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1. TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES.
Let the rectangular coordinate ( x, y, z ) of any point be expressed as functions of
(u1 , u 2 , u3 ) so that
Supposed that (a) can be solved for (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) in terms of x, y, z , that is,
(b) u1 = u1 ( x, y, z ) , u 2 = u 2 ( x, y , z ) , u 3 = u 3 ( x, y , z )
The functions in (a) and (b) are assumed to be single-valued and to have
continuous derivatives so that the correspondence between ( x, y, z )
and (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) is unique.
The u1 ,u 2 and u 3 coordinate curves for a curvilinear system are analogous to the
x, y and z coordinate axes of a rectangular system.
3. UNIT VECTOR IN CURVILINEAR SYSTEMS
∂r
A tangent vector to the u1 curve at P (for which u 2 and u 3 are constant) is .
∂u1
∂r ∂r
Let e1 be a unit tangent vector in this direction. Thus, e1 =
∂u1 ∂u1
∂r
∂r ∂u ∂r
Also, let h1 = giving e1 = 1 or e1h1 =
∂u1 h1 ∂u1
Similarly, if e 2 and e 3 are unit tangent vector to the u 2 and u 3 curves also at P
respectively, then:
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= h2 e 2 and = h3e 3 where h2 = and h3 =
∂u 2 ∂u 3 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
5. The foregoing shows that at each point P of a curvilinear system there exists, in
general, two sets of unit vectors:
The sets become identical if and only if the curvilinear coordinate system is
orthogonal .
7. This means that a vector A can be represented in terms of the unit base vectors
e1 , e 2 , e 3 or E1 , E 2 , E3 in the forms:
∂r ∂r ∂r
8. The sets , , and ∇u1 , ∇u 2 , ∇u 3 constitute reciprocal system of vectors.
∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
A can also be represented in terms of these base vectors which are called unitary
base vectors but are not unit vectors in general. In this case
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
• A = C1 + C2 C3 = C1α1 + C2α 2 + C3α 3 where: α p =
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u p
p=1,2,3
• A = c1∇u1 + c 2 ∇u 2 + c3 ∇u 3 = c1 β1 + c 2 β 2 + c3 β 3 where: β p = ∇u p
p=1,2,3
Where:
C1 , C 2 , C3 are called the contra variant components of A
c1 , c 2 , c3 are called the covariant components of A
9. ARC LENGTH
∂
(h2 h3 A1 ) + ∂ (h3 h1 A2 ) + ∂ (h1h2 A3 )
1
• ∇ ⋅ A = divA =
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
h1e1 h2 e 2 h2 e 3
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
• ∇ × A = curl A =
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
h1 A1 h2 A2 h3 A3
• ∇ 2 Φ = Laplacian of Φ
1 ∂ h2 h3 ∂Φ ∂ h3h1 ∂Φ ∂ h1h2 ∂Φ
∇2Φ = + +
h1h2 h3 ∂u1 h1 ∂u1 ∂u2 h2 ∂u2 ∂u3 h3 ∂u3
Where: r ≥ 0 , 0 ≤ φ < 2π , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
hr = 1 , hθ = r , hφ = r sin θ
hu = hv = u 2 + v 2 , hz = 1
φ φ
In cylindrical coordinates, u = 2 ρ cos , v = 2 ρ sin , z=z
2 2
18. Paraboloidal Coordinates, (u , v, φ )
x = uv cos φ , y = uv sin φ ,
2
(u − v )
1 2 2
z=
Where: u ≥ 0 , v ≥ 0 , 0 ≤ φ < 2π
hu = hv = u 2 + v 2 , hφ = uv
Two sets of coordinate surfaces are obtained by revolving the parabolas under
Parabolic Cylindrical Coordinates about the x-axis then renaming the axis as z-axis.
The third set of coordinates are planes passing through this axis.
Where: ε ≥ 0 , 0 ≤ η ≤ π , 0 ≤ φ < 2π
hε = hη = a sinh 2 ε + sin 2 η , hφ = a sinh ε sin η
Two sets of coordinate surfaces are obtained by revolving the curves under Elliptic
Cylindrical Coordinates about the x-axis then renaming the axis as z-axis. The third
set of coordinates are planes passing through this axis.
x2 y2 v2
+ + =1 , λ < c2 < b2 < a2
a 2 − λ b2 − λ c2 − λ
x2 y2 z2
+ + =1 , c 2 < µ < b2 < a 2
a 2 − µ b2 − µ c2 − µ
x2 y2 z2
+ + =1 , c 2 < b2 < v < a 2
a 2 − v b2 − v c2 − v
hλ =
1 ( µ − λ )( v − λ ) , hµ =
1 ( v − µ )( λ − µ )
2 (a 2
)(
−λ b −λ c −λ
2
)( 2
) 2 (a 2
)( )(
− µ b2 − µ c2 − µ )
hv =
1 ( λ − v )( µ − v )
2 (a 2
)( )(
− v b2 − v c2 − v )
23. Bipolar Coordinates, (u , v, z )
OR
a sinh v a sin u
x= , y= , z=z
cosh v − cos u cosh v − cos u
Where: 0 ≤ u < 2π , −∞ < v < ∞ , −∞ < z < ∞
a
hu = hv = , hz = 1
cosh v − cos u
Note: if the curves shown are revolved about the y-axis then renaming the axis as
z-axis, a toroidal coordinate system is obtained.
Examples
1. Show that a cylindrical coordinate system is orthogonal.
Recall that in orthogonal systems, e1 ⋅ e 2 = e 2 ⋅ e 3 = e 3 ⋅ e1 = 0
∂r ∂r ∂r
The tangent vectors to the ρ , φ and z curves are: , , and respectively
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
Thus,
∂r
= cos φ i (1) + sin φ j (1) + (0)k
∂ρ
= cos φ i + sin φ j
∂r
= ρ (− sin φ )(1)i + ρ (cos φ )(1) j + (0)k
∂φ
= − ρ sin φ i + ρ cos φ j
∂r
= (0)i + (0) j + (1)k
∂z
=k
Also
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂uρ ∂uφ ∂u z
eρ = , eφ = and e z =
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂uρ ∂uφ ∂u z
k
e3 = e z = =k
12
Recall that any vector can be represented in the form A = A1e1 + A2e2 + A3e3 using
the base unit vectors
A = Aρ e ρ + Aφ eφ + Az e z
In problem #1, it was shown that in the cylindrical coordinate system
sin 2 φ j − e ρ sin φ
eφ = + cos φ j
cos φ
i=
cos φ
e ρ (1 − sin φ ) − sin φ cos φ eφ
2
i=
cos φ
i= ρ −
cos φ cos φ
i = e ρ cos φ − eφ sin φ eqn. 1b
3. Find the square of the element of arc length in cylindrical coordinates and show
that the scale factors are hρ = 1 , hφ = ρ , hz = 1
The scale factors hρ , hφ , hz are the square roots of the coefficients of (d ρ ) 2 , (dφ )2 ,
and (dz ) 2 respectively
Thus,
hρ = 1 = 1
hφ = ρ 2 = ρ
hz = 1 = 1
4. Find the volume element dV in cylindrical coordinates
du1 = d ρ
du2 = dφ
du3 = dz
h1 = hρ = 1
h2 = hφ = ρ
h3 = hz = 1
Recall that the divergence of a vector A in any curvilinear coordinate system is:
1 ∂
(h2 h3 A1 ) + ∂ (h3 h1 A2 ) + ∂ (h1h2 A3 )
∇ ⋅ A = divA =
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
In Cylindrical coordinates,
u1 = ρ
u2 = φ
u3 = z
∂u1 = ∂ρ
∂u2 = ∂φ
∂u3 = ∂z
h1 = hρ
h2 = hφ
h3 = hz
A1 = Aρ
A2 = Aφ
A3 = Az
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ⋅ A = divA =
1
(hρ )(hφ )(hz ) ∂ρ
( hφ hz Aρ ) +
∂φ
( hz hρ Aφ ) + ( hρ hφ Az )
∂z
h1 = hρ = 1
h2 = hφ = ρ
h3 = hz = 1
∂ ∂
Thus,
∂ρ
( h h A )=
φ z ρ
∂ρ
( ρ z cos φ − 2ρ cos φ sin φ ) = z cos φ − 2(2 ρ ) cos φ sin φ
2
∂
∂ρ
( hφ hz Aρ ) = z cos φ − 4 ρ cos φ sin φ
∂ ∂
Thus,
∂φ
( hh A )=
z ρ φ
∂φ
( − z sin φ − 2 ρ cos φ ) = − z cos φ − 2 ρ (2 cos φ )(− sin φ )
2
∂
∂φ
( hz hρ Aφ ) = − z cos φ + 4ρ cos φ sin φ
( h h A ) = (1)( ρ )( ρ sin φ ) = ( ρ sin φ )
ρ φ z
2
∂ ∂
Thus, ( h h A ) = ( ρ sin φ ) = 0
ρ φ
2
∂z ∂z
z
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ⋅ A = divA =
1
(hρ )(hφ )(hz ) ∂ρ
( hφ hz Aρ ) +
∂φ
( hz hρ Aφ ) + ( hρ hφ Az )
∂z
1
∇ ⋅ A = divA = ( z cos φ − 4 ρ cos φ sin φ ) + ( − z cos φ + 4 ρ cos φ sin φ ) + ( 0 )
(1)( ρ )(1)
1
∇ ⋅ A = divA = [ z cos φ − 4 ρ cos φ sin φ − z cos φ + 4 ρ cos φ sin φ ]
ρ
∇ ⋅ A = divA = 0