An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form

of energy into mechanical energy.[1][2] Heat engines, including internal

combustion engines and external combustion engines (such as steam
engines), burn a fuel to createheat, which then creates a force. Electric
motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion; pneumatic
motorsuse compressed air and others—such as clockwork motors in wind-up
toys—use elastic energy. In biological systems,molecular motors,
like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create forces and eventually
motion.

Terminology[edit]
The word "engine" derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–
the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such
as catapults,trebuchets and battering rams, were called "siege engines", and
knowledge of how to construct them was often treated as a military secret.
The word "gin", as in "cotton gin", is short for "engine". Most mechanical
devices invented during the industrial revolution were described as engines—
the steam engine being a notable example. However, the original steam
engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines but
pumps. In this manner, a fire engine in its original form was merely a water
pump, with the engine being transported to the fire by horses.

In modern usage, the term engine typically describes devices, like steam
engines and internal combustion engines, that burn or otherwise consume fuel
to performmechanical work by exerting a torque or linear force (usually in the
form of thrust). Examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar
automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of
engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets.

When the internal combustion engine was invented, the term "motor" was
initially used to distinguish it from the steam engine—which was in wide use at
the time, powering locomotives and other vehicles such as steam rollers.
"Motor" and "engine" later came to be used interchangeably in casual
discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings.
An engine is a device that burns or otherwise consumes fuel, changing its
chemical composition, whereas a motor is a device driven by electricity, air,
or hydraulic pressure, which does not change the chemical composition of its
energy source.[3] However, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though
they consume fuel.

A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that

transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical
energy.[4] An automobilepowered by an internal combustion engine may make
use of various motors and pumps, but ultimately all such devices derive their
power from the engine. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives
power from an external source, and then converts it into mechanical energy,
while an engine creates power from pressure (derived directly from the
explosive force of combustion or other chemical reaction, or secondarily from
the action of some such force on other substances such as air, water, or
steam).[5]

Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply
as engines.[6]

History[edit]
Antiquity[edit]
Simple machines, such as the club and oar (examples of the lever),
are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal
power, water power, wind power and even steam power date back to
antiquity. Human power was focused by the use of simple engines, such as
the capstan, windlass or treadmill, and withropes, pulleys, and block and
tackle arrangements; this power was transmitted usually with the
forces multiplied and the speed reduced. These were used in cranesand
aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege
engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times,
including Vitruvius, Frontinusand Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as
commonplace, so their invention may be more ancient. By the 1st century
AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those
powered by humans in earlier times.

According to Strabo, a water powered mill was built in Kaberia of the kingdom
of Mithridates during the 1st century BC. Use of water wheels in mills spread
throughout the Roman Empire over the next few centuries. Some were quite
complex, with aqueducts, dams, and sluices to maintain and channel the
water, along with systems of gears, or toothed-wheels made of wood and
metal to regulate the speed of rotation. More sophisticated small devices,
such as the Antikythera Mechanism used complex trains of gears and dials to
act as calendars or predict astronomical events. In a poem by Ausonius in the
4th century AD, he mentions a stone-cutting saw powered by water. Hero of
Alexandria is credited with many such wind and steam powered machines in
the 1st century AD, including the Aeolipileand the vending machine, often
these machines were associated with worship, such as animated altars and
automated temple doors.
Medieval[edit]
Medieval Muslim engineers employed gears in mills and water-raising
machines, and used dams as a source of water power to provide additional
power to watermills and water-raising machines.[7] In the medieval Islamic
world, such advances made it possible to mechanize many industrial tasks
previously carried out by manual labour.

In 1206, al-Jazari employed a crank-conrod system for two of his water-raising

machines. A rudimentary steam turbine device was described by Taqi al-
Din[8] in 1551 and by Giovanni Branca[9] in 1629.[10]
In the 13th century, the solid rocket motor was invented in China. Driven by
gunpowder, this, the simplest form of internal combustion engine was unable
to deliver sustained power, but was useful for propelling weaponry at high
speeds towards enemies in battle and for fireworks. After invention, this
innovation spread throughout Europe.
Industrial Revolution[edit]

Boulton & Watt engine of 1788

The Watt steam engine was the first type of steam engine to make use of
steam at a pressure just above atmospheric to drive the piston helped by a
partial vacuum. Improving on the design of the 1712 Newcomen steam
engine, the Watt steam engine, developed sporadically from 1763 to 1775,
was a great step in the development of the steam engine. Offering a dramatic
increase infuel efficiency, James Watt's design became synonymous with
steam engines, due in no small part to his business partner, Matthew Boulton.
It enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated factories on a
previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower was not available.
Later development led to steam locomotives and great expansion of railway
transportation.

As for internal combustion piston engines, these were tested in France in

1807 by de Rivaz and independently, by the Niépce brothers. They were
theoretically advanced by Carnot in 1824.[citation needed] In 1853-57 Eugenio
Barsanti and Felice Matteucciinvented and patented an engine using the free-
piston principle that was possibly the first 4-cycle engine.[11]

The invention of an internal combustion engine which was later commercially

successful was made during 1860 by Etienne Lenoir.[12]

The Otto cycle in 1877 was capable of giving a far higher power to weight
ratio than steam engines and worked much better for many transportation
applications such as cars and aircraft.
Automobiles[edit]
The first commercially successful automobile, created by Karl Benz, added to
the interest in light and powerful engines. The lightweight petrol internal
combustion engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has been the most
successful for light automobiles, while the more efficient Diesel engine is used
for trucks and buses. However, in recent years, turbo Diesel engines have
become increasingly popular, especially outside of the United States, even for
quite small cars.

Horizontally opposed pistons[edit]

In 1896, Karl Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first engine with
horizontally opposed pistons. His design created an engine in which the
corresponding pistons move in horizontal cylinders and reach top dead center
simultaneously, thus automatically balancing each other with respect to their
individual momentum. Engines of this design are often referred to as flat
engines because of their shape and lower profile. They are or were used in
the Volkswagen Beetle, some Porsche and Subaru cars,
many BMW and Honda motorcycles, and aircraft engines (for propeller driven
aircraft).

Advancement[edit]
Continuance of the use of the internal combustion engine for automobiles is
partly due to the improvement of engine control systems (onboard computers
providing engine management processes, and electronically controlled fuel
injection). Forced air induction by turbocharging and supercharging have
increased power outputs and engine efficiencies. Similar changes have been
applied to smaller diesel engines giving them almost the same power
characteristics as petrol engines. This is especially evident with the popularity
of smaller diesel engine propelled cars in Europe. Larger diesel engines are
still often used in trucks and heavy machinery, although they require special
machining not available in most factories. Diesel engines produce
lower hydrocarbon and CO2 emissions, but
greater particulate andNOx pollution, than gasoline engines.[13] Diesel engines
are also 40% more fuel efficient than comparable gasoline engines.[13]

Increasing power[edit]

The first half of the 20th century saw a trend to increasing engine power,
particularly in the American models[clarification needed]. Design changes incorporated
all known methods of raising engine capacity, including increasing the
pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the
engine, and increasing the rate at which the engine produces work. The
higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine
vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V
and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight-line arrangements.

Combustion efficiency[edit]

The design principles favoured in Europe, because of economic and other

restraints such as smaller and twistier roads, leant toward smaller cars and
corresponding to the design principles that concentrated on increasing the
combustion efficiency of smaller engines. This produced more economical
engines with earlier four-cylinder designs rated at 40 horsepower (30 kW) and
six-cylinder designs rated as low as 80 horsepower (60 kW), compared with
the large volume V-8 American engines with power ratings in the range from
250 to 350 hp, some even over 400 hp (190 to 260 kW).[clarification needed][citation needed]

Engine configuration[edit]

Earlier automobile engine development produced a much larger range of

engines than is in common use today. Engines have ranged from 1- to 16-
cylinder designs with corresponding differences in overall size, weight, engine
displacement, and cylinder bores. Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to
120 hp (14 to 90 kW) were followed in a majority of the models. Several three-
cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models were built while most engines had straight
or in-line cylinders. There were several V-type models and horizontally
opposed two- and four-cylinder makes too. Overhead camshafts were
frequently employed. The smaller engines were commonly air-cooled and
located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively low. The
1970s and 1980s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy, which
caused a return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with as many as five
valves per cylinder to improve efficiency. The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 operates
with a W16 engine, meaning that two V8 cylinder layouts are positioned next
to each other to create the W shape sharing the same crankshaft.

The largest internal combustion engine ever built is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer

RTA96-C, a 14-cylinder, 2-stroke turbocharged diesel engine that was
designed to power theEmma Mærsk, the largest container ship in the world.
This engine weighs 2,300 tons, and when running at 102 RPM produces
109,000 bhp (80,080 kW) consuming some 13.7 tons of fuel each hour.

Types[edit]
An engine can be put into a category according to two criteria: the form of
energy it accepts in order to create motion, and the type of motion it outputs.
Heat engine[edit]
Main article: heat engine

Combustion engine[edit]

Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat of

a combustion process.

Internal combustion engine[edit]

Main article: Internal combustion engine

Animation showing the four stages of the four-stroke combustion engine cycle:
1. Induction (Fuel enters)
2. Compression
3. Ignition (Fuel is burnt)
4. Emission (Exhaust out)

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a

fuel (generally, fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion
chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the
high temperature and high pressure gases, which are produced by the
combustion, directly applies force to components of the engine, such as
the pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by moving it over a distance,
generates useful mechanical energy.[14][15][16][17]
External combustion engine[edit]

Main article: external combustion engine

An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine where an

internal working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source, through
the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting
on themechanism of the engine produces motion and usable work.[18] The fluid
is then cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle), or (less commonly)
dumped, and cool fluid pulled in (open cycle air engine).

"Combustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat.

Engines of similar (or even identical) configuration and operation may use a
supply of heat from other sources such as nuclear, solar, geothermal or
exothermic reactions not involving combustion; but are not then strictly
classed as external combustion engines, but as external thermal engines.

The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engine, or steam as in a steam

engine or an organic liquid such as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine cycle.
The fluid can be of any composition; gas is by far the most common, although
even single-phase liquid is sometimes used. In the case of the steam engine,
the fluid changes phases between liquid and gas.

Air-breathing combustion engines[edit]

Air-breathing combustion engines are combustion engines that use

the oxygen in atmospheric air to oxidise ('burn') the fuel, rather than carrying
an oxidiser, as in a rocket. Theoretically, this should result in a better specific
impulse than for rocket engines.

A continuous stream of air flows through the air-breathing engine. This air is
compressed, mixed with fuel, ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas.

Examples

Typical air-breathing engines include:

 Reciprocating engine
 Steam engine
 Gas turbine
airbreathing jet engine
Turbo-propeller engine

 Pulse detonation engine

 Pulse jet
 Ramjet
 Scramjet
 Liquid air cycle engine/Reaction Engines SABRE.
Environmental effects[edit]

The operation of engines typically has a negative impact upon air

quality and ambient sound levels. There has been a growing emphasis
on the pollution producing features of automotive power systems. This
has created new interest in alternate power sources and internal-
combustion engine refinements. Though a few limited-production
battery-powered electric vehicles have appeared, they have not proved
competitive owing to costs and operating characteristics.[citation needed] In the
21st century the diesel engine has been increasing in popularity with
automobile owners. However, the gasoline engine and the Diesel
engine, with their new emission-control devices to improve emission
performance, have not yet been significantly challenged.[citation needed] A
number of manufacturers have introduced hybrid engines, mainly
involving a small gasoline engine coupled with an electric motor and
with a large battery bank, but these too have yet to make much of an
inroad into the market shares of gasoline and Diesel engines.

Air quality[edit]
Exhaust from a spark ignition engine consists of the
following: nitrogen 70 to 75% (by volume), water vapor 10 to
12%, carbon dioxide 10 to 13.5%, hydrogen 0.5 to 2%, oxygen 0.2 to
2%, carbon monoxide: 0.1 to 6%, unburnt hydrocarbons and
partial oxidation products (e.g. aldehydes) 0.5 to 1%, nitrogen
monoxide 0.01 to 0.4%, nitrous oxide <100 ppm, sulfur dioxide 15 to 60
ppm, traces of other compounds such as fuel additives and lubricants,
also halogen and metallic compounds, and other particles.[19] Carbon
monoxide is highly toxic, and can cause carbon monoxide poisoning, so
it is important to avoid any build-up of the gas in a confined
space. Catalytic converters can reduce toxic emissions, but not
completely eliminate them. Also, resulting greenhouse gas emissions,
chiefly carbon dioxide, from the widespread use of engines in the
modern industrialized world is contributing to the global greenhouse
effect – a primary concern regarding global warming.

Non-combusting heat engines[edit]

Main article: heat engine

Some engines convert heat from noncombustive processes into

mechanical work, for example a nuclear power plant uses the heat from
the nuclear reaction to produce steam and drive a steam engine, or a
gas turbine in a rocket engine may be driven by decomposing hydrogen
peroxide. Apart from the different energy source, the engine is often
engineered much the same as an internal or external combustion
engine. Another group of noncombustive engines
includesthermoacoustic heat engines (sometimes called "TA engines")
which are thermoacoustic devices which use high-amplitude sound
waves to pump heat from one place to another, or conversely use a
heat difference to induce high-amplitude sound waves. In general,
thermoacoustic engines can be divided into standing wave and
travelling wave devices.[20]
Non-thermal chemically powered motor[edit]
Non-thermal motors usually are powered by a chemical reaction, but
are not heat engines. Examples include:

 Molecular motor - motors found in living things

 Synthetic molecular motor.
Electric motor[edit]
Main articles: electric motor and electric vehicle

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical

energy, usually through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-
carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy
from mechanical energy, is accomplished by
a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on vehicles often perform
both tasks. Electric motors can be run as generators and vice versa,
although this is not always practical. Electric motors are ubiquitous,
being found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and
pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk
drives. They may be powered by direct current (for example
a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating
current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors
may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly
standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient
mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors
are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such purposes as
pipeline compressors, with ratings in the thousands of kilowatts. Electric
motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their
internal construction, and by their application.
The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the
interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field was known as
early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were constructed
throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric
motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and
electrical distribution networks.

To reduce the electric energy consumption from motors and their

associated carbon footprints, various regulatory authorities in many
countries have introduced and implemented legislation to encourage
the manufacture and use of higher efficiency electric motors. A well-
designed motor can convert over 90% of its input energy into useful
power for decades.[21] When the efficiency of a motor is raised by even a
few percentage points, the savings, in kilowatt hours (and therefore in
cost), are enormous. The electrical energy efficiency of a typical
industrial induction motor can be improved by: 1) reducing the electrical
losses in the stator windings (e.g., by increasing the cross-sectional
area of the conductor, improving the winding technique, and using
materials with higher electrical conductivities, such as copper), 2)
reducing the electrical losses in the rotor coil or casting (e.g., by using
materials with higher electrical conductivities, such as copper), 3)
reducing magnetic losses by using better quality magnetic steel, 4)
improving the aerodynamics of motors to reduce mechanical windage
losses, 5) improving bearings to reduce friction losses, and 6)
minimizing manufacturing tolerances. For further discussion on this
subject, see Premium efficiency and Copper in energy efficient motors.)

By convention, electric engine refers to a railroad electric locomotive,

rather than an electric motor.
Physically powered motor[edit]
Some motors are powered by potential or kinetic energy, for example
some funiculars, gravity plane and ropeway conveyors have used the
energy from moving water or rocks, and some clocks have a weight that
falls under gravity. Other forms of potential energy include compressed
gases (such as pneumatic motors), springs (clockwork motors)
and elastic bands.

Historic military siege engines included large catapults, trebuchets, and

(to some extent) battering rams were powered by potential energy.

Pneumatic motor[edit]
Main article: Pneumatic motor

A pneumatic motor is a machine that converts potential energy in the

form of compressed air into mechanical work. Pneumatic motors
generally convert the compressed air to mechanical work though either
linear or rotary motion. Linear motion can come from either a
diaphragm or piston actuator, while rotary motion is supplied by either a
vane type air motor or piston air motor. Pneumatic motors have found
widespread success in the hand-held tool industry and continual
attempts are being made to expand their use to the transportation
industry. However, pneumatic motors must overcome efficiency
deficiencies before being seen as a viable option in the transportation
industry.

Hydraulic motor[edit]
Main article: Hydraulic motor

A hydraulic motor is one that derives its power from

a pressurized fluid. This type of engine can be used to move heavy
loads or produce motion.[22]

Performance[edit]
Engine speed[edit]
In the case of engines outputting shaft power, engine speed is
measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). Engines may be classified
as low-speed, medium-speed or high-speed but these terms are inexact
and depend on the type of engine being described. Generally, diesel
engines operate at lower speed compared to gasoline engines. Electric
motors and turboshafts are capable of very high speeds. In the case of
engines producing thrust, it is rather inaccurate to talk of an 'engine
speed' since what is moving is not the engine, but the working medium
that the engine is accelerating; in this case one talks of an exhaust
velocity, which is exactly the Isp outside of a gravitational field and
therefore makes one jump straight to a discussion of efficiency; see the
article on specific impulse for more information.
Thrust[edit]
Thrust is the force arising from the interaction between two masses
which exert equal but opposite forces on each other due to their speed.
The force F can be measured either in newtons (N, SI units) or
in pounds-thrust (lbf, imperial units).
Torque[edit]
Torque is the force being exerted on a theoretical lever connected to
the output shaft of an engine. This is expressed by the formula:

where r is the length of the lever, F is the force applied on it,

and r×F is the vector cross product. Torque is measured typically
either in newton-metres (N·m, SI units) or in foot-pounds (ft·lb,
imperial units).
Power[edit]
Power is the amount of work being done, or energy being produced,
per unit of time. This is expressed by the formula:

With a quick demonstration, it can be shown that:

This formula with linear forces and speeds can be used

equally well for both engines outputting thrust and engines
exerting torque.

When considering propulsive engines, typically only the raw

force of the core mass flow is considered, leading to such
engines having their 'power' rated in any of the units
discussed above for forces.

If the engine in question outputs its power on a shaft, then:

This is the reason why any engine outputting its power on

a rotating shaft always informs, along with its rated power,
the rotational speed at which that rated power is
developed.

Typically, among engines driving a rotating shaft,

combustion engines have their power rated
in horsepower (hp), while electric engines have their power
rated inwatts (W, not to be confused with the mathematical
symbol for work) or multiples thereof.
Efficiency[edit]
Main article: Engine efficiency
Depending on the type of engine employed, different rates
of efficiency are attained.

For heat engines, efficiency cannot be greater than

the Carnot efficiency.
Sound levels[edit]
In the case of sound levels, engine operation is of greatest
impact with respect to mobile sources such as automobiles
and trucks. Engine noise is a particularly large component
of mobile source noise for vehicles operating at lower
speeds, where aerodynamic and tire noise is less
significant.[23] Generally speaking, petrol and diesel engines
emit less noise than turboshafts of equivalent power
output; electric motors very often emit less noise than their
fossil fuel-powered equivalents. Thrust-outputting engines,
such as turbofans, turbojets and rockets emit the greatest
amount of noise because their method of producing thrust
is directly related to the production of sound. Various
methods have been devised to reduce noise. Petrol and
diesel engines are fitted with mufflers (silencers); newer
turbofans often have outsized fans (the so-called high-
bypass technology) in order to reduce the proportion of
noisy, hot exhaust from the integrated turboshaft in the
exhaust stream, and hushkits exist for older, low-bypass
turbofans. No known methods exist for reducing the noise
output of rockets without a corresponding reduction in
thrust.

Engines by use[edit]
Particularly notable kinds of engines include:
  Aircraft engine
 Automobile engine
 Model engine
 Motorcycle engine
 Marine propulsion engines such as Outboard motor
 Non-road engine is the term used to define engines that
are not used by vehicles on roadways.
 Railway locomotive engine
 Spacecraft propulsion engines such as Rocket engine
 Traction engine

See also[edit]

 Timeline of motor and engine technology

 Timeline of heat engine technology
 Electric motor
 Engine cooling
 Multifuel
 Gasoline engine
 Hesselman engine
 HCCI engine
 Hot bulb engine
 IRIS engine
 Solid-state engine
 Automobile engine replacement
 Engine swap
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or consistent style of citation, footnoting, or external
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template message)

Various Indo-Persian maces, from left: Bozdogan/buzdygan (Ottoman), tabar-shishpar

(Indian), shishpar (Indian), shishpar (unknown), gurz (Indian), shishpar (Indian).

A mace is a blunt weapon, a type of club or virge that uses a heavy head on
the end of a handle to deliver powerfulblows. A mace typically consists of a
strong, heavy, wooden or metal shaft, often reinforced with metal, featuring a
head made of stone, copper, bronze, iron, or steel.

The head of a military mace can be shaped with flanges or knobs to allow
greater penetration of plate armour. The length of maces can vary
considerably. The maces of foot soldiers were usually quite short (two or three
feet, or seventy to ninety centimetres). The maces of cavalrymen were longer
and thus better suited for blows delivered from horseback. Two-handed
maces could be even larger.
Maces are rarely used today for actual combat, but a large number of
government bodies (for instance, the British House of Commons and the U.S.
Congress), universities and other institutions have ceremonial maces and
continue to display them as symbols of authority. They are often paraded in
academic, parliamentary or civic rituals and

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCMALDEV

A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs,

which mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can
change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. Gears almost
always produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage,
through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine. The
teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape.[1] Two or more
meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or
atransmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack,
thereby producing translation instead of rotation.
 The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed
belt pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent
slippage.

When two gears mesh, if one gear is bigger than the other, a mechanical
advantage is produced, with the rotational speeds, and the torques, of the two
gears differing in proportion to their diameters.

In transmissions with multiple gear ratios—such as bicycles, motorcycles, and

cars—the term "gear" as in "first gear" refers to a gear ratio rather than an
actual physical gear. The term describes similar devices, even when the gear
ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually
contain gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.[2]

2Comparison with drive mechanisms

 3Types
o 3.1External vs internal gears
o 3.2Spur
o 3.3Helical
 3.3.1Skew gears
o 3.4Double helical
o 3.5Bevel
o 3.6Spiral bevels
o 3.7Hypoid
o 3.8Crown
o 3.9Worm
o 3.10Non-circular
o 3.11Rack and pinion
o 3.12Epicyclic
 3.12.1Sun and planet
 o 3.13Harmonic gear
o 3.14Cage gear
o 3.15Magnetic gear
 4Nomenclature
o 4.1General nomenclature
o 4.2Helical gear nomenclature
o 4.3Worm gear nomenclature
o 4.4Tooth contact nomenclature
o 4.5Tooth thickness nomenclature
o 4.6Pitch nomenclature
 5Backlash
 6Shifting of gears
 7Tooth profile
 8Gear materials
 9Standard pitches and the module system
 10Manufacture
o 10.1Inspection
 11Gear model in modern physics
 12Gear mechanism in natural world
 13See also
 14References
 15Further reading
 16External links

Types[edit]
External vs internal gears[edit]
Internal gear

An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a
cylinder or cone. Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed on
the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, an internal gear is
one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not cause
output shaft direction reversal.[7]
Spur[edit]

Spur gear

Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of
a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially. Though the teeth are not
straight-sided (but usually of special form to achieve a constant drive ratio,
mainly involute but less commonly cycloidal), the edge of each tooth is
straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh together
correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts.[8] No axial thrust is created by the tooth
loads. Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at
high speeds.[9]
Helical[edit]
Helical gears
Top: parallel configuration
Bottom: crossed configuration

Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading
edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an
angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling makes the tooth shape a
segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed
in parallel or crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are
parallel to each other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter, the
shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration the gears are sometimes
known as "skew gears".

The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth, causing
them to run more smoothly and quietly.[10] With parallel helical gears, each pair
of teeth first make contact at a single point at one side of the gear wheel; a
moving curve of contact then grows gradually across the tooth face to a
maximum then recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the
opposite side. In skew gears, teeth suddenly meet at a line contact across
their entire width causing stress and noise. Spur gears make a characteristic
whine at high speeds. For this reason spur gears are used in low speed
applications and in situations where noise control is not a problem, and helical
gears are used in high speed applications, large power transmission, or
where noise abatement is important.[11] The speed is considered high when the
pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s.[12]

A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear,
which must be accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater
degree of sliding friction between the meshing teeth—often addressed with
additives in the lubricant.

Skew gears[edit]

For a 'crossed' or 'skew' configuration, the gears must have the same
pressure angle and normal pitch; however, the helix angle and handedness
can be different. The relationship between the two shafts is actually defined by
the helix angle(s) of the two shafts and the handedness, as defined:[13]

for gears of the same handedness

for gears of opposite handedness

Where is the helix angle for the gear. The crossed configuration is
less mechanically sound because there is only a point contact between
the gears, whereas in the parallel configuration there is a line contact.[13]

Quite commonly, helical gears are used with the helix angle of one
having the negative of the helix angle of the other; such a pair might
also be referred to as having a right-handed helix and a left-handed
helix of equal angles. The two equal but opposite angles add to zero:
the angle between shafts is zero—that is, the shafts are parallel. Where
the sum or the difference (as described in the equations above) is not
zero the shafts are crossed. For shafts crossed at right angles, the helix
angles are of the same hand because they must add to 90 degrees.
(This is the case with the gears in the illustration above: they mesh
correctly in the crossed configuration: for the parallel configuration, one
of the helix angles should be reversed. The gears illustrated cannot
mesh with the shafts parallel.)

 3D Animation of helical gears (parallel axis)

 3D Animation of helical gears (crossed axis)
Double helical[edit]

Herringbone Gears

Double helical gears and herringbone gears are similar but the
difference is that herringbone gears don't have a groove in the middle
like double helical gears do. Double helical gears overcome the
problem of axial thrust presented by single helical gears by using two
sets of teeth that are set in a V shape. A double helical gear can be
thought of as two mirrored helical gears joined together. This
arrangement cancels out the net axial thrust, since each half of the gear
thrusts in the opposite direction resulting in a net axial force of zero.
This arrangement can remove the need for thrust bearings. However,
double helical gears are more difficult to manufacture due to their more
complicated shape.

For both possible rotational directions, there exist two possible

arrangements for the oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces.
One arrangement is stable, and the other is unstable. In a stable
orientation, the helical gear faces are oriented so that each axial force
is directed toward the center of the gear. In an unstable orientation,
both axial forces are directed away from the center of the gear. In both
arrangements, the total (or net) axial force on each gear is zero when
the gears are aligned correctly. If the gears become misaligned in the
axial direction, the unstable arrangement generates a net force that
may lead to disassembly of the gear train, while the stable arrangement
generates a net corrective force. If the direction of rotation is reversed,
the direction of the axial thrusts is also reversed, so a stable
configuration becomes unstable, andvice versa.

Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur

gears without any need for different bearings.
Bevel[edit]
Main article: Bevel gear

Bevel Gear

A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut
off. When two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy
the same point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an
arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle between the
shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with
equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called miter
gears.
Spiral bevels[edit]
Spiral bevel gears

Main article: Spiral bevel gear

Spiral bevel gears can be manufactured as Gleason types (circular arc

with non-constant tooth depth), Oerlikon and Curvex types (circular arc
with constant tooth depth), Klingelnberg Cyclo-Palloid (Epicycloide with
constant tooth depth) or Klingelnberg Palloid. Spiral bevel gears have
the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut
cousins as helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are
generally used only at speeds below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small
gears, 1000 r.p.m.[14]

Note: The cylindrical gear tooth profile corresponds to an involute, but

the bevel gear tooth profile to an octoid. All traditional bevel gear
generators (like Gleason, Klingelnberg, Heidenreich & Harbeck, WMW
Modul) manufacture bevel gears with an octoidal tooth profile.
IMPORTANT: For 5-axis milled bevel gear sets it is important to choose
the same calculation / layout like the conventional manufacturing
method. Simplified calculated bevel gears on the basis of an equivalent
cylindrical gear in normal section with an involute tooth form show a
deviant tooth form with reduced tooth strength by 10-28% without offset
and 45% with offset [Diss. Hünecke, TU Dresden]. Furthermore, the
"involute bevel gear sets" cause more noise.
Hypoid[edit]
Hypoid gear

Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not
intersect. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the
offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of revolution.[15][16] Hypoid gears are
almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees.
Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of
the teeth, contact between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother
and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear teeth, but also have a
sliding action along the meshing teeth as it rotates and therefore usually
require some of the most viscous types of gear oil to avoid it being
extruded from the mating tooth faces, the oil is normally designated HP
(for hypoid) followed by a number denoting the viscosity. Also,
the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion,
with the result that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible using a
single set of hypoid gears.[17] This style of gear is most common in
motor vehicle drive trains, in concert with a differential. Whereas a
regular (nonhypoid) ring-and-pinion gear set is suitable for many
applications, it is not ideal for vehicle drive trains because it generates
more noise and vibration than a hypoid does. Bringing hypoid gears to
market for mass-production applications was an engineering
improvement of the 1920s.
Crown[edit]
 Crown gear

Main article: Crown gear

Crown gears or contrate gears are a particular form of bevel gear

whose teeth project at right angles to the plane of the wheel; in their
orientation the teeth resemble the points on a crown. A crown gear can
only mesh accurately with another bevel gear, although crown gears
are sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also
sometimes meshed with anescapement such as found in mechanical
clocks.
Worm[edit]

Worm gear

A thermodynamic cycle consists of a linked sequence of thermodynamic

processes that involve transfer of heat and work into and out of the system,
while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables within the
system, and that eventually returns the system to its initial state.[1] In the
process of passing through a cycle, the working fluid (system) may convert
heat from a warm source into useful work, and dispose of the remaining heat
to a cold sink, thereby acting as a heat engine. Conversely, the cycle may be
reversed and use work to move heat from a cold source and transfer it to a
warm sink thereby acting as a heat pump.

During a closed cycle, the system returns to its original thermodynamic state
of temperature and pressure. Process quantities (or path quantities), such
as heat and work are process dependent. For a cycle for which the system
returns to its initial state the first law of thermodynamics applies:

The above states that there is no change of the energy of the system over
the cycle. Ein might be the work and heat input during the cycle and
Eout would be the work and heat output during the cycle. The first law of
thermodynamicsalso dictates that the net heat input is equal to the net
work output over a cycle (we account for heat, Qin, as positive and Qout as
negative). The repeating nature of the process path allows for continuous
operation, making the cycle an important concept in thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic cycles are often represented mathematically
as quasistatic processes in the modeling of the workings of an actual
device.

Contents
[hide]

 1Heat and work

o 1.1Relationship to work
o 1.2Each Point in the Cycle
o 1.3Power cycles
o 1.4Heat pump cycles
 2Modelling real systems
 3Well-known thermodynamic cycles
o 3.1Ideal cycle
o 3.2Carnot cycle
o 3.3Stirling cycle
 4State functions and entropy
 5See also
 6References
 7Further reading
 8External links

Heat and work[edit]

Two primary classes of thermodynamic cycles are power cycles and heat
pump cycles. Power cycles are cycles which convert some heat input into
a mechanical work output, while heat pump cycles transfer heat from low to
high temperatures by using mechanical work as the input. Cycles
composed entirely of quasistatic processes can operate as power or heat
pump cycles by controlling the process direction. On a pressure-volume
(PV) diagram or temperature-entropy diagram, theclockwise and
counterclockwise directions indicate power and heat pump cycles,
respectively.
Relationship to work[edit]

The net work equals the area inside because it is (a) the Riemann sum of work
done on the substance due to expansion, minus (b) the work done to re-
compress.

Because the net variation in state properties during a thermodynamic cycle

is zero, it forms a closed loop on a PV diagram. A PV diagram's Y axis
shows pressure (P) and X axis shows volume (V). The area enclosed by
the loop is the work (W) done by the process:

This work is equal to the balance of heat (Q) transferred into the
system:

Equation (2) makes a cyclic process similar to an isothermal

process: even though the internal energy changes during the course
of the cyclic process, when the cyclic process finishes the system's
energy is the same as the energy it had when the process began.

If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then W will
be positive, and it represents a heat engine. If it moves
counterclockwise, then W will be negative, and it represents a heat
pump.
Each Point in the Cycle[edit]

Description of each point in the thermodynamic cycles.

Otto Cycle:

1→2: Isentropic Expansion: Constant entropy (s), Decrease

in pressure (P), Increase in volume (v), Decrease in temperature(T)
2→3: Isochoric Cooling: Constant volume(v), Decrease in pressure
(P), Decrease in entropy (S), Decrease in temperature (T)

3→4: Isentropic Compression: Constant entropy (s), Increase in

pressure (P), Decrease in volume (v), Increase in temperature (T)

4→1: Isochoric Heating: Constant volume (v), Increase in pressure

(P), Increase in entropy (S), Increase in temperature (T)

A List of Thermodynamic Processes:

Adiabatic : No energy transfer as heat (Q) during that part of the

cycle would amount to δQ=0. This does not exclude energy transfer
as work.

Isothermal : The process is at a constant temperature during that

part of the cycle (T=constant, δT=0). This does not exclude energy
transfer as heat or work.

Isobaric : Pressure in that part of the cycle will remain constant.

(P=constant, δP=0). This does not exclude energy transfer as heat
or work.

Isochoric : The process is constant volume (V=constant, δV=0). This

does not exclude energy transfer as heat or work.

Isentropic : The process is one of constant entropy (S=constant,

δS=0). This excludes the transfer of heat but not work.
Power cycles[edit]

Heat engine diagram.

Main article: Heat engine

Thermodynamic power cycles are the basis for the operation of heat
engines, which supply most of the world's electric powerand run the
vast majority of motor vehicles. Power cycles can be organized into
two categories: real cycles and ideal cycles. Cycles encountered in
real world devices (real cycles) are difficult to analyze because of
the presence of complicating effects (friction), and the absence of
sufficient time for the establishment of equilibrium conditions. For
the purpose of analysis and design, idealized models (ideal cycles)
are created; these ideal models allow engineers to study the effects
of major parameters that dominate the cycle without having to spend
significant time working out intricate details present in the real cycle
model.

Power cycles can also be divided according to the type of heat

engine they seek to model. The most common cycles used to
model internal combustion engines are the Otto cycle, which
models gasoline engines, and the Diesel cycle, which models diesel
engines. Cycles that model external combustion engines include
theBrayton cycle, which models gas turbines, the Rankine cycle,
which models steam turbines, the Stirling cycle, which models hot air
engines, and the Ericsson cycle, which also models hot air engines.
 The clockwise thermodynamic cycle indicated by the arrows shows that
the cycle represents a heat engine. The cycle consists of four states (the
point shown by crosses) and four thermodynamic processes (lines).

For example, the pressure-volume mechanical work output from the

heat engine cycle (net work out), consisting of 4 thermodynamic
processes, is[citation needed][dubious – discuss]:

If no volume change happens in process 4-1 and 2-

3, equation (3) simplifies to:

Heat pump cycles[edit]

Main article: Heat pump and refrigeration cycle

Thermodynamic heat pump cycles are

the models for household heat
pumps and refrigerators. There is no difference
between the two except the purpose of the
refrigerator is to cool a very small space while
the household heat pump is intended to warm a
house. Both work by moving heat from a cold
space to a warm space. The most common
refrigeration cycle is the vapor compression
cycle, which models systems
using refrigerants that change phase.
The absorption refrigeration cycle is an
 alternative that absorbs the refrigerant in a liquid
solution rather than evaporating it. Gas
refrigeration cycles include the reversed Brayton
cycle and the Hampson-Linde cycle. Multiple
compression and expansion cycles allow gas
refrigeration systems to liquify gases.

Modelling real systems[edit]

Example of a real system modelled by an idealized

process: PV and TS diagrams of a Brayton cycle
mapped to actual processes of a gas turbine engine

Thermodynamic cycles may be used to model

real devices and systems, typically by making a
series of assumptions.[2] simplifying assumptions
are often necessary to reduce the problem to a
more manageable form.[2] For example, as shown
in the figure, devices such a gas turbine or jet
engine can be modeled as a Brayton cycle. The
actual device is made up of a series of stages,
 each of which is itself modeled as an idealized
thermodynamic process. Although each stage
which acts on the working fluid is a complex real
device, they may be modelled as idealized
processes which approximate their real behavior.
If energy is added by means other than
combustion, then a further assumption is that the
exhaust gases would be passed from the
exhaust to a heat exchanger that would sink the
waste heat to the environment and the working
gas would be reused at the inlet stage.

The difference between an idealized cycle and

actual performance may be significant.[2] For
example, the following images illustrate the
differences in work output predicted by an
ideal Stirling cycle and the actual performance of
a Stirling engine:

Actual and ideal

Ideal Stirling Actual
overlaid, showing
cycle performance
difference in work
 output

As the net work output for a cycle is represented

by the interior of the cycle, there is a significant
difference between the predicted work output of
the ideal cycle and the actual work output shown
by a real engine. It may also be observed that
the real individual processes diverge from their
idealized counterparts; e.g., isochoric expansion
(process 1-2) occurs with some actual volume
change.

Well-known thermodynamic
cycles[edit]
In practice, simple idealized thermodynamic
cycles are usually made out of
four thermodynamic processes. Any
thermodynamic processes may be used.
However, when idealized cycles are modeled,
often processes where one state variable is kept
constant are used, such as an isothermal
process (constant temperature),isobaric
process (constant pressure), isochoric
process (constant volume), isentropic
process (constant entropy), or an isenthalpic
process (constant enthalpy). Often adiabatic
processes are also used, where no heat is
exchanged.

Some example thermodynamic cycles and their

constituent processes are as follows:
 Proc
Proc
ess
ess Proce
Proces 4-1
2-3 ss 3-4
s 1-2 (Hea
Cycle (Hea (Expa Notes
(Compr t
t nsion
ession) Reje
Addi )
ction
tion)
)

Power cycles normally with external

combustion - or heat pump cycles:

A
Bell reverse
adiabati isob adiab isoba
Colem d
c aric atic ric
an Brayton
cycle

isoth isoth Carnot

Carno isentrop isentr
erma erma heat
t ic opic
l l engine

the
Ericss isother isob isothe isoba second
on mal aric rmal ric Ericsso
n
cycle fro
 m 1853

Ranki adiabati isob adiab isoba Steam

ne c aric atic ric engine

Hygro Hygrosc
adiabati isob adiab isoba
scopi opic
c aric atic ric
c cycle

varia
ble
pres
Scude adiabati adiab isoch
sure
ri c atic oric
and
volu
me

Stirlin isother isoch isothe isoch Stirling

g mal oric rmal oric engine

Stodd adiabati isob adiab isoba

ard c aric atic ric

Power cycles normally with internal

combustion:
 Jet
engines
the
external
combus
tion
version
Brayt adiabati isob adiab isoba
of this
on c aric atic ric
cycle is
known
as
first Eric
sson
cyclefro
m 1833

adiabati isob adiab isoch Diesel

Diesel
c aric atic oric engine

Pulse
jets
(Note:
isoch adiab Process
Lenoir isobaric 1-2
oric atic
accompl
ishes
both the
heat
 rejectio
n and
the
compre
ssion)

Gasolin
adiabati isoch adiab isoch e /
Otto
c oric atic oric petrol
engines

Ideal cycle[edit]

An illustration of an ideal cycle heat engine (arrows

clockwise).

An ideal cycle is constructed out of:

 1. TOP and BOTTOM of the loop: a pair of
parallel isobaric processes
2. LEFT and RIGHT of the loop: a pair of
parallel isochoric processes

Internal energy of a perfect gas undergoing

different portions of a cycle:

Isothermal:

Isochoric:

Isobaric:
Carnot cycle[edit]
Main article: Carnot cycle

The Carnot cycle is a cycle composed of the

totally reversible
processes of isentropic compression and
expansion and isothermal heat addition and
rejection. Thethermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle
depends only on the absolute temperatures of
the two reservoirs in which heat transfer takes
place, and for a power cycle is:

where is the lowest cycle temperature

and the highest. For Carnot power cycles

the coefficient of performance for a heat
pump is:
and for a refrigerator the coefficient of
performance is:

The second law of thermodynamics

limits the efficiency and COP for all
cyclic devices to levels at or below the
Carnot efficiency. The Stirling
cycle and Ericsson cycle are two other
reversible cycles that use regeneration
to obtain isothermal heat transfer.
Stirling cycle[edit]
Main article: Stirling cycle

A Stirling cycle is like an Otto cycle,

except that the adiabats are replaced
by isotherms. It is also the same as an
Ericsson cycle with the isobaric
processes substituted for constant
volume processes.

1. TOP and BOTTOM of the loop: a

pair of quasi-
parallel isothermal processes
2. LEFT and RIGHT sides of the
loop: a pair of
parallel isochoric processes

Heat flows into the loop through the top

isotherm and the left isochore, and
some of this heat flows back out
 through the bottom isotherm and the
right isochore, but most of the heat flow
is through the pair of isotherms. This
makes sense since all the work done
by the cycle is done by the pair of
isothermal processes, which are
described by Q=W. This suggests that
all the net heat comes in through the
top isotherm. In fact, all of the heat
which comes in through the left
isochore comes out through the right
isochore: since the top isotherm is all at

the same warmer temperature and

the bottom isotherm is all at the same

cooler temperature , and since

change in energy for an isochore is
proportional to change in temperature,
then all of the heat coming in through
the left isochore is cancelled out
exactly by the heat going out the right
isochore.

State functions and

entropy[edit]
If Z is a state function then the balance
of Z remains unchanged during a cyclic
process:

.
 Entropy is a state function and is
defined as

so that

then it is clear that for any

cyclic process,

meaning that the net

entropy change over a
cycle is 0.

Well-known thermodynamic cycles[edit]

In practice, simple idealized thermodynamic cycles are usually made out of
four thermodynamic processes. Any thermodynamic processes may be used.
However, when idealized cycles are modeled, often processes where one
state variable is kept constant are used, such as an isothermal
process (constant temperature),isobaric process (constant
pressure), isochoric process (constant volume), isentropic process (constant
entropy), or an isenthalpic process (constant enthalpy). Often adiabatic
processes are also used, where no heat is exchanged.

Some example thermodynamic cycles and their constituent processes are as

follows:

Process Process Process

Cycle Process 1-2 Notes
2-3 3-4 4-1
(Compressio
(Heat (Expansio (Heat
 n) Additio n) Rejectio
n) n)

Power cycles normally with external combustion - or heat pump cycles:

Bell A reversed
adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric
Coleman Brayton cycle

isotherm isotherm Carnot heat

Carnot isentropic isentropic
al al engine

the
second Ericss
Ericsson isothermal isobaric isothermal isobaric
on cycle from
1853

Rankine adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric Steam engine

Hygroscop Hygroscopic
adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric
ic cycle

variable
pressure
Scuderi adiabatic adiabatic isochoric
and
volume
Stirling isothermal isochoric isothermal isochoric Stirling engine

Stoddard adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric

Power cycles normally with internal combustion:

Jet engines
the external
combustion
version of this
Brayton adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isobaric cycle is
known as
first Ericsson
cyclefrom
1833

Diesel adiabatic isobaric adiabatic isochoric Diesel engine

Pulse jets
(Note:
Process 1-2
accomplishes
Lenoir isobaric isochoric adiabatic
both the heat
rejection and
the
compression)
 Gasoline /
Otto adiabatic isochoric adiabatic isochoric
petrol engines

thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes which returns

a system to its initial state. Properties depend only on the thermodynamic
state and thus do not change over a cycle. Variables such
as heat and work are not zero over a cycle, but rather depend on the process.
The first law of thermodynamicsdictates that the net heat input is equal to the
net work output over any cycle. The repeating nature of the process path
allows for continuous operation, making the cycle an important concept
in thermodynamics.

Example of P-V diagram of a thermodynamic cycle.

If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then it represents
a heat engine, and W will be positive. If it moves counterclockwise then it
represents a heat pump, and W will be negative.

thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes which returns

a system to its initial state. Properties depend only on the thermodynamic
state and thus do not change over a cycle. Variables such
as heat and work are not zero over a cycle, but rather depend on the process.
The first law of thermodynamicsdictates that the net heat input is equal to the
net work output over any cycle. The repeating nature of the process path
allows for continuous operation, making the cycle an important concept
in thermodynamics.

Example of P-V diagram of a thermodynamic cycle.

If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then it represents
a heat engine, and W will be positive. If it moves counterclockwise then it
represents a heat pump, and W will be negative.
Thermodynamic power cycles are the basis for the operation of heat engines,
which supply most of the world's electric powerand run almost all motor
vehicles. Power cycles can be divided according to the type of heat engine
they seek to model. The most common cycles that model internal combustion
engines are the Otto cycle, which models gasoline engines and the Diesel
cycle, which models diesel engines. Cycles that model external combustion
engines include the Brayton cycle, which modelsgas turbines, and
the Rankine cycle, which models steam turbines.