Hideki Tojo

2/18/2018 Hideki Tojo - Wikipedia
Hideki Tojo
Hideki Tōjō (Kyūjitai: 東條英機 ; Shinjitai: 東条英機 ; Tōjō Hideki ;
Hideki Tōjō
December 30, 1884 – December 23, 1948) was a general of the Imperial
Japanese Army (IJA), the leader of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association, 東條英機
and the 27th Prime Minister of Japan during much of World War II, from
October 17, 1941, to July 22, 1944. As Prime Minister, he was responsible for
ordering the attack on Pearl Harbor, which initiated war between Japan and
the United States, although planning for it had begun in April 1941, before he
entered office. After the end of the war, Tojo was arrested, sentenced to death
for Japanese war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far
East, and hanged on December 23, 1948.[2]
Contents
Early life and education
Career
As major general
40th [1] Prime Minister of Japan
Rise to Prime Minister
Leader of the Imperial Rule Assistance
As Wartime Leader
Initial Success & Popularity (1941-1942) Association
Path to Defeat(1942-1944) In office
Downfall (March-July 1944)
October 17, 1941 – July 22, 1944
War Crimes
Monarch Shōwa
Arrest, trial, and execution
Preceded by Fumimaro Konoe
Legacy
In popular culture
Succeeded by Kuniaki Koiso
Honors Minister of War

References In office
Bibliography July 22, 1940 – July 22, 1944
Further reading Monarch Shōwa
External links Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe
(1940–1941)
Himself (1941–
Early life and education 1944)
Preceded by Shunroku Hata
Hideki Tojo was born in the Kōjimachi district of Tokyo on December 30,
1884,[3] as the third son of Hidenori Tojo, a lieutenant general in the Imperial Succeeded by Hajime Sugiyama
Japanese Army.[4] Under the bakufu, Japanese society was divided rigidly 21st Chief of the General Staff
into four castes; the merchants, peasants, artisans and the samurai. After the Imperial Japanese Army
Meiji Restoration, the caste system was abolished in 1871, but the former
In office
caste distinctions in many ways persisted afterwards, ensuring that those
21 February 1944 – 18 July 1944
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki_Tojo 1/19
from the former samurai caste continued to enjoy their traditional prestige.[5] Prime Minister Himself
The Tojo family came from the samurai caste, though the Tojos were Preceded by Hajime Sugiyama
relatively lowly warrior retainers for the great daimyōs (lords) that they had
Succeeded by Yoshijirō Umezu
served for generations.[6] Tojo's father was a samurai turned Army officer and
his mother was the daughter of a Buddhist priest, making his family very Personal details
respectable, but poor.[5] Born December 30, 1884
Kōjimachi ward,
Tojo had an education typical of a Japanese youth in the Meiji era.[7] The
Tokyo, Japan
purpose of the Meiji educational system was to train the boys to be soldiers as
Died December 23, 1948
adults, and the message was relentlessly drilled into Japanese students that
(aged 63)
war was the most beautiful thing in the entire world, that the Emperor was a
Sugamo Prison,
living god and that the greatest honor for a Japanese man was to die for the
Tokyo, Occupied
Emperor.[8] Japanese girls were taught that the highest honor for a woman
Japan
was to have as many sons as possible who could die for the Emperor in war.
As a boy, Tojo was known for his stubbornness, for having utterly no sense of Cause of death Execution by
humor, for being an opinionated and combative youth fond of getting into hanging[2]
fights with the other boys and for his tenacious way of pursuing what he Political party Imperial Rule
wanted.[9] Japanese schools in the Meiji era were very competitive, and there Assistance
was no tradition of sympathy with failing; those who did were often bullied by Association (1940–
the teachers into committing suicide.[9] Tojo was of average intelligence, but 1945)
he was known to compensate for his limited intelligence with a willingness to Other political Independent (before
work extremely hard.[9] Tojo's boyhood hero was the 17th century shogun affiliations 1940)
Tokugawa Ieyasu who issued the injunction: "Avoid the things you like, turn
Spouse(s) Katsuko Ito (1890–
your attention to unpleasant duties".[9] Tojo liked to say: "I am just an
1982)
ordinary man possessing no shining talents. Anything I have achieved I owe
to my capacity for hard work and never giving up".[9] Children 3 sons, 4 daughters
Alma mater Imperial Japanese
In 1899, Tojo entered the Army Cadet School. When he graduated from the
Army Academy
Japanese Military Academy (ranked 10th of 363 cadets) in March 1905, he
Army War College
was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the infantry of the IJA. In 1905,
Tojo shared in the general outrage in Japan at the Treaty of Portsmouth, Awards Grand Cordon of
which ended the war with Russia, and which the Japanese people saw as a the Order of the
betrayal as the war did not end with Japan annexing Siberia as popular Rising Sun
opinion had demanded.[10] The Treaty of Portsmouth was so unpopular that Order of the Golden
it set off anti-American riots known as the Hibiya incendiary incident as Kite, 2nd Class
many Japanese were enraged at the way the Americans had apparently
Order of the Sacred
cheated Japan as the Japanese gains in the treaty were far less than what
Treasure
public opinion had expected. Very few Japanese at the time had understood
that the war with Russia had pushed their nation to the verge of bankruptcy, Signature
and most people in Japan believed that the American president Theodore
Roosevelt who had mediated the Treaty of Portsmouth had cheated Japan out
of its rightful gains.[11] Tojo's anger at the Treaty of Portsmouth left him with
an abiding dislike of Americans.[11] Military service
Allegiance Empire of Japan
In 1909, Tojo married Katsuko Ito, with whom he had three sons (Hidetake,
Teruo and Toshio) and four daughters (Mitsue, Makie, Sachie and
Rank General
Kimie).[12][13] In 1918–19, Tojo briefly served in Siberia as part of the Commands Kwantung Army
Japanese expeditionary force sent to intervene in the Russian Civil War.[14] (1932–1934)
Tojo served as Japanese military attache to Germany between 1919-1922.[15] Battles/wars Russian Civil War
As the Imperial Japanese Army had been trained by a German military
Japanese invasion
mission in the 19th century, the Japanese Army was always very strongly
of Manchuria
influenced by intellectual developments in the German Army, and Tojo was
no exception.[16] In the 1920s, the German military favored winning the next February 26
war on starting by creating a totalitarian Wehrstaat (Defense State), an idea Incident
that was taken up by the Japanese military as the "national defense state". In Second Sino-
1922, on his way home to Japan, Tojo took a train ride across the United Japanese War
States, his first and only visit to America, which left him with the impression Operation Chahar
that the Americans were a materialistic "soft" people devoted only to making Pacific War
money and to hedonistic pursuits like sex, partying and despite Prohibition,
drinking.[17]
Tojo boasted that his only hobby was his work, and he customarily brought home his paperwork to work late into the
night, and he refused to have any part in raising his children, which he viewed both as a distraction from his work and as
woman's work, having his wife do all the work of taking care of his children.[18] A stern, humorless man, Tojo was known
for his brusque manner, his obsession with etiquette, and for his coldness.[19] Like almost all Japanese officers at the time,
Tojo routinely slapped the faces of the men under his command when giving orders, saying that face-slapping was a
"means of training" men who came from families that were not part of the samurai caste, and for whom bushido was not
second nature.[20]
In 1924, Tojo was greatly offended by the Immigration Control Act passed by the American Congress banning all Asian
immigration into the United States with many Congressmen and Senators openly saying the act was necessary because the
Asians worked harder than whites.[19] Tojo wrote with bitterness at the time that American whites would never accept
Asians as equals and "It [the Immigration Control Act] shows how the strong will always put their own interests first.
Japan, too, has to be strong to survive in the world".[21]
By 1928, he was bureau chief of the Japanese Army, and was shortly thereafter promoted to colonel. He began to take an
interest in militarist politics during his command of the 8th Infantry Regiment. Reflecting the imagery often used in Japan
to describe people in power, Tojo told his officers that they were to be both a "father" and a "mother" to the men under
their command.[20] Tojo often visited the homes of the men under his command, assisted his men with personal problems
and made loans to officers short of money.[22] Like many other Japanese officers, Tojo disliked Western cultural influence
in Japan, which was often disparaged as resulting in the ero-guro-nansensu ("eroticism, grotesquerie and nonsense")
movement as he complained about such forms of "Western decadence" like young couples holding hands and kissing in
public, which were undermining traditional values necessary to uphold the kokutai.[23]
Career
As major general
In 1934, Tojo was promoted to major general and served as Chief of the Personnel Department within the Army
Ministry.[24] Tojo wrote a chapter in the book Hijōji kokumin zenshū (Essays in time of national emergency), a book
published in March 1934 by the Army Ministry calling for Japan to become a totalitarian "national defense state".[25] This
book of 15 essays by senior generals argued that Japan had defeated Russia in the war of 1904–05 because bushidō had
given the Japanese superior willpower as the Japanese did not fear death unlike the Russians who wanted to live, and what
was needed to win the inevitable next war (against precisely whom the book did not say) was to repeat the example of the
Russian-Japanese war on a much greater scale by creating the "national defense state"
that would mobilize the entire nation for war.[25] In his essay Tojo wrote "The modern
war of national defense extends over a great many areas" requiring "a state that can
monolithically control" all aspects of the nation in the political, social and economic
spheres.[26] Tojo attacked Britain, France and the United States for waging "ideological
war" against Japan since 1919.[27] Tojo ended his essay stating that Japan must stand
tall "and spread its own moral principles to the world" as the "cultural and ideological
war of the 'imperial way' is about to begin".[25] Tojo was appointed commander of the
IJA 24th Infantry Brigade in August 1934.[28] In September 1935, Tojo assumed top
command of the Kenpeitai of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria. Politically, he was
fascist, nationalist, and militarist, and was nicknamed "Razor" ( カミソリ Kamisori), for
his reputation of having a sharp and legalistic mind capable of quick decision-making.
Tojo was a member of the Tōseiha ("Control") faction in the Army that was opposed by
Hideki Tojo in military
the more radical Kōdōha ("Imperial Way") faction.[29] Both the Tōseiha and the Kōdōha uniform
factions were militaristic, fascistic groups that favored a policy of expansionism abroad
and dictatorship under the Emperor at home, but differed over the best way of
achieving these goals.[29] The Imperial Way faction wanted a coup d'état to achieve a Shōwa Restoration; emphasised
"spirit" as the principle war-winning factor; and despite advocating socialist policies at home wanted to invade the Soviet
Union.[29] The Control faction, while being willing to use assassination to achieve its goals, was more willing to work within
the system to achieve reforms; wanted to create the "national defense state" to mobilize the entire nation before going to
war; and, while not rejecting the idea of "spirit" as a war-winning factor also saw military modernization as a war-winning
factor; and saw the United States as a future enemy just as much as the Soviet Union.[29]
During the February 26 coup attempt of 1936, Tojo and Shigeru Honjō, a noted supporter of Sadao Araki, both opposed
the rebels who were associated with the rival "Imperial Way" faction.[30] Emperor Hirohito himself was outraged at the
attacks on his close advisers, and after a brief political crisis and stalling on the part of a sympathetic military, the rebels
were forced to surrender. As the commander of the Kenpeitai, Tojo ordered the arrest of all officers in the Kwantung Army
suspected of supporting the coup attempt in Tokyo.[31] In the aftermath, the Tōseiha faction was able to purge the Army of
radical officers, and the coup leaders were tried and executed. Following the purge, Tōseiha and Kōdōha elements were
unified in their nationalist but highly anti-political stance under the banner of the Tōseiha military clique, with Tojo in the
leadership position. Tojo was promoted to Chief of staff of the Kwangtung Army in 1937.[32] As the "Empire of
Manchukuo" was a sham, and in reality, Manchukuo was a Japanese colony, the Kwangtung Army's duties were just as
much political as they were military.[33] During this period, Tojo become close to Yōsuke Matsuoka, the fiery ultra-
nationalist CEO of the South Manchuria Railway, one of Asia's largest corporations at the time, and Nobusuke Kishi, the
Deputy Minister of Industry in Manchukuo, who was the man de facto in charge of Manchukuo's economy.[33] Through
Tojo regarded preparing for a war with the Soviet Union as his first duty, Tojo also supported the forward policy in north
China as the Japanese sought to extend their influence into China.[33] As chief of staff, Tojo was responsible for the military
operations designed to increase Japanese penetration into the Inner Mongolia border regions with Manchukuo. In July
1937, he personally led the units of the 1st Independent Mixed Brigade in Operation Chahar, his only real combat
experience.[34]
After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident marking the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Tojo ordered his forces to attack
Hebei Province and other targets in northern China. Tojo received Jewish refugees in accordance with Japanese national
policy and rejected the resulting Nazi German protests.[35] Tojo was recalled to Japan in May 1938 to serve as Vice-
Minister of War under Army Minister Seishirō Itagaki.[36] From December 1938 to 1940, Tojo was Inspector-General of
Army Aviation.[37]
Rise to Prime Minister

On 1 June 1940, the Showa Emperor appointed Kōichi Kido, a leading "reform
bureaucrat" as the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal, making him into the
Emperor's leading political advisor and fixer.[38] Kido had aided in the creation
in the 1930s of an alliance between the "reform bureaucrats" and the "Control"
faction in the Army, which was headed by General Mutō Akira and General
Tōjo.[38] Kido's appointment also favored the rise of his allies in the Control
faction.[39] On July 30, 1940, Hideki Tōjo was appointed Army Minister in the
second Fumimaro Konoe regime, and remained in that post in the third Konoe
cabinet. Prince Konoe had chosen Tojo—a man representative of both the
Army's hardline views and the Control faction while being considered
reasonable to deal with—to secure the Army's backing for his foreign policy.[40]
Tojo was a militant ultra-nationalist, well respected for his work ethic and his
ability to handle paperwork, who believed that the Emperor was a living god
Tojo (third from left) as War Minister
and favored "direct imperial rule", ensuring that he would faithfully follow any in Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe's
order from the Emperor.[40] Konoe favored having Germany mediate an end to Second Cabinet
the Sino-Japanese war, pressuring Britain to end its economic and military
support of China even at the risk of war, seeking better relations with both
Germany and the United States, and of taking advantage of the changes in the international order caused by Germany's
victories in the spring of 1940 to make Japan a stronger power in Asia.[41] Konoe wanted to make Japan the dominant
power in East Asia, but he also believed it was possible to negotiate a modus vivendi with the United States under which
the Americans would agree to recognise the "Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere".[41]
By 1940, Konoe, who had started the war with China in 1937, no longer believed that a military solution to the "China
Affair" was possible as he once did, instead favored having Germany mediate an end to the war that would presumably
result in a pro-Japanese peace settlement, but would be less than he himself had outlined in the "Konoe programme" of
January 1938.[40] For this reason, Konoe wanted Tojo, a tough general whose ultra-nationalism was beyond question, to
provide "cover" for his attempt to seek a diplomatic solution to the war with China.[40] Tojo was a strong supporter of the
Tripartite Pact between Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy. As the Army Minister, he continued to expand
the war with China. After negotiations with Vichy France, Japan was given permission to place its troops in the southern
part of French Indochina in July 1941. In spite of its formal recognition of the Vichy government, the United States
retaliated against Japan by imposing economic sanctions in August, including a total embargo on oil and gasoline
exports.[42] On September 6, a deadline of early October was fixed in the Imperial Conference for resolving the situation
diplomatically. On October 14, the deadline had passed with no progress. Prime Minister Konoe then held his last cabinet
meeting, where Tojo did most of the talking:
For the past six months, ever since April, the foreign minister has made painstaking efforts to adjust
relations. Although I respect him for that, we remain deadlocked ... The heart of the matter is the imposition
on us of withdrawal from Indochina and China ... If we yield to America's demands, it will destroy the fruits
of the China incident. Manchukuo will be endangered and our control of Korea undermined.[43]
The prevailing opinion within the Japanese Army at that time was that continued negotiations could be dangerous.
However, Hirohito thought that he might be able to control extreme opinions in the army by using the charismatic and
well-connected Tojo, who had expressed reservations regarding war with the West, although the Emperor himself was
skeptical that Tojo would be able to avoid conflict. On October 13, he declared to Kōichi Kido: "There seems little hope in
the present situation for the Japan-U.S. negotiations. This time, if hostilities erupt, I have to issue a declaration of war."[44]
During the last cabinet meetings of the Konoe government, Tojo emerged as a hawkish voice, saying he did not want a war
with the United States, but portrayed the Americans as arrogant, bullying white supremacists. He said that any
compromise solution would only encourage them to make more extreme demands on Japan, in which case Japan might be
better to choose war to uphold national honor.[45] Despite saying he favored peace, Tojo had often declared at cabinet
meetings that any withdrawal from French Indochina and/or China would be damaging to military morale and might
threaten the kokutai; the "China Incident" could not be resolved via diplomacy and required a military solution; and
attempting to compromise with the Americans would be seen as weakness by them.[46]
On October 16, Konoe, politically isolated and convinced that the Emperor no longer trusted him, resigned. Later, he
justified himself to his chief cabinet secretary, Kenji Tomita:
Of course His Majesty is a pacifist, and there is no doubt he wished to avoid war. When I told him that to
initiate war is a mistake, he agreed. But the next day, he would tell me: "You were worried about it yesterday,
but you do not have to worry so much." Thus, gradually, he began to lean toward war. And the next time I
met him, he leaned even more toward war. In short, I felt the Emperor was telling me: "My prime minister
does not understand military matters, I know much more." In short, the Emperor had absorbed the views of
the army and navy high commands.[47]
At the time, Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni was said to be the only person who could control the Army and the Navy and
was recommended by Konoe and Tojo as Konoe's replacement. Hirohito rejected this option, arguing that a member of the
imperial family should not have to eventually carry the responsibility for a war against the West as a defeat would ruin the
prestige of the House of Yamato.[48] Following the advice of Kōichi Kido, he chose instead Tojo, who was known for his
devotion to the imperial institution.[48][49] Tojo's first speech on the radio made a call for "world peace", but also stated his
determination to settle the "China Affair" on Japanese terms and to achieve the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere"
that would unite all of the Asian nations together.[50] Tojo was known to advocate war with the United States, and Prince
Takamatsu wrote in his diary about hearing of the appointment: "We have finally committed to war and now must do all
we can to launch it powerfully. But we have clumsily telegraphed out intentions. We needn't have signaled what we're
going to do; having [the entire Konoe cabinet] resign was too much. As matters stand now we can merely keep silent and
without the least effort war will begin."[51] The Emperor summoned Tojo to the Imperial Palace one day before Tojo took
office.[48] During the meetings of the senior statesmen to decide who was to succeed Prince Konoe, the former Prime
Minister Admiral Keisuke Okada was opposed to Tojo as Prime Minister, while the powerful Lord Privy Seal Kōichi Kido
pushed for Tojo, leading a compromise where Tojo would become Prime Minister while "re-examining" the options for
dealing with the crisis with the United States, though Kido did not say that Tojo would attempt to avoid a war.[52] By
tradition, the Emperor needed a consensus among the elder statesmen before appointing a prime minister, and as long as
Admiral Okada was opposed to Tojo, it would be impolitic for the Emperor to appoint him as Prime Minister.[52]
Tojo wrote in his diary: "I thought I was summoned because the Emperor was angry at my opinion." He was given one
order from the Emperor: to make a policy review of what had been sanctioned by the Imperial Conferences.[53] Tojo, who
was on the side of war, nevertheless accepted this order, and pledged to obey. According to Colonel Akiho Ishii, a member
of the Army General Staff, the Prime Minister showed a true sense of loyalty to the emperor performing this duty. For
example, when Ishii received from Hirohito a communication saying the Army should drop the idea of stationing troops in
China to counter the military operations of the Western powers, he wrote a reply for the Prime Minister for his audience
with the Emperor. Tojo then replied to Ishii: "If the Emperor said it should be so, then that's it for me. One cannot recite
arguments to the Emperor. You may keep your finely phrased memorandum."[54]
On November 2, Tojo and Chiefs of Staff Hajime Sugiyama and

Osami Nagano reported to Hirohito that the review had been in
vain. The Emperor then gave his consent to war.[55][56] The next
day, Fleet Admiral Osami Nagano explained in detail the Pearl
Harbor attack plan to Hirohito.[57] The eventual plan drawn up by
Army and Navy Chiefs of Staff envisaged such a mauling of the
Western powers that Japanese defense perimeter lines—
operating on interior lines of communications and inflicting
heavy Western casualties—could not be breached. In addition, the
Japanese fleet which attacked Pearl Harbor was under orders
from Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto to be prepared to return to
Prime Minister Hideki Tojo (center) appearing with Japan on a moment's notice, should negotiations succeed. Two
his Cabinet in October 1941.
days later, on November 5, Hirohito approved the operations plan
for a war against the West and continued to hold meetings with
the military and Tojo until the end of the month. On 26 November 1941, the American Secretary of State Cordell Hull
handed Ambassador Nomura and Kurusu Saburo in Washington a "draft mutual declaration of policy" and "Outline of
Proposed Basis for Agreement between the United States and Japan".[58] Hull proposed that Japan "withdraw all military,
naval, air and police forces" from China and French Indochina in exchange for lifting the oil embargo, but left the term
China undefined.[58] The "Hull note" as it is known in Japan made it clear the United States would not recognise the
puppet government of Wang Jingwei as the government of China, but strongly implied that the United States might
recognise the "Empire of Manchukuo" and did not impose a deadline for the Japanese withdrawal from China.[58] On 27
November 1941, Tojo chose to misrepresent the "Hull note" to the Cabinet as an "ultimatum to Japan", which was
incorrect as the "Hull note" did not have a timeline for its acceptance and was marked "tentative" in the opening sentence,
which is inconsistent with an ultimatum.[58] The claim that the Americans had demanded in the "Hull note" Japanese
withdrawal from all of China, instead of just the parts occupied since 1937 and together with the claim the note was an
ultimatum was used as one of the principal excuses for choosing war with the United States.[59] On December 1, another
conference finally sanctioned the "war against the United States, England, and Holland".[60]
As Wartime Leader
Initial Success & Popularity (1941-1942)

On 7 December 1941, Tōjō went on Japanese radio to announce that Japan was now at war with the United States, the
British Empire and the Netherlands, reading out an Imperial Rescript that ended with the playing of the popular martial
song Umi Yukabe (Across the Sea), which set to music a popular war poem the Manyōshū, featuring the lyrics "Across the
sea, corpses soaking in the water, Across the mountains corpses heaped up in the grass, We shall die by the side of our
lord, We shall never look back".[61] Tojo continued to hold the position of Army Minister during his term as Prime Minister
from October 17, 1941, to July 22, 1944. He also served concurrently as Home Minister from 1941 to 1942, Foreign Minister
in September 1942, Education Minister in 1943, and Minister of Commerce and Industry in 1943.
As Education Minister, he continued militaristic and nationalist indoctrination in the national education system, and
reaffirmed totalitarian policies in government. As Home Minister, he ordered various eugenics measures (including the
sterilization of the "mentally unfit").
On 18 April 1942, the Americans staged the Doolittle Raid, bombing Tokyo.[62] Some of the American planes were shot
down and their pilots taken prisoner.[62] The Army General Staff led by Field Marshal Hajime Sugiyama insisted on
executing the eight American fliers, but were opposed by Tojo, who feared that the Americans would retaliate against
Japanese POWs if the Doolittle fliers were executed.[62] The dispute was
resolved by the Emperor who commuted the death sentences of five fliers while
allowing the other three to die, for reasons that remain unclear as the
documents relating to the Emperor's intervention were burned in 1945.[62]
Tojo had popular support in the

early years of the war as Japanese
forces moved from one victory to
another. As the Japanese went from
victory to victory, Tojo and the rest
of the Japanese elite were gripped
by what the Japanese called "victory
disease" as the entire elite was
caught up in a state of hubris,
believing Japan was invincible and
the war was as good as won.[63] In
A portrait of Japanese Prime
May 1942, reflecting his hubris,
Minister Hideki Tojo appearing in a
Tojo approved of a set of "non-
Japanese publication on the First
U.S. wartime propaganda negotiable" demands to be Anniversary of the "Great East Asia
caricatured Tojo as the face of the presented when the Allies sued for War" .
enemy. peace once it become clear to them
that Japan was invincible, under
which Japan would keep everything it had already conquered, and would take
considerably more.[63] Tojo wanted Japan to annex Australia; Australian New Guinea; British India (all of modern India,
Pakistan and Bangladesh); Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka); New Zealand; the Canadian province of British Columbia and the
Yukon Territory; the American state of Washington and the territories of Alaska and Hawaii; and to take Ecuador,
Columbia, Honduras, Panama, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, British Honduras, Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti
and the rest of the West Indies.[63] Additionally, Tojo wanted all of China to be under the rule of the puppet Wang Jingwei,
planned to buy Macau and East Timor from Portugal and to create new puppet kingdoms in Burma, Cambodia, Vietnam,
Laos, Thailand and Malaya.[64] As the Burmese had proved to be enthusiastic collaborators in the "New Order in Asia", the
new Burmese kingdom would be allowed to annex much of north-east India as a reward.[65] The Navy for its part
demanded that Japan take New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa.[65]
Despite being the leader of a totalitarian government, Tojo did not wield absolute authority over his country's military and
ministries like Adolf Hitler or Joseph Stalin. The American historian Herbert Bix wrote that Tōjo was a "dictator" only in
the narrow sense that from September 1942 on, he was generally able to impose his will on the Cabinet without seeking a
consensus, but at same time noted that Tōjo's power was based upon support from the Emperor, who held the ultimate
powers [66]. The main forum for military decision-making was the Imperial General Headquarters presided over by the
Emperor that consisted of the Army and Navy ministers; the Army and Navy chiefs of staff; and chiefs of the military
affairs bureaus in both services.[67] The Imperial GHQ was not a joint chiefs of staff as existed in the United States and
United Kingdom, but rather two separate services command operating under the same roof who would meet about twice a
week to attempt to agree on a common strategy.[68] The Operations Bureaus of the Army and Navy would develop their
own plans and then attempt to "sell them" to the other, which was often not possible.[69] Tōjo was one voice out of many
speaking at the Imperial GHQ, and was not able to impose his will on the Navy, which he had to negotiate with, like he was
dealing with an ally.[69] The American historian Stanley Falk described the Japanese system as characterized by "bitter
inter-service antagonisms" as the Army and Navy worked "at cross-purposes", observing the Japanese system of command
was "uncoordinated, ill-defined and inefficient".[70]
Path to Defeat(1942-1944)
In the summer of 1942, the Japanese forces' advance was finally halted after its navy
was defeated at Coral Sea and Midway. With the tide of war turning against Japan,
Tojo faced increasing opposition from within the government and military. In
August–September 1942, a major crisis gripped the Tōjo cabinet when the Foreign
Minister Shigenori Tōgō objected quite violently on 29 August 1942 to the Prime
Minister's plan to establish a Greater East Asia Ministry to handle relations with the
puppet regimes in Asia as an insult to the Gaimushō and threatened to resign in
protest.[66] Tōjo went to see the Emperor, who backed the Prime Minister's plans for
Tojo (left) inspecting airfield in
the Greater East Asia Ministry, and on 1 September 1942 Tōjo told the cabinet he was Kuching
establishing the Greater East Asia Ministry and could not care less about how the
Gaimusho felt about the issue, leading Tōgō to resign in protest.[66] At the same time,
Tōjo, as the Army Minister, became involved in a clash with the Army chief of staff over whether to continue the battle of
Guadalcanal or not. Tōjo sacked the Operations office and his deputy at the general staff, who were opposed to
withdrawing, and ordered the abandonment of the island.[71]
In September 1943, the Emperor and Tojo agreed that Japan would pull back to an "absolute defense line" in the south-
west Pacific to stem the American advance, and considered abandoning Rabual base, but changed their minds in face of
objections from the Navy.[72] In November 1943, the American public's reaction to the Battle of Tarawa led Tōjo to view
Tarawa as a sort of Japanese victory, believing that more battles like Tarawa would break American morale, and force the
U.S. to sue for peace.[73] Moreover, Tōjo believed that the Americans would become bogged in the Marshalls, giving more
time to strengthen the defenses in the Marianas.[73] In late 1943, with the support of the Emperor, Tojo made a major
effort to make peace with China to free up the 2 million Japanese soldiers in China for operations elsewhere, but the
unwillingness of the Japanese to give up any of their "rights and interests" in China doomed the effort.[74] China was by far
the largest theater of operations for Japan, and with the Americans steadily advancing in the Pacific, Tojo was anxious to
end the quagmire of the "China affair" to redeploy Japanese forces.[74] In an attempt to enlist support from all of Asia,
especially China, Tojo opened the Greater East Asia Conference in November 1943, which issued a set of Pan-Asian war
aims, which made little impression on most Asians.[75] On 9 January 1944, Japan signed a treaty with the puppet Wang
regime under which Japan gave up its extraterritorial rights in China as part of a bid to win Chinese public opinion over to
a pro-Japanese viewpoint, but as the treaty changed nothing in practice, the gambit failed.[76].
At the same time as he sought a diplomatic effort to end the war with China,
Tojo also approved of the planning for Operation Ichi-Go, a huge offensive
against China intended to take the American air bases in China and finally
knock China out of the war once and for all.[77] In January 1944, Tojo approved
of orders issued by Imperial General Headquarters for an invasion of India,
where the Burma Area Army in Burma under General Masakazu Kawabe was to
seize the Manipour and Assam provinces with the aim of cutting off American
aid to China (the railroad that supplied the American air bases in north-east
Tojo meeting with Subhas Chandra India that allowed for supplies to be flown over "the Hump" of the Himalayas
Bose (second from left) in June to China passed through these provinces).[78] Cutting off American aid to China
1943.
in turn might have the effect of forcing Chiang Kai-shek to sue for peace.
Following the 15th Army into India in the U-Go offensive were the Indian
nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose and his Indian National Army, as the political purpose of the operation was to provoke a
general uprising against British rule in India that might allow the Japanese to take all of India.[79] The roads necessary to
properly supply the 150,000 Japanese soldiers committed to invading India would turn into mud when the monsoons
arrived, giving the Japanese a very short period of time to break through. The Japanese were counting on capturing food
from the British to feed their army, which in turn was based on the assumption that all of India would rise up when the
Japanese arrived, causing the collapse of the Raj.[80][81] The Japanese brought along with them enough food to last for only
20 days, and after that, they would have to capture food from the British to avoid starving.[82] Bose had impressed Tojo at
their meetings as the best man to inspire an anti-British revolution in India.[79]
In the central Pacific, the Americans destroyed the main Japanese naval base at Truk in an air raid on 18 February 1944,
forcing the Imperial Navy back to the Marianas (the oil to fuel ships and planes operating in the Marshalls, Caroline and
Gilbert islands went up in smoke at Truk).[83] This breach of the "absolute defense line", five months after its creation, led
Tojo to fire Admiral Osami Nagano as the Navy Chief of Staff, for incompetence.[84] The Americans had penetrated 1,300
miles across "absolute defense line" and destroyed Truk, which caused a major crisis in Tokyo as Tojo, senior generals and
admirals all blamed each other for the situation.[73].
To strengthen his position in face of criticism of the way the war was going, on 21 February 1944, Tojo assumed the post of
Chief of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff, arguing he needed to take personal charge of the Army.[83] When Field
Marshal Sugiyama complained to the Emperor about being fired and having the Prime Minister run the General Staff, the
Emperor told him he supported Tojo.[83] Tojo's major concern as Army Chief of Staff was planning the operations in China
and India, with less time given over to the coming battles in the Marianas.[85] Tojo decided to take the strategic offensive
for 1944 with his plans to win the war in 1944 being as follows:
Operation Ichigo would end the war with China, freeing up some 2 million Japanese soldiers.[86]
Operation U-Go would take India.[86]
When the Americans made the expected offensive into the Marianas, the Imperial Navy's Combined Fleet would fight
a decisive battle of annihilation against the U.S. 5th Fleet, and halt the American drive in the central Pacific.[86]
In the South-west Pacific, the Japanese forces in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands would stay on the defensive
and try to slow down the American, Australian, and New Zealand forces for long as possible.[86] Knowing of General
MacArthur's personal obsession with returning to the Philippines, Tojo expected MacArthur to head for the Philippines
rather than the Japanese-occupied Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia), which was a relief from the Japanese
viewpoint; the Dutch East Indies were rich in oil while the Philippines were not.[86]
Tojo expected that a major American defeat in the Marianas together with the conquest of China and India would so stun
the Americans that they would sue for peace.[73] By this point, Tojo no longer believed the war aims of 1942 could be
achieved, but he believed that his plans for victory 1944 would lead to a compromise peace that would allow him to present
as a victory to the Japanese people.[73] By serving as Prime Minister, Army Minister and Army Chief of Staff, Tojo was
taking on all of the responsibility, and if plans for victory in 1944 failed, he would have no scapegoat.[85]
Downfall (March-July 1944)

On 12 March 1944, the Japanese launched the U-Go offensive and invaded India.[80] Tojo had some doubts about
Operation U-Go, but it was ordered by the Emperor himself, and Tojo was unwilling to oppose any decision of the
Emperor.[87] Despite the Japanese Pan-Asian rhetoric and claim to be liberating India, the Indian people did not revolt
and the Indian soldiers of the 14th Army stayed loyal to their British officers, and the invasion of India ended in complete
disaster.[88] The Japanese were defeated by the Anglo-Indian 14th Army at the Battles of Imphal and Kohima. On 5 July
1944, the Emperor accepted Tojo's advice to end the invasion of India as 72,000 Japanese soldiers had been killed in
battle. A similar number had starved to death or died of diseases as the logistics to support an invasion of India were
lacking, once the monsoons turned the roads of Burma into impassable mud.[87] Of the 150,000 Japanese soldiers who had
participated in the March invasion of India, most were dead by July 1944.[89]
In the Battle of Saipan, about 70,000 Japanese soldiers, sailors and civilians were killed in June–July 1944 and in the
Battle of the Philippine Sea the Imperial Navy suffered a crushing defeat.[90] The first day of the Battle of the Philippine
Sea, 19 June 1944, was dubbed by the Americans "the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot" as during the course of the dogfights
in the air, the United States Navy lost 30 planes while shooting down about 350
Imperial Japanese planes, in one of the Imperial Navy's most humiliating defeats.[91]
The Japanese believed that indoctrination in bushido ("the way of the warrior") would
give them the edge as the Japanese longed to die for the Emperor, while the
Americans were afraid to die, but superior American pilot training and airplanes
meant the Japanese were hopelessly outclassed by the Americans.[91] With Saipan in
American hands, the Americans could take other islands in the Marianas to build
airbases.[92] The establishment of American bases in the Marianas meant the cities of
Japan were within the range of B-29 Superfortress bombers and Willmott noted that
"even the most hard-headed of the Japanese militarists could dimly perceive that
Japan would be at the end of her tether in that case".[92].
As the news of the disastrous defeat suffered at Saipan reached Japan, it turned elite A photograph of Tojo
presumed to be taken
opinion against the Tojo government.[90] The Emperor himself was furious about the
following his resignation as
defeat at Saipan; had called a meeting of the Board of Field Marshals and Fleet Prime Minister.
Admirals to see if were possible to recapture Saipan (it was not); and Prince
Takamatsu wrote in his diary "he flares up frequently".[93] Tojo was the Prime
Minister, Minister of War and Chief of the Army General Staff, and was seen both in Japan and in the US as, in words of
the British historian H. P. Willmott, "the embodiment of national determination, hardline nationalism and militarism".[90]
Prince Konoe and Admiral Okada had long been plotting to bring down the Tojo government since the spring of 1943, and
their principal problem had been the support of the Emperor, who did not wish to lose his favorite Prime Minister.[94]
After the Battle of Saipan, it was clear to at least some of the Japanese elite that the war was lost, and Japan needed to
make peace before the kokutai and perhaps even the Chrysanthemum Throne itself was destroyed.[90] Tojo had been so
demonized in the United State during the war that, for the American people, Tojo was the face of Japanese militarism, and
it was inconceivable that the United States would make peace with a government headed by Tojo.[90] Willmott noted that
an additional problem for the "peace faction" was that: "Tojo was an embodiment of mainstream opinion within the
nation, the armed services and particularly the Army. Tojo had powerful support, and by Japanese standards he was not
extreme."[95] Tojo was more of a follower than a leader, and he represented mainstream opinion in the Army, and so his
removal from office would not mean the end of the political ambitions of an Army still fanatically committed to victory or
death.[90] The jushin (elder statesmen) had advised the Emperor that Tojo needed to go after Saipan and further advised
the Emperor against partial changes in the cabinet, demanding that the entire Tojo cabinet resign.[96] Tojo, aware of the
intrigues to bring him down, had sought the public approval of the Emperor, which was denied, with the Emperor sending
him a message to the effect that the man responsible for the disaster of Saipan was not worthy of his approval.[96] Tojo
suggested reorganizing his cabinet to regain Imperial approval, and was rebuffed with the Emperor saying the entire
cabinet had to go.[96] Once it was clear that Tojo no longer had the support of the Chrysanthemum Throne, Tojo's enemies
had little trouble bringing down his government.Two days after Tojo resigned, the Emperor gave him an imperial rescript
offering him unusually lavish praise for his "meritorious services and hard work" and declaring "Hereafter we expect you
to live up to our trust and make even greater contributions to military affairs".[94]
War Crimes
In March 1942, Tojo in his capacity as Army Minister gave permission for the Japanese Army in Taiwan to ship 50
"comfort women" from Taiwan to Borneo without ID papers (his approval was necessary as the Army's rules forbade
people without ID traveling to the new conquests).[62] The Japanese historian Yoshimi Yoshiaki noted this document
proves that Tojo was aware of and approved of the "comfort women" corps.[62] Similarly, in November 1942, Tōjo, as
Army Minister, helped draft the regulations for taking "comfort women" from China, Japan (which included Taiwan and
Korea at this time) and Manchukuo to the "South", as the Japanese called their conquests in South-East Asia, to ensure
that the "comfort women" had the proper papers before departing. Until then the War Ministry required special
permission to take "comfort women" without papers, and Tojo was tired of dealing with these requests.[97]
Arrest, trial, and execution
After Japan's unconditional surrender in 1945, U.S. general Douglas
MacArthur ordered the arrest of forty alleged war criminals including Tojo.
Three American GIs were sent to serve the arrest warrant. As American soldiers
surrounded Tojo's house on September 11 he shot himself in the chest with a
pistol, but missed his heart. As a result of this experience, the Army had
medical personnel present during the later arrests of other accused Japanese
war criminals such as Shimada Shigetarō.
As he bled Tojo began to talk, and two Japanese reporters recorded his words:
"I am very sorry it is taking me so long to die. The Greater East Asia War was Hideki Tojo after his attempted
justified and righteous. I am very sorry for the nation and all the races of the suicide during his arrest
Greater Asiatic powers. I wait for the righteous judgment of history. I wished to
commit suicide but sometimes that fails."[98]
After recovering from his injuries, Tojo was moved to Sugamo Prison. While there he received a new set of dentures, made
by an American dentist, into which the phrase "Remember Pearl Harbor" had been secretly drilled in Morse code.[99] The
dentist ground away the message three months later.[100]
Tojo was tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East for war crimes and found guilty of, among other
things,[101] waging wars of aggression; war in violation of international law; unprovoked or aggressive war against various
nations; and ordering, authorizing, and permitting inhumane treatment of prisoners of war.
Crimes committed by Imperial Japan were responsible for the deaths of millions, some estimate between 3,000,000[102]
and 14,000,000[103] civilians and prisoners of war through massacre, human experimentation, starvation, and forced labor
that was either directly perpetrated or condoned by the Japanese military and government with a significant portion of
them occurring during Tojo's rule of the military.[104][105][106][107][108] One source attributes 5,000,000 civilian deaths to
Tojo's rule of the military.
Hideki Tojo accepted full responsibility in the end for his actions during the war, and made this speech:
It is natural that I should bear entire responsibility for the war in general, and, needless to say, I am
prepared to do so. Consequently, now that the war has been lost, it is presumably necessary that I be judged
so that the circumstances of the time can be clarified and the future peace of the world be assured. Therefore,
with respect to my trial, it is my intention to speak frankly, according to my recollection, even though when
the vanquished stands before the victor, who has over him the power of life and death, he may be apt to
toady and flatter. I mean to pay considerable attention to this in my actions, and say to the end that what is
true is true and what is false is false. To shade one's words in flattery to the point of untruthfulness would
falsify the trial and do incalculable harm to the nation, and great care must be taken to avoid this.[109][2]
Tojo was sentenced to death on November 12, 1948, and executed by hanging 41 days later on December 23, 1948. Before
his execution he gave his military ribbons to one of his guards; they are on display in the National Museum for Naval
Aviation in Pensacola, Florida.[110] In his final statement he apologized for the atrocities committed by the Japanese
military and urged the American military to show compassion toward the Japanese
people, who had suffered devastating air attacks and the two atomic bombings.[111]
Historians Herbert P. Bix and John W. Dower criticize the work done by General
MacArthur and his staff to exonerate Emperor Hirohito and all members of the imperial
family from criminal prosecutions. According to them, MacArthur and Brigadier
General Bonner Fellers worked to protect the Emperor and shift ultimate responsibility
to Tojo.[112][113][114]
According to the written report of Shūichi Mizota, interpreter for Admiral Mitsumasa
Yonai, Fellers met the two men at his office on March 6, 1946, and told Yonai: "It would
be most convenient if the Japanese side could prove to us that the Emperor is
Tojo before the International
completely blameless. I think the forthcoming trials offer the best opportunity to do Military Tribunal for the Far
that. Tojo, in particular, should be made to bear all responsibility at this trial."[115][116] East
The sustained intensity of this campaign to protect the Emperor was revealed when, in
testifying before the tribunal on December 31, 1947, Tojo momentarily strayed from the agreed-upon line concerning
imperial innocence and referred to the Emperor's ultimate authority. The American-led prosecution immediately arranged
that he be secretly coached to recant this testimony. Ryūkichi Tanaka, a former general who testified at the trial and had
close connections with chief prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan, was used as an intermediary to persuade Tojo to revise his
testimony.[117]
Legacy
Tojo's commemorating tomb is located in a shrine in Hazu, Aichi (now Nishio, Aichi), and he is one of those enshrined at
the controversial Yasukuni Shrine. His ashes are divided between Yasukuni Shrine and Zōshigaya Cemetery in Toshima
ward, Tokyo.
He was survived by a number of his descendants, including his granddaughter, Yūko Tojo, who was a far-right
ultranationalist and political hopeful who claimed Japan's war was one of self-defense and that it was unfair that her
grandfather was judged a Class-A war criminal. Tojo's second son, Teruo Tojo, who designed fighter and passenger aircraft
during and after the war, eventually served as an executive at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. In a 1997 survey of university
students in China asking "When somebody talks about Japanese people, what person do you think of", the answer that
most gave was Hideki Tojo, reflecting a lingering sense of hurt in China about Japan's wartime aggression.[118] In the 1998
film Puraido (Pride), Tojo was portrayed as a national hero, forced against his will by the Hull note into attacking America
and executed after a rigged trial, a picture of Tojo that is widely accepted in Japan while giving offense abroad.[119]
In popular culture
During World War II, the IJAAS fighter plane known as the Nakajima Ki-44 received the Allied reporting name of
"Tojo".[120]
In the 1945 film Blood on the Sun, Tojo is portrayed by Robert Armstrong.
In the 1970 film, Tora! Tora! Tora!, directed by Toshio Masuda, Tojo is portrayed by Asao Uchida at various events
leading up to the Pearl Harbor attack.
In 1970's The Militarists, directed by Hiromichi Horikawa, he is portrayed by Keiju Kobayashi as a tyrant, and in an
alternate history angle, stays Prime Minister until the end of the war.
In 1981's The Imperial Japanese Empire, he is portrayed by Tetsurō Tamba as a family man who single-handedly
planned the war against America, and the film deals with his war crimes trial.
In a 1983 song "Tojo" by Australian band Hoodoo Gurus.
The Shunya Itō-directed historical drama Pride, released in 1998, cast Masahiko Tsugawa as Tojo.
In the 2004 Shyam Benegal biopic, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose: The Forgotten Hero, the role of Tojo was portrayed
by Kelly Dorjee
In the Season 1 episode of the FX TV series Rescue Me titled "Leaving," Tommy's father mentions that "back in the
old days, you knew who the bad guys were: Hitler and Tojo."
In 2012's Emperor, Hideki Tojo is portrayed by Shôhei Hino.
In 2014, the History Channel's miniseries The World Wars, Tojo as a youth is portrayed by Koji Oshashi, and as an
adult by Garret T. Sato.
In 2016, the Paradox Interactive's video game Hearts of Iron IV features Tojo as a character in the Japanese
government.
Honors
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure (July 7, 1937)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (April 29, 1940)
Order of the Golden Kite, 2nd Class (April 29, 1940)
Grand Cordon of the Grand Order of the Orchid Blossom, Manchukuo
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Illustrious Dragon, Manchukuo
Grand Cordon of the Order of Auspicious Clouds, Manchukuo
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Pillars of State, Manchukuo
Order of Chula Chom Klao, Thailand
Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class of Order of the White Elephant), Thailand
Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle, Nazi Germany
References
1. http://japan.kantei.go.jp/cabinet/0001-30_e.html
2. Yenne, p. 337.
3. Gorman, p. 43.
4. Butow, p. 4.
5. Browne, p. 19.
6. Browne, p. 11.
7. Browne, pp. 14–15, 19–20.
8. Browne, pp. 19–20.
9. Browne, p. 20.
10. Browne, pp. 23–24.
11. Browne, p. 24.
12. Baudot, p. 455.
13. Courtney Browne, Tojo: The Last Banzai, Angus & Robertson, 1967, pp. 170–171
14. Browne, p. 27.
15. Browne, p. 28.
16. Browne, pp. 28–29.
17. Browne, p. 29.
18. Browne, p. 29-30.
19. Browne, p. 30.
20. Browne, p. 40.
21. Browne, pp. 33–34.
22. Browne, pp. 40–41.
23. Browne, pp. 47–48.
24. Fredrikson, p. 507.

25. Bix, p. 277.
26. Bix, pp. 277–278.
27. Bix, p. 278.
28. Lamont-Brown, p. 65.
29. Bix, p. 244.
30. Takemae & Ricketts, p. 221.
31. Browne, p. 59.
32. Dear & Foot, p. 872.
33. Browne, p. 60.
34. Cowley & Parker, p. 473.
35. Goodman & Miyazawa, p. 113.
36. Kato, p. 127.
37. The New International Year Book, p. 320.
38. Bix, p. 370.
39. Bix, pp. 370–371.
40. Bix, p. 373.
41. Bix, pp. 373–374.
42. Toland, p. .
43. Bix, p. 417.
44. Kido, p. 914.
45. Bix, pp. 417–418.
46. Bix, p. 416.
47. Fujiwara, p. 126.
48. Bix, p. 418.
49. Terasaki, p. 118.
50. Browne, p. 107.
51. Bix, p. 419.
52. Bix, pp. 418–419.
53. Bix, p. 418-419.
54. Wetzler, pp. 51–52.
55. Wetzler, pp. 47–50.
56. Bix, p. 421.
57. Wetzler, pp. 29, 35.
58. Bix, p. 428.
59. Bix, p. 428-431.
60. Wetzler, pp. 28–30, 39.
61. Dower, p. 25.
62. Bix, p. 448.
63. Weinberg, p. 329.
64. Weinberg, pp. 329–330.
66. Bix, p. 457.
67. Falk, p. 511.
68. Falk, pp. 511–512.

69. Falk, p. 512.
70. Falk, p. 518.
71. Falk, p. 510.
72. Bix, p. 467-468.
73. Murray & Millet, p. 348.
74. Bix, p. 473.
76. Bix, pp. 473–474.
77. Bix, p. 474.
78. Weinberg, pp. 640–641.
80. Weinberg, pp. 641–642.
81. Willmott, pp. 155–156.
82. Willmott, pp. 156–157.
83. Bix, p. 472.
86. Murray & Millet, p. 349.
87. Bix, p. 475.
88. Weinberg, p. 641-642.
90. Willmott, p. 216.
93. Bix, p. 477.
94. Bix, p. 478.
95. Willmott, pp. 216–217.
97. Yoshimi, p. 83.
98. Toland, pp. 871–872.
99. Countis.
100. "Dentist Played Prank on Tojo's Teeth" (http://www.csmonitor.com/1995/0817/17051.html). CS Monitor. August 17,
1995.
101. International Military Tribunal for the Far East. "Judgment of 4 November 1948". In Pritchard, John; Zaide, Sonia M.
The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (http://werle.rewi.hu-berlin.de/tokio.pdf) (PDF). pp. 49843–49848.
102. "Rummell, Statistics" (http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM). Hawaii.edu. Retrieved 2013-07-21.
103. "Sterling and Peggy Seagrave: Gold Warriors" (http://educationforum.ipbhost.com/index.php?showtopic=9196).
104. "Japanese War Criminals World War Two" (http://yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php?title=Japanese_War
_Criminals_World_War_Two). The National Archives (U.K.).
105. "Japanese War Crimes" (https://www.archives.gov/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/). The National Archives (U.S.).
106. "Pacific Theater Document Archive" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090718103739/http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~warc
rime/PT.htm). War Crimes Studies Center, University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original (http://socrate
s.berkeley.edu/~warcrime/PT.htm) on July 18, 2009.
107. Kafala, Tarik (October 21, 2009). "What is a war crime?" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1420133.stm). BBC News.
108. "Bibliography: War Crimes" (http://www.gwu.edu/~memory/research/bibliography/warcrimes.html). Sigur Center for

Asian Studies, George Washington University.
109. Crowe, p. 217.
110. "Tojo's ribbons go on display at Pensacola naval museum" (http://jacksonville.com/apnews/stories/111103/D7UOK6R
O0.shtml). The Florida Times‑Union. November 11, 2003. Retrieved June 24, 2014.
111. Toland, p. 873.
112. Bix, pp. 583–585.
113. Dower, pp. 324–326.
114. Yenne, pp. 337–338.
115. Toyoda, pp. 170–172.
116. Bix, p. 584.
117. Dower, pp. 325, 604–605.
118. Kristof, p. 43.
119. Kristof, p. 40.
120. Mikesh, Robert C. (1993). Japanese Aircraft Code Names & Designations. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, Ltd.
ISBN 978-0-88740-447-4.
Bibliography
Karnow, Stanley (1989). "Hideki Tojo/Hideko Tojo". In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines. Random
House. ISBN 978-0-394-54975-0.
Gorman, Jacqueline Laks (2009). Pearl Harbor: A Primary Source History. Gareth Stevens. ISBN 978-1-4339-0047-1.
Butow, Robert Joseph Charles (1961). Tojo and the coming of the war. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-
0690-2.
Baudot, Marcel (1980). The Historical encyclopedia of World War II. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87196-401-4.
Browne, Courtney (1998). Tojo The Last Banzai. Boston: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306808447.
Crowe, David M. (2014). War Crimes, Genocide, and Justice: A Global History (https://books.google.com/books?id=ay
nFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA217&lpg=PA217&dq=%22I+should+bear+entire+responsibility+for+the+war+in+general%22&so
urce=bl&ots=ov6_NlNuJx&sig=W_gAxNsPYqUMqh-FE1WF4CbCQ-8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=QZHsVMKlLsKiNrnDg6AP&v
ed=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22I%20should%20bear%20entire%20responsibility%20for%20the%20war%20i
n%20general%22&f=false). New York City, New York: St. Martin's Press, LLC. ISBN 978-0-230-62224-1. Retrieved
February 24, 2015.
Dower, John (1986). War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon.
ISBN 0075416522.
Falk, Stanley (December 1961). "Organization and Military Power: The Japanese High Command in World War II".
Political Science Quarterly. 76. pp. 503–518.
Fredrikson, John C. (2001). America's military adversaries: from colonial times to the present. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-
1-57607-603-3.
Kristof, Nicholas (November–December 1998). "The Problem of Memory". Foreign Affairs. 77. pp. 37–49.
Lamont-Brown, Raymond (1988). Kempeitai: Japan's dreaded military police. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-
1566-3.
Toland, John (1970). The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945. New York: Random
House. LCCN 77117669 (https://lccn.loc.gov/77117669).
Takemae, Eiji; Ricketts, Robert (2003). The Allied Occupation of Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group.
ISBN 978-0-8264-1521-9.
Dear, I.C.B.; Foot, M.R.D., eds. (2001). The Oxford companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-
19-860446-4.
Cowley, Robert; Parker, Geoffrey (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
ISBN 978-0-618-12742-9.
Goodman, David G.; Miyazawa, Masanori (2000). Jews in the Japanese mind: the history and uses of a cultural
stereotype (https://books.google.com/?id=R_PQLj2D1DQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Jews+in+the+Japanese+mind:+t
he+history+and+uses+of+a+cultural+stereotype#v=onepage&q&f=false). Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0167-4.
Kato, Masuo (1946). The Lost War: A Japanese Reporter's Inside Story. Alfred A. Knopf.
The New International Year Book: A Compendium of the World's Progress. Dodd, Mead and Company. 1945.
Bix, Herbert P. (2001-09-04). Hirohito and the making of modern Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=zjmVltzm
1kYC). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-093130-8. Retrieved November 11, 2011.
Kido, Kōichi (1966). Kido Kōichi nikki [Diary of Kido Kōichi]. Tokyo: Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai.
Fujiwara, Akira (1991). Shōwa tennō no ju-go nen sensō (The Shōwa Emperor's Fifteen Year War). Aoki Shoten.
Murray, Williamson; Millet, Alan (2000). A War To Be Won: Fighting the Second World War. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 0674006801.
Terasaki, Hidenari (1991). Shōwa tennō dokuhakuroku. Bungei Shunjūsha.
Wetzler, Peter (1998). Hirohito and war: imperial tradition and military decision making in prewar Japan (https://books.
google.com/books?id=BWqEkwH1KRMC). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1925-5. Retrieved
November 11, 2011.
Countis, Sierra (September 12, 2002). "The message on Tojo's teeth" (http://www.newsreview.com/chico/content?oid=
10876). Chico News & Review. Retrieved November 11, 2011.
Taylor, Blaine (May 2009). "Hirohito's Triumph" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120305044841/http://www.wwiihistory
magazine.com/current-issue/May09/hirohito/hirohito.html). WWII History Magazine. Sovereign Media. Archived from
the original (http://www.wwiihistorymagazine.com/current-issue/May09/hirohito/hirohito.html) on March 5, 2012.
Retrieved November 11, 2011.
Dower, John W. (2000-06-29). Embracing defeat: Japan in the wake of World War II (https://books.google.com/books?
id=hae0dC_NaiUC). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32027-5. Retrieved November 11, 2011.
Toyoda, Kumao (1986). Sensō saiban yoroku. Taiseisha Kabushiki Kaisha. pp. 170–172.
Weinberg, Gerhard (2005). A World In Arms A Global History of World War II. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 9 780521 618267.
Willmott, H.P. (1984). June 1944. Poole, United Kingdom: Blandford Press. ISBN 0 7137 1446 8.
Yenne, Bill (2014). The Imperial Japanese Army: The Invincible Years 1941–42 (https://books.google.com/books?id=L
TZfBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA337&lpg=PA337&dq=%22I+should+bear+entire+responsibility+for+the+war+in+general%22&s
ource=bl&ots=wiF4ARAlht&sig=EjofLr6zBGo9YG4b0dBGjL91VB0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=QZHsVMKlLsKiNrnDg6AP&ved=
0CEIQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=%22I%20should%20bear%20entire%20responsibility%20for%20the%20war%20in%
20general%22&f=false). Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-932-0. Retrieved
February 24, 2015.
Yoshimi, Yoshiaki (2000). Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II. New York:
Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231120338.
Further reading
Swint, Kerwin (2011). The King Whisperers: Power Behind the Throne from Rasputin to Rove. New York: Union
Square Press. pp. 163–170. ISBN 978-1-4027-7201-6.
Edwin Palmer Hoyt (1993). Warlord: Tojo Against the World. Scarborough House. pp. 195–201.
Ben Ami Shillony (1981). Politics and culture in wartime Japan. Oxford University Press. pp. 62–63.
External links
WW2DB: Hideki Tojo (https://web.archive.org/web/20080312052330/http://www.international.ucla.edu/eas/documents/
19420527-tojo.htm)
Address by Tojo Hideki, Premier of Japan (https://web.archive.org/web/20080312052330/http://www.international.ucla.
edu/eas/documents/19420527-tojo.htm) at the Wayback Machine (archived March 12, 2008)
Hideki Tojo's grave at Findagrave (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=20880)
The Kokomo Tribune (https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/17932065/). September 10, 1945.
"Terror of Asia Gives Interview on Many Topics" (https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=897&dat=19450910&id=P
7daAAAAIBAJ&sjid=F1ADAAAAIBAJ&pg=6295,4214582&hl=en). Prescott Evening Courier. Sep 10, 1945.
"Tojo's Death Plotted in 1944, Is Disclosure" (https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&dat=19451010&id=1mlI
AAAAIBAJ&sjid=GVUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3568,5866928&hl=en). The Evening Independent. October 10, 1945.
Political offices
Preceded by Minister of War Succeeded by
Shunroku Hata 1940–1944 Hajime Sugiyama
Preceded by Prime Minister of Japan Succeeded by
Fumimaro Konoe 1941–1944 Kuniaki Koiso
Preceded by Minister of Home Affairs Succeeded by
Harumichi Tanabe 1941–1942 Michio Yuzawa
Preceded by Minister of Foreign Affairs Succeeded by
Shigenori Tōgō 1942 Masayuki Tani
Preceded by Minister of Education Succeeded by
Kunihiko Hashida 1942 Nagakage Okabe
Minister of Commerce and
Preceded by
Industry Office abolished
Nobusuke Kishi
1943
Minister of Munitions Succeeded by
New creation
1943–1944 Ginjirō Fujiwara
Military offices
Preceded by Chief of Army General Staff Succeeded by
Hajime Sugiyama 1944 Yoshijirō Umezu
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hideki_Tojo&oldid=825695524"
This page was last edited on 14 February 2018, at 21:29.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.

Hideki Tojo

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hideki Tojo

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2/18/2018 Hideki Tojo - Wikipedia

Honors Minister of War

Rise to Prime Minister

On November 2, Tojo and Chiefs of Staff Hajime Sugiyama and

Initial Success & Popularity (1941-1942)

Tojo had popular support in the

Downfall (March-July 1944)

24. Fredrikson, p. 507.

68. Falk, pp. 511–512.

108. "Bibliography: War Crimes" (http://www.gwu.edu/~memory/research/bibliography/warcrimes.html). Sigur Center for

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hideki_Tojo&oldid=825695524"

This page was last edited on 14 February 2018, at 21:29.

You might also like