3.1 shows the calculation of weight of wing

S.NO Y 𝟐𝐲 𝟒𝐒 𝟐𝐲 𝟐 𝐂𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠 C 𝐂𝐋 𝐂𝐋,𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 W

( )(√(𝟏 − ( ) )
𝐛 𝛑𝐛 𝐛

1 0 0 9.6766 8.1 8.8883 1.0973 57.505

2 2.9227 0.0909 9.6365 8.0 8.8182 1.1022 57.761

3 5.8454 0.1818 9.5153 7.9 8.7076 1.1022 57.761

4 8.7681 0.2727 9.3098 7.8 8.5549 1.0967 57.473

5 11.6909 0.3636 9.0142 7.7 8.3571 1.0853 56.876

6 14.6136 0.4545 8.6193 7.6 8.1096 1.0670 55.917

7 17.5363 0.5454 8.1106 7.5 7.8053 1.0407 54.538

8 20.4590 0.6363 7.4649 7.4 7.4324 1.0043 52.631

9 23.3818 0.7272 6.6422 7.3 6.9711 0.9549 50.042

10 26.3045 0.8181 5.5647 7.2 6.3823 0.8864 46.452

11 29.2272 0.9090 4.0331 7.1 5.5665 0.7840 41.086

12 32.15 1 0 7.0 3.5 0.5 26.203

25
 Table: 6.3.2 Calculation of Shear Force and Bending moment
The Table 6.3.2 shows the calculations of shear force and bending moment.

S. No Y W ∆𝒚 ∆𝒚((𝐖𝟏 + 𝐖𝟐)/𝟐) ∈ 𝑺𝒇 ((S𝐟𝟏 + 𝐒𝐟𝟐)/𝟐) ∈ 𝑩𝑴

1 0 57.505 2.922 168.44 1278.6 1215.725 11217.435

2 2.9227 57.761 2.922 168.81 1152.85 1412.87 10001.71

3 5.8454 57.761 2.922 168.39 1672.89 1588.695 8588.84

4 8.7681 57.473 2.922 167.10 1504.5 1420.95 7000.145

5 11.690 56.876 2.922 164.83 1337.4 1254.985 5579.195

6 14.613 55.917 2.922 161.41 1172.57 1091.865 4324.21

7 17.536 54.538 2.922 156.61 1011.16 932.855 3232.345

8 20.459 52.631 2.922 150.04 854.55 779.53 2299.49

9 23.381 50.042 2.922 141.01 704.51 634.005 1519.96

10 26.304 46.452 2.922 127.92 563.5 499.54 885.955

11 29.227 41.086 2.922 98.33 435.58 386.415 386.415

12 32.15 26.203 0 0 337.25 0 0

26
Table 6.4 wing semi span and shear force
The Table 6.4 shows the values to plot a shear force graph.

S.NO WING SEMI SPAN SHEAR FORCE(lb/ft)

(ft)
0 1278.6
1
2.9227 1152.85
2
5.8454 1672.89
3
8.7681 1504.5
4
11.6909 1337.4
5
14.6136 1172.57
6
17.5363 1011.16
7
20.4590 854.55
8
23.3818 704.51
9
26.3045 563.5
10
29.2272 435.58
11
32.15 337.25
12

2000
Shear force(lb/ft)

1500

1000

500

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Wing semi span(ft)

Graph 6.4 Wing Semi-span Vs shear force

27
Table 6.5 Wing semi span and Bending Moment

The Table 6.5 shows the values to plot a bending moment graph.

S.No WING SEMI SPAN BENDING MOMENT (lb-ft)

(ft)
0 -11217.435
1
2.9227 -10001.71
2
5.8454 -8588.84
3
8.7681 -7000.145
4
11.6909 -5579.195
5
14.6136 -4324.21
6
17.5363 -3232.345
7
20.4590 -2299.49
8
23.3818 -1519.96
9
26.3045 -885.955
10
29.2272 -386.415
11
32.15 0
12

Graph 6.5 Wing semi span Vs Bending Moment

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Bending moment (Nm)

-2000
-4000
-6000
-8000
-10000
-12000
Wing semi span(m)

The Graph 6.5 shows the plot between wing semi-span and bending moment.
28
 CHAPTER VII

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The weight of an airplane changes in the flight due to consumption of fuel and
dropping off release of armament or supplies. Further, the payload and the amount of fuel
carried by the airplane may vary from flight to flight. These factors lead to change in the
location of the Centre of gravity (c.g) of the airplane.
The shift in the c.g location affects the stability and controllability of the airplane.
Hence, this chapter deals with the methods to obtain the weights of various components of
the airplane and calculation of the c.g location under various operating conditions. The
weight of entire airplane can be sub divided into empty weight and useful load.
The empty weight can be further subdivided into weights of
(i) Structures group
(ii) Propulsion group and
(iii) Equipment group.
The weights in the above three groups can be further subdivided as follows.
1) The structures group consists of the following components.
 wing
 horizontal tail
 vertical tail
 fuselage
 landing gear (main and nose)
 arresting gear and catapult gear for ship based airplanes
 nacelle, engine pod and air intake
2) The propulsion group consists of the following components
 engine as installed; reduction gear for turboprop engine
 propeller for piston and turboprop engines
 exhaust system
 engine controls
 starting system
 fuel system and tanks
3) The equipment group consists of the following items

29
  flight controls
 auxiliary power unit (APU) instruments
 hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, armament, air conditioning, anti-icing
 avionics
 furnishings in passenger airplanes
 photographic equipment in reconnaissance/patrol airplanes; weapon
 deployment equipment and armament loading and handling systems in
military airplanes.
 The sum of the weights of structures, propulsion and equipment groups
constitutes the total empty weight.
4) The useful load consists of
 Crew
 Fuel (usable and trapped)
 Payload ( passengers, cargo and baggage in transport airplane)
Table 7.1 Component weights and c.g values of the aircraft
The Table 7.1 shows the component weights and their respected C.G location of
Business jet.
ITEM WEIGHT C.G LOCATION W.x
(W) (lbs) (x) (ft) (lb.ft)
FUSELAGE
4157.835371 34 141366.4026
GROUP
WING GROUP 3712.871096 2.1743 8072.8956
INSTALLED
954.38113 - 954.38113
ENGINE
HORIZONTAL
419.517639 1.5176 636.6599
TAIL
VERTICAL TAIL 63.074253 0.757352 47.7694
ALL ELSE
1917.97759 36.65 70293.8786
EMPTY
LANDING GEAR 602.00218976 - 602.0021
ARMAMENTS
∑W = 11827.659 ∑x = 75.099252 ∑W.x = 221973.989

 Arm (moment arm) - is the horizontal distance in inches from the reference datum line to the
centre of gravity of an item.
 The algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum, and minus(-) if measured forward
of the datum.

30
 Centre of gravity limits - are the specified forward and aft points within which the CG must
be located during flight. These limit are indicated on pertinent airplane specifications.
 Centre of gravity range – is the distance between forward and aft CG limits indicated on
pertinent airplane specification.
 Datum (refrence datum) – is an imaginary vertical plane or line from which all measurements
of arm are taken. The datum is established by the manufacture. Once the datum has been
selected, all moment arms and the location of CG range are measured from this points.

Σ𝑊𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 . 𝐶𝑂𝐺𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇
𝐶𝑂𝐺 =
Σ𝑊𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇

221973.989
𝐶𝑂𝐺 =
11827.569

𝐶𝑂𝐺 = 33.76 𝑓𝑡

31
 CHAPTER VIII
DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Aircraft flight control surfaces allow a pilot to adjust and control the aircraft's flight attitude.
Development of an effective set of flight control surfaces was a critical advance in the
development of aircraft. Early efforts at fixed-wing aircraft design succeeded in generating
sufficient lift to get the aircraft off the ground, but once aloft, the aircraft proved
uncontrollable, often with disastrous results. The development of effective flight controls is
what allowed stable flight.
8.2 AILERON
The primary function of an aileron is the lateral (i.e. roll) control of an aircraft;
however, it also affects the directional control. Due to this reason, the aileron and the rudder
are usually designed concurrently. Lateral control is governed primarily through a roll rate
(P). Aileron is structurally part of the wing, and has two pieces; each located on the trailing
edge of the outer portion of the wing left and right sections. Both ailerons are often used
symmetrically, hence their geometries are identical. Aileron effectiveness is a measure of
how good the deflected aileron is producing the desired rolling moment. The generated
rolling moment is a function of aileron size, aileron deflection, and its distance from the
aircraft fuselage centerline. Unlike rudder and elevator which are displacement control, the
aileron is a rate control. Any change in the aileron geometry or deflection will change the roll
rate; which subsequently varies constantly the roll angle. The Fig 8.1 shows the geometry of
aileron with their parameters.

Fig 8.1 Geometry of aileron

32
8.2.1 Principles of Aileron Design
A basic item in the list of aircraft performance requirements is the maneuverability.
Aircraft maneuverability is a function of engine thrust, aircraft mass moment of inertia, and
control power. One of the primary control surfaces which cause the aircraft to be steered
along its three-dimensional flight path (i.e. maneuver) to its specified destination is aileron.
Ailerons are like plain flaps placed at outboard of the trailing edge of the wing. Right aileron
and left aileron are deflected differentially and simultaneously to produce a rolling moment
about x-axis. Therefore, the main role of aileron is the roll control; however it will affect yaw
control as well. Roll control is the fundamental basis for the design of aileron.
Based on the Newton’s second law for a rotational motion, the summation of all
applied moments is equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum. If the mass and
the geometry of the objet (i.e. vehicle) are fixed, the law is reduced to a simpler version: The
summation of all moments is equal to the mass moment of inertia time of the object about the
axis or rotation multiplied by the rate of change of angular velocity. In the case of a rolling
motion, the summation of all rolling moments (including the aircraft aerodynamic moment) is
equal to the aircraft mass moment of inertia about x-axis multiplied by the time rate of
change of roll rate (P).
Generally speaking, there are two forces involved in generating the rolling moment,
1. An incremental change in wing lift due to a change in aileron angle
2. Aircraft rolling drag force in the yz plane.
8.3 ELEVATOR DESIGN
A very fundamental requirement of a safe flight is longitudinal control; which is
assumed to be the primary function of an elevator. An aircraft must be longitudinally
controllable, as well as manoeuvrable within the flight envelope . In a conventional aircraft,
the longitudinal control is primarily applied though the deflection of elevator, and engine
throttle setting. Longitudinal control is governed through pitch rate (Q) and consequently
angular acceleration about y-axis (or rate of pitch rate). Longitudinal control of an aircraft is
achieved by providing an incremental lift force on horizontal tail.
Thus, elevator which is classified as a primary control surface is considered as a pitch
control device. The incremental tail lift can be generated by deflecting the entire tail or by
deflecting elevator which is located at the tail trailing edge. Since the horizontal tail is located
at some distance from the aircraft center of gravity, the incremental lift force creates a

33
pitching moment about the aircraft cg. Pitch control can be achieved by changing the lift on
either aft horizontal tail or canard.
There are two groups of requirements in the aircraft longitudinal controllability,
1. Pilot force
2. Aircraft response to the pilot input.
In order to deflect the elevator, the pilot must apply a force to stick/yoke/wheel and
hold it (in the case of an aircraft with a stick-fixed control system). In an aircraft with a stick-
free control system, the pilot force is amplified through such devices as tab and spring. Fig
8.2 shows the horizontal tail and elevator geometry with parameters.

Figure 8.2 Horizontal tail and elevator geometry

8.3.1 Principles of Elevator Design
Elevator is a primary control surface placed on the trailing edge of the horizontal tail
or canard. Longitudinal control and longitudinal trim are two main functions of the elevator;
and it has minor influence on the longitudinal stability. Elevator is flap-like and is deflected
up and down. With this deflection, the camber of the airfoil of the tail is changed, and
consequently tail lift coefficient (CLh) is changed. The main objective of elevator deflection
is to increase or decrease tailplane lift and hence tailplane pitching moment.
Factors affecting the design of an elevator are elevator effectiveness, elevator hinge
moment, and elevator aerodynamic and mass balancing. The elevator effectiveness is a
measure of how effective the elevator deflection is in producing the desired pitching moment.
The elevator effectiveness is a function of elevator size and tail moment arm.
The longitudinal control handling qualities requirements during take-off operation is
stated as follows: in an aircraft with a tricycle landing gear, the pitch rate should have a value

34
such that the take-off rotation does not take longer than a specified length of time. Since the
take-off rotation dynamics is governed by Newton’s second law, the take-off rotation time
may be readily expressed in terms of the aircraft angular acceleration about the main gear
rotation point. For instance, in a transport aircraft, the acceptable value for the take-off
rotation time is 3-5 seconds. The equivalent value for the angular rotation rate to achieve such
requirement is 4-6 deg/sec2. This requirement must be satisfied when the aircraft center of
gravity is located at the most forward location. These specifications are employed in the
design of elevator.
In the elevator detail design process, the following parameters must be determined,
1. Elevator-chord-to-tail-chord ratio (CE /Ch)
2. Elevator-span-to-tail-span ratio (bE /bh)
3. Maximum up elevator deflection
4. Maximum down elevator deflection
5. Aerodynamic balance of the elevator
6. Mass balance of the elevator
The first four elevator parameters (chord, span, and deflections) are interrelated.When
the value of one elevator parameter is increased, the value of other parameters could be
decreased. On the other hand, each parameter has unique constraint. For instance, the elevator
maximum deflection should be less than the value that causes flow separation or causes the
horizontal tail to stall. In addition, the ease of fabrication suggests to having an elevator chord
of span that is more convenient. Thus, for simplicity in the design and manufacture, the
elevator span is often selected to be equal to the horizontal tail span (i.e. bE/bh = 1).
When elevator is deflected more than about 20-25 degrees, flow separation over the
tail tends to occur. Thus, the elevator will lose its effectiveness. Furthermore, close to
horizontal tail stall, even a small downward elevator deflection can produce flow separation
and loss of pitch control effectiveness. To prevent pitch control effectiveness, it is
recommended to consider the elevator maximum deflection to be less than 25 degrees (both
up and down). Hence, the maximum elevator deflection is dictated by the elevator/tail stall
requirement.
The most critical flight condition for pitch control is when the aircraft is flying at a
low speed due to the fact that elevator is less effective. Two flight operations which feature a
very low speed are take-off and landing. Take-off control is much harder than the landing
control due to the safety considerations.
A take-off operation is usually divided into three sections

35
 1. Ground section
2. Rotation or transition
3. Climb. The longitudinal control in a take-off is mainly applied during the rotation
section which the nose is pitched up by rotating the aircraft about main gear.
8.4 RUDDER DESIGN
Rudder is a primary control surface and is responsible for the aircraft directional
control. The rudder is a movable surface located on the trailing edge of the vertical tail. The
rudder is the vertical counterpart to the elevator. When the rudder is rotated (i.e. deflected), a
lift force (i.e. side force, LV) is created by the rudder-vertical tail combination. Consequently,
a yawing moment (N) about aircraft center of gravity (about aircraft z-axis) is generated.
Thus, control of the yawing moment about the center of gravity is primarily provided by
means of the rudder. The third unintended production of the rudder is a rolling moment. This
is due to the fact that the vertical tail (i.e. rudder) is usually placed above the aircraft cg. Two
fundamental roles of rudder are directional control and directional trim. Therefore,
parameters of the rudder are determined by the directional trim and control requirements. The
rudder control power must be sufficient to accomplish these two requirements in various
flight conditions. The aircraft heading angle is mainly determined through a directional
control process.

The rudder is a fundamental control surface which is typically controlled by pedals

rather than at the stick. It is the primary means of controlling yaw the rotation of an airplane
about its vertical axis. The rudder may also be called upon to counter-act the adverse yaw
produced by the roll-control surfaces.If rudder is continuously applied in level flight the
aircraft will yaw initially in the direction of the applied rudder – the primary effect of rudder.
After a few seconds the aircraft will tend to bank in the direction of yaw.
This arises initially from the increased speed of the wing opposite to the direction of
yaw and the reduced speed of the other wing. The faster wing generates more lift and so rises,
while the other wing tends to go down because of generating less lift. Continued application
of rudder sustains rolling tendency because the aircraft flying at an angle to the airflow -
skidding towards the forward wing. When applying right rudder in an aircraft
with dihedral the left hand wing will have increased angle of attack and the right hand wing
will have decreased angle of attack which will result in a roll to the right. An aircraft
with anhedral will show the opposite effect. This effect of the rudder is commonly used in
model aircraft where if sufficient diheral or polyhedral is included in the wing design,

36
primary roll control such as ailerons may be omitted altogether. Fig 8.3 shows the rudder
operation geometry with geometrical parameters.

Fig 8.3 Rudder Operation geometry

37
 CHAPTER IX

STRUCTURAL LAYOUTS
9.1 WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
9.1.1 SPECIFIC ROLES OF WING (MAIN-WING) STRUCTURE:
The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:
To transmit: wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam as shown in fig 9.1
 Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to the main beam.
 Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to the main beam.
To react against:
 Landing loads at attachment points
 Loads from pylons/stores
 Wing drag and thrust loads
To provide:
 Fuel tank age space
 Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero-elastic requirements.
 To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise:
 Span wise members (known as spars or booms)
 Chord wise members(ribs)
 A covering skin
 Stringers

Figure 9.1 Wing Span Arrangement

38
9.1.2 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF WING STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
The structural functions of each of these types of members may be considered
independently as:
SPARS
 Form the main span wise beam
 Transmit bending and torsional loads
 Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.
In particular:
 Webs – resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
 Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.
SKIN
 To form impermeable aerodynamics surface
 Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
 Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
 React axial bending loads (with stringers).
STRINGERS
 Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
 React axial bending loads
RIBS
 Maintain the aerodynamic shape
 Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
 Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any
discontinuities as shown in fig 9.2
 Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint
 Increase the skin panel buckling strength

Fig 9.2 Different Span Separation

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9.2 FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the aircraft. It provides space for
personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the accessories. The power plant, wing, stabilizers and
landing gear are attached to it.
There are two general types of fuselage construction welded steel truss and
monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller navy aircraft and it is still
being used in some helicopters as shown in fig 9.3.

Fig 9.3 Semimonocoque and Monocoque

The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to
give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since no bracing
members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. The biggest
problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight
within limits.
Semimonocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of monocoque
construction. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, these
monocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members.The reinforced
shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural members.
9.2.1 TYPES OF FUSELAGE AND ITS FUNCTIONS
The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space for
personnel, cargo, and Controls most of the accessories. The power plant, wings, stabilizers,

40
and landing gear are attached to it. There are two general types of fuselage construction
welded steel truss, monocoque designs, semi monocoque designs and geodesic designs. The
welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in some
Helicopter.
A.Truss structure
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded
steel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be built out of wood, often covered
with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported
lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form a more aerodynamic shape, or one
more pleasing to the eye.
B.Geodesic structure
Geodesic structure elements are used in World War 2. In this type of construction
multiple flat strip stringers are about the formers in opposite spiral directions, forming a
basket like appearance. This proved to be light strong and rigid and had the advantage of
being made entirely of wood
C. Monocoque Structure
The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering, to
carry various loads. The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and
bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since
no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid.
The biggest problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while
keeping the weight within limits.
D. Semi-monocoque Structure
The main advantage of the semi monocoque construction is that it depends on
many structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of its stressed skin construction,
semi monocoque fuselage can withstand damage and still be strong enough to hold together.
Semi monocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of monocoque
construction. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semi
monocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members
Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of the three
classes. Most are considered to be of semi monocoque-type construction.
The semi monocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminium alloy, although steel
and titanium are found in high-temperature areas. Primary bending loads are taken by the
longerons, which usually extend across several points of support. The longerons are

41
supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers. Stringers are more
numerous sand lightweight than longerons.
The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and
formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated
loads. These members are also found at points where fittings are used to attach other units,
such as the wings and stabilizers.
The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They
have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin. The
strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and formers hold the
stringers. All of these framework join together to form a rigid fuselage. Stringers and
longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from bending the fuselage.
The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural members
and carries part of the load. The fuselage skin thickness varies with the load carried and the
stress ensue stained at particular location.
There are a number of advantages in using the semi monocoque fuselage.
 The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and construction of
as stream lined fuselage. They add to the strength and rigidity of the structure.
 The main advantage of the semi monocoque construction is that it depends on many
structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of its stressed skin construction,
a semimonocoque fuselage can withstand damage.

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 CHAPTER X

THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

The section 10 contains the three view diagram of the business jet with
geometric parameters. The Fig 10.1, 10.2 10.3 shows the front view, top view,
profile view.

Fig 10.1 FRONT VIEW

Fig 10.2 TOP VIEW

Fig 10.3 SIDE VIEW

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 CHAPTER XI

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the series of short range aircrafts incorporated many unique design of
future that was never seen on an operational aircraft. The design of these aircrafts points the
way for the design of future of very high mach airplanes.
The airplane has gone through many design modifications since its early conceptual designs
expected, among these was a growth in weight. The document to provide information on the
trends in various aircraft characteristics that may influence general long-term airport planning
and design.
These are strong indications that future trends could see the coexistence of very high
capacity aircraft modules of similar capacities for the long range/very long range operations.
Cargo payloads, which include mail, express and freight, are increasing in size and weight
aircraft service with the airlines,
To ensure continued growth in payload and the profitability of cargo operations,
improvements in methods, equipment and terminal facilities will be required in order to
reduce cargo handling costs and aircraft ground time and to provide improved service for the
shippers.
We have enough hard work for this design project. A design never gets completed in a
flutter sense but it is one step further towards ideal system. But during the design of this
aircraft, we learnt a lot about aeronautics and its implications when applied to an aircraft
design.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Anderson, John D ,Aircraft design and performance by Anderson, 3rd Edition ,

Tata Mc Graw -Hill, New York, 2010.
2. E.F. Bruhn , Analysis and design of flight vehicle structure, , 1st Edition, tri-state
offset company, USA, 1973.
3. T.H.G,Megson , Aircraft structure for engineering students, 4th Edition Elsevier
Ltd USA 2007.
4. Micheal Chun-Yung Niu, Airframe structure design, 2nd Edition Hong Kong
Conmilit Press Ltd, Hong Kong, 2001.
5. Raymer, D.P, Aircraft Design – a Conceptual Approach , AIAA educational series
second edition 1992.

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