Fuzzy Usle Model

CONTENTS
Preface 3
1.INTRODUCTION 5
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Background of the research 5
1.3 Project objectives for the CGI 6
1.4 How to read this report 7
2. GIS TECHNOLOGY THE APPROPRIATE INSTRUMENT? 8

2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 A three-level approach 9
2.2.1 Description of spatial phenomena 9
2.2.2 Processing of spatial data 10
2.2.3 Presentation of results 10
2.2.4 Summary 11
2.3 The application base 12
3. TOWARDS A DATABASE 14
3.1 Introduction 14
3.2 Data concept 14
3.3 Formal description 15
3.4 Implementation 16
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 18

4.1 Introduction 18
4.2 Topographical information - human constructions 19
4.2.1 Procedure 20
4.2.2 Data sources 20
4.2.3 Results 20
4.2.4 Reliability 20
4.2.5 Improvements 21
4.3 Topographical information - Altitude 21
4.3.1 Procedure 21
4.3.3 Results 23
4.4 Geomorphology 25
4.4.1 Procedure 25
4.4.3 Results 26
4.5 Climate 27
4.5.1 Procedure 28
4.5.3 Results 28
Application of a GIS, Tigray, Ethiopia. By H.P.A. Eweg and R. van Lammeren, Agricultural University Wageningen.
4.6 Vegetation 29
4.6.1 Procedure 29
4.6.3 Results 31
4.7 Land management 31
4.7.1 Procedure 31
4.7.3 Results 33
4.8 Conclusion 34
5. TOWARDS EROSION MODELLING 35

5.1 Introduction 35
5.2 Data query 35
5.3 The USLE concept and flowchart 36
5.4 Implementation of the model 39
6. RESULTS OF THE USLE GIS-APPLICATION 42

6.1 Introduction 42
6.2 Description of the application 42
6.3 Results 43
6.4 Potentialities of the erosion model 44
7. EPILOGUE 45
7.1 Introduction 45
7.2 Reliability 45
7.2.1 Reliability of the implementation of the USLE model 46
7.2.4 Locational accuracy 46
7.2.3 Reliability of the measurements and factors 46
7.2.4 Appropriateness of the USLE model 49
7.3 Rehabilitation of degraded areas 49
7.3.1 Potential erosion 50
7.3.2 Protecting vegetation cover 50
7.3.3 Estimated erosion 51
7.3.4 Planning for rehabilitation 51
7.4 The GIS-application discussed 52
7.5 And next ...... research 52
Notes 55
References 58
Appendix 1 Legend ISAC flowcharts
Appendix 2 Generating the DEM in Arc-Info
Appendix 3 Spectral signatures
Appendix 4 MGE-Script USLE model
Appendix 5 Maps
PREFACE
This final report presents a study to develop methodologies for rehabilitation of

degraded and degrading areas of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. Especially this part focuses
on the possibilities to employ Geographical Information Systems and Remote Sensing
techniques to support activities for rehabilitation of degrading and degraded areas. The
research activities have been paid out of the project budget of a research project funded
by the European Community, Directorate General XII. The responsibility of this part lies
with the Centre for Geographical Information processing (CGI), Wageningen
Agricultural University. Other partners in the project were: the Department of Biology,
University of Addis Ababa; the Department of Biology, University of Trieste; the 'Centro
de Ciencias Medioambientales CSIC, Madrid. These partners studied the soil, geomor-
phological and vegetation aspects of the degradation and rehabilitation process and will
describe their activities and findings in their own contributions to the report. However, as
the research had a substantial interdisciplinary character, the data gathering and the
data processing should be considered as a joint effort of the whole project team, to
which each discipline made its distinctive contribution.
GIS and Remote Sensing technologies are a valuable tool to support and improve
the gathering, analyzing and processing of information. They proved to be especially
valuable within the context of the project: a high demand for information about an
inaccessible area of which no data are available yet, within the restrictions of limited
time and budget. A context which will sound familiar to many scientists and planners
working in developing countries. Although the main results of our work are actual
empirical data and methods for data gathering and processing, an additional result is an
analysis of the erosion process in the study area, south of the town of Adwa. This make
this report not only of interest to scientists and planners who want to consider the usage
of GIS and Remote Sensing techniques, but also to planners, decision makers and
other people who are fighting the degradation process in this area.
Acknowledgements
The research work developed into a genuine interdisciplinary piece of work, in which
we collaborated in joint teams to explore and investigate the area. The collaboration
with our colleagues from Addis Ababa, Spain and Trieste was inspiring, enjoyable and
instructive. A major contribution to this study was the administrative and technical
support we received from the secretariats, system managers and drivers from the
National Herbarium, Addis Ababa and the CGI Wageningen. Also we want to thank our
colleagues at Wageningen University who, although not directly involved in this project,
took all the time to comment and support our work. Especially John Stuiver and Jan
Hein Loedeman, who gave significant advice for the development of the Digital
Elevation Model, which was developed by Reina Spit and Jelle Kooistra. We are
grateful to Carl Pavliceck who performed an extensive literature survey at the beginning
of the project. Several students of WAU contributed to this project: Hellen Deurloo,
Ingeborg Kuiper, Jean-Luc Sarraute, Marcel Spaas and Oscar Vonder. We are much
indebted to Hellen Deurloo who devoted a lot of time and energy to the project, during
the research work in Ethiopia and during the lay-out work of all the maps in this report.
3
For the assistance in the data gathering, for making available their information
sources and facilitating the research activities we thank the following people and
organisations:
- Baito members of Adwa, Indaba Tsh'ama and May Kinet'al Wereda's
- Bureau of Agriculture, Nature Resources and Environmental Protection
- Bureau of Planning and Economic Development
- Ethiopian Mapping Agency
- Farm Africa
- Ministry of Agriculture, Adwa branch
- National Meteorological Services Agency and Ministry of Agriculture, Ethiopia
- Queen of Sheba Highschool, Adwa
and especially the farmers and other people in Tigray who not only provided a lot of
information, but also received us with a large hospitality which really made us feel 'at
home'.
Wageningen, January 1996
Rik Eweg
Ron van Lammeren
4
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Studying an area and having an eye for the possibilities for rehabilitation and
sustainable land use requires a lot. An elaborate understanding of the complex natural
system and processes, influenced by human interference, is needed. Therefore, it is
necessary to describe the natural system as well as the social system, as good as
possible. The purpose of the adjective good is narrowly related to the scale level that
will be used in such a study. This description functions as a basement for interpretation
of the actual and potential conditions of an area. Finally by use of the interpretations
and the descriptive date new area oriented ideas for rehabilitation and sustainable land
use might be developed.
Such a study is, as we know all, a challenging effort, especially as the study area is
a part of Tigray in northern Ethiopia and the research team intend to research on a local
scale level. But it is a challenge too as the tool to describe the area, to analyze it and to
design new directions of development has to be a geographical information system
(GIS). The present report demonstrates how this challenge has been accepted and
towards which results it has led.
1.2 Background of the research
This study is a component of the project 'Rehabilitation of degraded and degrading

areas of Tigray, northern Ethiopia' The project is funded by the European Community,
Directorate General XII, 'Science, Research and Development' as a project within the
programme 'Life, Sciences and Technologies for Developing Countries (STD-3)'.
It is a joined project of:
- the Department of Biology, University of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia;
- the Department of Biology, University of Trieste, Italy;
- the 'Centro de Ciencias Medioambientales' - the National centre for environmental
research, CSIC - Madrid, Spain;
- the Centre for Geographical Information processing (CGI) of Wageningen Agricul-
tural University, the Netherlands.
The overall objectives of the project were1:

1 To carry out research to discover the causes of environmental degradation in
Ethiopia, starting in Tigray, that has given rise to the recent famine;
2 Based on these findings, to start experimenting on:
- the proper management of the rural environment so that it does not degrade
further;
- the rehabilitation of degraded and degrading environments so that the country-
side is restored to a healthy state which will enable it to support the human
population and to support the plants and animals that it used to contain;
- to raise agricultural production not only for self-sufficiency in food, but also for a
surplus that will generate the support that industrialization will require.
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3 Start implementing the dictates of the findings in an experimental area.
4 Through complete participation, integrate the knowledge, aspirations and efforts of
the people in that area in the research activities and in the putting into use of the
research results.
5 Train young people through formal education and working scientists through working
visits in Europe so as to ensure the building of endogenous capacity on the field of
research.
The institutional settings of the GIS-technology and application where those of the
Centre for Geographical Information processing (CGI) of Wageningen Agricultural
University (WAU).
1.3 Project objectives for the CGI
In the overall project proposal the need of a geographical information system is

argued by the number and complexity of the data needed to describe and analyze the
degradation processes on a local level in the Tigray area. Directed from this there have
been mentioned three targets:
- the development of a geographical information system, that makes use of data
which are already available, including remote sensing data;
- the training of Ethiopian researchers in GIS;
- the set up of a GIS laboratory at the department of Biology of the university of Addis
Ababa.
But the project team had been warned by Van Teefelen, van Grunsven and
Verkoren (1992). This researchers point at three constraints related to the use of GIS in
developing countries:
1. a lack of sufficient and well organized information;
2. limited financial means, causing practical restrictions on the adaptation and the
establishment;
3. a lack of human resources.
Although the targets have been defined to meet this constraints and the institutional
settings were those of Wageningen University, all three types of constraints have been
confronted in the project.
Because of the limited financial means and the intention to transfer the hardware
and software to the settings of the Biology Department in Addis Ababa, a GIS running
on a PC was chosen2. The whole project was performed in this 'PC environment',
although the development of the Digital Elevation Model and for the image processing,
software running on a workstation, was employed3.
A researcher of Addis Ababa University participated in the activities at the Centre for
Geographical Information processing for the period of one year and a junior staff
member was enlisted for 17 months the course "GIS for Rural Applications", a joint
course of the ITC-Enschede and CGI - Wageningen Agricultural University. This
resulted in at least a beginning of expertise present at the Biology Department of Addis
Ababa University.
6
How the lack of information was dealt with, will be one of the main issues in this
report because the report focuses on the first target. During the project GIS started as a
system to store and to retrieve, by querying, information. This system has been
extended to a soil erosion modelling environment.
The project aimed on a large scale sub-regional level, comparing with a information
presented on a map scale of 1:50,000. Useful information on this scale was hardly
available. New thematical and topographical maps had to be generated before the
fieldwork and the modelling could start. Because this lack of data the first objective dealt
with the retrieve of area data, the storage and combination of the various types of
information to generate new maps as input data for fieldwork, analysis and modelling.
1.4 How to read this report

This report begins with an introduction of GIS. Chapter Two explains, for this reason,
the three level approach that can be used if one intends to develop a GIS application, to
select the software that should be used or to evaluate a GIS application. In the next four
chapters elements of this three level approach will be worked out in detail for the Tigray
case. Chapter Seven will reflect on the previous chapters in two ways. Firstly, it will
reflect upon the reliability of the results. Than, the contributions of this research for the
planning of rehabilitation will be described. The chapter concludes with guidelines
based on the experiences of this project and recommendations for further research.
We hope the report is of interest to readers with various backgrounds. The reader
who has few experience with GIS, but nevertheless wants to understand the GIS
concepts and the way data and process models can be implemented and applied by
GIS is advised to read the complete report. The GIS expert or erosion expert who is
interested in the application of GIS and erosion models in this study may start at
Chapter Three. Finally, the planner, policy maker or other user who is mainly interested
in the results of the study for the Ethiopian Highlands may limit him- or herself to the
Chapters Six and Seven.
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2 GIS TECHNOLOGY THE APPROPRIATE INSTRUMENT?
2.1 Introduction
Before adopting GIS technology as an obvious tool for solving the problems encoun-
tered in a project, the question whether this is the appropriate technology should be
firmly discussed. Burrough (1992) refers, as an example of this discussion, to Yapa
(1991) who points out that GIS is at the other end of the spectrum from the usual
'appropriate technology' (AT) which is generally considered to be suitable for developing
countries.
AT should be low in capital, use local material and few imported resources and can be
maintained without a high level of expertise, usually by large numbers of workers. GIS
technology does in no way meet these standards. Therefore, this technology should not
be used in any project without careful considering whether GIS is the appropriate
instrument in the given circumstances.
The research for rehabilitating degrading areas in Tigray was primarily a scientific
research, that had to deal with the challenge to proof that GIS can be instrument of
relevance to tackle the problem of degradation on a large scale level.
The question whether the use of GIS technology is useful for governmental and non-
governmental organisations was not under discussion in this research4.
Geographical Information Systems have been defined by a number of researchers.
Aronoff (1989) defines it as any manual or computer based set of procedures used to
store and manipulate geographically referenced data. Another definition, more
technology oriented, is the one of Ozemoy, Smith and Sicherman (1981). GIS from their
point of view is an automated set of functions that provides professionals with advanced
capabilities for the storage, retrieval, manipulation, and display of geographically located
data.
From these definitions we can understand a little why there exist so much interest in
GIS. Van der Schans (1990) motivates this interest by three main chances with big
consequences:
a. a division between storage of data and the (graphical) presentation of it. Originally
(carto )graphic data were used for presentation as well analysis (for example
measurements by planimeters, scale-units, and so on. GIS realizes a separation
between data-analysis and data-presentation;
b. algorithmic performance of processes with other people's knowledge. A lot of
mathematical, statistical and geographical analyzing techniques and methods are
implemented in computer programmes (most of the time called functions) which are
available by GIS and can be started automatically via commands by almost
everyone;
c. human - machine interactivity. Working with GIS means nowadays that there is a
kind of communication based on graphical and (a)numerical forms of input by a user
that initiates 'reactions' of the system.
8
2.2 A three-level approach
The development of a GIS is not a simple task. One has to take into consideration
that there are, like all information technology, items of storage, processing and
presentation that have to be discussed and defined on three levels. These levels can be
coded as:
- the conceptual level, at this level theories, ideas, intentions are collected, discussed
and sampled to new hypothesis for the storing, the processing and the presentation
of data;
- the formal level, at this level techniques will be used to describe the formal structure
by which the data will be stored, processed and present;
- the implementation level, at this level GIS-software will be used to create an informa-
tion system that can really store, process and present the stored and processed
data.
For the description of spatial phenomena, the processing of these phenomena and
the presentation of the (processed) phenomena each of these levels has to be scruti-
nized. In the following paragraph a short overview will be given.
2.2.1 Description of spatial phenomena

To develop a GIS application the real world has to be stored into a database. The
step dealing with the description of the spatial phenomena usually includes four phases,
also referred to as the four levels for data modelling:
- knowledge based vision of reality;
- conceptual description of the required information (data model);
- formal description of the data model (data structure)
- implementation of the data structure in a database.
The first step from the world to the database is formed by the mental model. The
model that we mean here is the one that the various user disciplines have of the world.
Soil experts, for example, divide the world into certain soil classes. This is determined
by a number of indicators, such as soiltype, humidity and the organic content.
The next step turns this spatial model into a conceptual data model. This means that
the important phenomena are determined, their most important characteristics are des-
cribed, and a description is made as to how the components are related. Differences in
opinion between disciplinary experts need to be settled in this phase.
The next step provides the logical data model. The logical data model describes the
way in which the data are structured, so that they can be stored in the computer. The
data will be stored in tables in so-called databases. In our example, a choice as to
which data will be stored in which tables, has to be made. Also, a choice for either
raster or vector structure will have to be made.
The last step involves the implementation of the data into the computer. The tables
are stored and processed by means of specific commands and a database manage-
ment system. The implementation phase can be subdivided into: data collection, input,
and storage of the spatial objects in the computer. We discern primary and secondary
data. When talking about primary data, we mean the data that are acquired at the
various sources. If data are already in digital form, and if they come from other GIS
9
users, we speak of secondary data. These data have already been derived and
interpreted by others.
2.2.2 Processing of spatial data

Manipulation and analysis of spatial objects are often seen as the heart of GIS. This
is the part that provides answers to the questions that the users face. One should not
forget, however, that all parts of the geographical data processing are essential. An
incorrectly formed datamodel can result in not being able to ask the system the 'burning'
questions. Unfamiliarity with graphical presentation methods can lead to uninterpretable
research results. This process phase is subdivided into: query, operation and
transformation.
Queries are the processes in which already existing data are retrieved from the
database. We have reduced reality to tables in a computer; data that are arranged in
their physical-spatial and in their social-spatial meanings. By means of queries, these
data can be retrieved from the computer to be presented on the screen, on paper etc..
The queries that can be made obviously depend on the information that has been
stored. When, for example, the various surface areas of landuse per town have been
stored, one can ask 'how much forest is around 1 kilometre distance of the Adwa town
?'.
As soon as one starts changing the data in the computer, we speak of an operation.
Operations are processes in which new information is created, based on already exis-
ting data. The designation of environmentally degraded areas by means of certain
strongly eroded zones (buffering) is an example of an operation. Also, the projection of
the erosion sensitivity dataset on top of the influenced zones dataset is an example of
an operation that is referred to as an overlay operation. Also, if one were to increase the
areas of forest with 10 ha., per town, in the landuse database, this would be also an
operation.
The last category of data processing are what we call transformations. Transformati-
ons are processes in which the meaning of the data are not changed, but only the form
in which the data are described. In a majority of the cases this form refers to geometry.
An example is the transfer of geometric data that are in some special cartographic
coordinate system, to another system, the Mercator projection for example. This would
be necessary if we, for example, would like to relate the self made digital soilmap of an
area to the soilmaps of a country or region. The meaning stays the same again, but the
form changes.
2.2.3 Presentation of results

One of the most important actions in the geographical data processes is the
presentation of the results. This can be accomplished in a number of ways: maps,
tables, statistical reports, computer datasets, computer applications, computer
animations. This can be carried out on hard copy (paper and film), or on soft copy
(television or computer).
Although a wide array of output examples can be discussed, the majority of the
output is normally accomplished by means of maps. Because of easy printing and low
costs, these maps will be usually be printed in black and white. When an official
presentation is to be made, only then will the output be accomplished using colour
printers or colour plotters.
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It is important to distinguish a map from a database. Often, people neglectfully speak
of maps when digital models in a database are meant. Several geographical information
systems introduce new concepts for this database (the concept of 'design files',
containing a setup-coordinate element and attribute linkages to relational database
records, in MGE for example). As long as we refer to this model that is stored in the
computer, we speak of the database. As soon as the digital model is made visible on
the screen or on paper, we speak of a map. This distinction is important because the
digital model is the implementation of the conceptual model (naturally via the logical
model). As soon as this model is presented as a map, we speak of a symbolic graphical
presentation. This presentation is always a simplification of the model, for the sake of
the interpretability of the map. Often, the purpose for which the map is made deter-
mines the part of the information in the model that is made visible in the presentation.
An example: a soil expert has implemented his (or her) conceptual model (via a logical
data model) in a database. The characteristics for his model that was stored are:
soiltype, ground water level, organic content and an indication of soil life. Whenever the
soil expert wants to present this database on a map, he will have to make a choice for
one of these (thematic) characteristics. He could, for example, make a map illustrating
ground water levels, but also percentages of soil life. This results in two totally different
maps that are based on the same database. It could even be that the presentation of
the soiltypes occurs twice in two utterly different ways, that these maps are not the
same. The soilunits can be presented in one case, per soilunit, whilst in the other case
they are presented per landunit (merged soilunits form landunits). In this example, even
the geometry that is presented on the map is different. Shortly, a map is not a database,
and a database is not yet a map.
2.2.4 Summary
The diagram summarizes the previous discussion: the description of spatial
phenomena, the processing of spatial data, and the presentation of the results. In the
diagram these three process actions are referred to in short as:
- input of data
- processing of data
- output of data
As was mentioned already in the description of spatial objects, one can consider
geographical data processes at different levels: conceptual, logical (or formal) and
implementation
Process-actions Input Processing Output

Level
Conceptual data model processing model (carto)graphic concept
Logical data structure flow chart graphical lay out
Implementation database (structured) GIS com- presentation commands
mands
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The various process actions have been placed in the table columns, the
contemplated levels in front of the table rows.
How each of the elements of the diagram has been worked out, can be read in the
Chapters Three (Towards a database) and Five (Towards erosion modelling). The
elements belonging to the output will not be elaborated in the report. The maps
presented in this report form the results of the graphical layout and the presentation
commands5.
2.3 The application base
At the implementation level the Modular Geographical information processing

Environment (MGE) package has been chosen. The MGE-PC package consists of the
following modules (Intergraph, 1993):
- 'MicroStation PC' for graphical capabilities (a.o. input and output of data);
- 'Oracle', the database management system;
- 'SQL', the user interface for storing and retrieving information in the database;
- 'MGE-PC-1' for the project management and query capabilities;
- 'MGGA' for grid analysis and manipulation.
The GIS MGE offers a well structured environment for the organisation of
information. Before starting a project by importing data in the system, the project should
be carefully planned.
Figure 1 shows the organisation of information in a project.
The GIS MGE has a hierarchical structure for organizing the attribute information:
Indexes, Categories and Features. The geometrical information is stored in design files,
which can be characterized as 'digital maps'. Each design file contains the objects
(features) belonging to one Category. The Design files and the Categories are grouped
into Indexes. The project information is stored in tables: Feature tables, Categories
tables and Maps tables. As an example: the feature 'church' belongs to the category
'Build-up area', which describes the attribute information of the objects on the design file
'build-up.dgn', belonging to the index 'topography'. All tables and design files belong to
the project 'Tigray'. The relation between these tables is saved in a project scheme.
Each feature can be linked with one or more user defined attribute tables. Attribute
tables can be created and managed by database management programmes like
dBASE IV or ORACLE. During the project oracle has been used.
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Project Database
Tables Created by Define Poject schema Attribute Tables

Created by User with Scheme Builder
features categories maps
tables table table
mscatalog
table
Figure 1 MGE-PC1 Database (Intergraph, 1993)
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3. TOWARDS A DATABASE
3.1 Introduction
In this study, we follow the 'object oriented approach' as described by Molenaar
(1993) to describe the 'real world' with a data model. Molenaar describes features that
are present on the earth surface as terrain objects, by its geometrical and attribute
information. We will describe the methodology for the development of the database by
the 'three level approach' which was outlined in section 2.2.
At the conceptual level, we started with determining the information requirements of
the database based on the problems that had to be solved. This included an extensive
discussion with the experts on information needs and definitions (section 3.2). Together
with the experts, during a workshop, a data model was drawn up, which formed the
design of the database (section 3.3). At the implementation level, the datamodel was
translated in the prescribed data structure of the MGE GIS (section 3.4).
According to the object oriented approach, any object stored in a GIS can be
described by its geometrical information and its attribute information. The geometrical
information describes the location, shape and area while the attribute information gives
the contents of the object.
The geometrical description of an object is based on coordinates. Many different
coordinate systems do exist. The process of linking the delineation of objects to a
coordinate system is called 'georefferencing'. Data collected in the field can be
georefferenced with the help of a Global Positioning System (GPS). Data derived from
maps or digital sources with other coordinate systems can be georefferenced with
geometrical transformations, based on points of which the coordinates are known. In
the MGE package, the database for the geometrical information is a predesigned
component of the GIS and only accessible through the GIS interface.
The attribute information can be diverse as various disciplines will attach different
meanings to a location. The same location can be classified by a soil scientist as a
vertisol, by a vegetation expert as an acacia woodland, by a biologist as a habitat for a
specific bird or by a farmer as an area for grazing. It is this attribute information for
which a database was designed. The database for the attribute information is partly
predesigned, as we mentioned in section 2.3, but also leaves room for user defined
attribute tables. In these tables, the information collected by the different participants in
this project was stored. Besides the function of a storage medium, the database
enables the user to retrieve the information for a specific location and to produce new
(thematical) maps for analysis or planning.
3.2 Data Concept
For the design of the database a knowledge oriented approach was chosen. In this
approach the research questions and the knowledge necessary to solve these
questions form the starting point. From this, the required information and data are
derived. This approach prevents the collection of large quantities of data which turn out
to be superfluous at the end of the research. In this project, the knowledge analysis was
based on the main question, which formed the starting point of this research: 'What
14
measures should be taken to maximize a desired type of biomass, while minimizing
erosion?'. This question can be subdivided into several sub-problems which should be
studied, focusing on the questions which measures should be taken on one hand and
focusing on disciplinary questions related to erosion, vegetation and land use on the
other hand. Because of time constraints, the design of the database and the model was
restricted to erosion aspects.
Several specific questions can be formulated in relation to erosion, such as:
- What is the actual erosion in the area? Where?
- Which erosion types are present in the area? Where?
- What is the potential erosion in the area? (types, places, quantitative, qualitative)
To answer these questions properties of the area and processes within the area
have to be considered as a system, which results in the present degradation of the
surface of the area. Properties of the area which have to be studied concern the
geomorphology, soil, land use, topography and land cover in the area. Processes
concern the influence and mutual relation of these aspects on the actual and potential
erosion in the area.
The model which was chosen to analyze and model the erosion in the area is the
Universal Soil Loss Equation. This model was adapted for the Ethiopian highlands by
the disciplinary experts. The USLE model is described extensively in the report
describing the activities of the CSIC-Madrid.
3.3 Formal description
The GIS MGE offers a well structured environment to its user for the organisation of
information. Before starting a project by importing data in the system, the project should
be carefully planned. The entity relationship diagram in Figure 2 shows how the
attribute information of a project is organised in the GIS-MGE. The attribute information,
which will be derived from various sources, has to be classified into categories and
features. The geometrical information is stored in design files, which can be character-
ized as 'maps'. Maps and Categories are grouped into Indexes. For the coordination of
the GIS, this information is stored in Feature tables, Categories tables and Maps tables.
The relation between these tables is saved in the project scheme. Each feature can be
linked with one or more user defined attribute tables, which are Oracle tables, that can
be linked with other tables outside the GIS.
The attribute information of the project can be described formally by the
classification hierarchy shown in Figure 3. During the implementation, the formal
description of the project data has to be converted into the database structure of the
GIS, which was described by it's entity relationship diagram.
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PROJECT
INDEX CATEGORY
MAP
FEATURE
Legend
Figure 2 Entity relationship diagram for attribute information in MGE (Fikru Yifter, 1995).
3.4 Implementation
For all features, attribute tables were defined to store the relevant information
belonging to each attribute. An example of the structure of a user defined attribute table
linked to the feature 'tabia' is given in Table 1. Table 2 shows a part of this table.
Table 1. Definition of the Oracle table 'Tabia'
Name Type
MSLINK NUMBER (10)
MAPID NUMBER (10)
NAME CHAR (20)
POPULATION NUMBER (10)
CLOSED_AREA NUMBER
REAFFORESTED_AREA NUMBER
GRAZING_AREA NUMBER
CACTUS_AREA NUMBER
REAFFOREST_YEAR NUMBER
Table 2. User defined attribute table 'Tabia'.
MSLINKMAPID NAME POPULATION CLOSED REAFFOR. REAFFOREST

AREA AREA YEAR
10 100012 Wechi 63 1 1985
11 100012 Lakenay 60 31 1985
12 100012 Zongi 90 4 1985
13 100012 Wuhdet 51 1 1985
14 100012 Ketema 38 15 1984
15 100012 Golgolo 52 1 1985
16 100012 Zebenege 88 1 1985
17 100012 Werkamba 52 2 1985
18 100012 Golagule 165 1 1985
19 100012 Nekea 52 12 1985
20 100012 EndaFelasi 151 1 1985
21 100012 Melka 75 5 1985
16
TOPOGRAPHY Altitude contour_500
contour_100
contour_25
altitude point
GPS point
Transportation main road
secondary road
track
path
Drainage stream
Built-up area city
town
village
church
monastry
Boundaries woreda boundary
tabia boundary
study area
VEGETATION Natural vegetation vegetation relevee
forest
woodland
shrubland
scrubland
open land
Crop land cultivated
fallow
nursery
MANAGEMENT Vegetation management protected
reforested
cactus area
Agricultural management bunds -good shape
bunds -degraded
grass strip
terrace
grazing area
slope field
flat field
waste land
Water management dam
pond
CLIMATE Rainfall isopleth
GEOMORPHOLOGY Denudation area severe badlands

undulating badlands
erosion surface remnants + soil cover
erosion surface remnants without soil cover
Accumulation area alluvial fans
Fluvial area alluvial plain and terraces
infilled valley
Geom. details scarps/denudational rock slopes
: one-to-many relation
Figure 3 Classification hierarchy of the attribute information of the project.

17
4 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA
4.1 Introduction
The study area is located in Tigray, the northern state of Ethiopia and covers an
area of approximately 30 x 40 kilometres, with the city of Adwa as most northern point
and the Weri river as border at the south6. It lies in the Northern Highlands, part of the
East-African Rift plateau.
For modelling the erosion process, five datasets have been composed: topography,
geomorphology and climate, which determine the potential erosion and
landmanagement and vegetation which determine the actual erosion. For each dataset
we first describe various aspects of the procedures of collecting and processing data:
a. The procedure, following the systematics described by Van der Schans (1990)
and visualized with the help of flowcharts according the ISAC-Method7 (Lundeberg
et al., 1984). Van der Schans describes the steps in the process to come from the
real world to a digital representation. The 'real world' is characterized as the system
in which we live and form part. By processing information derived from this 'real
world' we develop 'digital models', which are invisible representations in the form of
bits and bytes in the computer (for example satellite images). If necessary 'graphical
representations', maps and photographs, are used as intermediate products.
b. The data sources, summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. Data sources
Vegetation: natural field + LandSat

agricultural field + LandSat
Soil: texture field + photos (+ SPOT)
organic matter field + photos
colour field + photos (+ SPOT)
Geology: geomorphology field + photos
lithology field + photos
Climate: rainfall field
Relief: altitude field + photos -> DEM
slope DEM
Man-made constructions:
build-up area top. map
transportation field + top. map
Drainage: streams SPOT + photos
Management: land management field
c. The results, which may be a digital model, or the graphical representation of the
digital model.
d. The reliability of the sources of information and the reliability of the procedures to
transform these data into digital models, which determine the reliability of the digital
models. Burrough (1986) discusses various types of errors that can occur in GIS
data. The reliability of the sources in this research concern the age of data, areal
coverage, map scale and density of observations. The reliability of the input pro-
cedures are connected with positional accuracy, qualitative and quantitative accu-
18
racy and input errors. Also the computer processing can cause errors, resulting from
numerical errors in the computer, digitizing and rasterizing vector maps. Table 3
illustrates that in this research the sources for the digital models were many, as were
the methods how they were developed and the people, hardware and software
involved in the process. Although the variety in error types and sources makes it
impossible to express the reliability in one value. If possible, the reliability will be
expressed as an objective value. However, the qualitative reliability only can be
expressed in a subjective manner, considering the abilities of the collectors, as the
results were not subjected to a statistical field check.
e. Improvements of the procedures, based on the experiences in the project. These

suggestions can contribute to more efficient, time and costs saving methods in
future projects.
Before the project could start, a map projection had to be chosen in which all data
and measurements were to be recorded. The suitable map projection depends from the
scale of the project and the application. For this project the Universe Transverse
Mercator (UTM) projection was selected, which is suitable for mapping on a regional,
medium and large scale and appropriate for topographical applications. The UTM
system for Ethiopia, as for many other African countries, is based on the Clarke (1880)
spheroid.
4.2 Topographical information - human constructions
The data gathering procedures are visualised with the help of ISAC flowcharts
(legend see Appendix 1).
Topographical map
Real
Topo map SPOT Air photo Topo - photo Vegetation
DEM
image 1:50,000 map coverage World
1:250,000
digitizing
selection
Interpretation,
contouring
digitizing
editting
Topo - photo
Topographical
map
coverage
Figure 4 Data gathering procedure topo-photomap and final topographical map.
19
4.2.1 Procedure
The fact that no maps were available was characteristic for this project, as it will be
for many other projects on a local and sub-regional level in developing countries. In this
case, the thematical maps will have to be developed by photo interpretation and field
surveys. For the initial field survey it is necessary to have a preliminary topographical
map (1:50,000) for orientation in the field and to provide the geometrical delineation of
the collected field data. The 1:50,000 map was derived from the topographical map
1:250,000 and a SPOT satellite image. The SPOT image was georefferenced with the
help of points taken from the topographical maps 1:250,000. The topographical maps
were scanned and the contour lines, infrastructure and villages were digitized on
screen. The drainage network and the outlines of the towns Adwa and Aksum were
digitized on screen by interpreting the SPOT image. To support this interpretation,
products like a principle component transformation and a vegetation index were
derived8. Aerial photos were consulted when the interpretation was doubtful.
4.2.2 Data sources

1. SPOT-HRV1, WRS-reference 136-22, scene recording 3 March 1990, scene identifi-
cation S1H1900303081506. The SPOT satellite records the reflection in the green,
red and near infrared light.
Bands wavelength (µm)
1 Green light visible 0.50-0.59
2 Red light visible 0.61-0.68
3 Near Infrared 0.79-0.89
2. Topographical map sheets: series EMA 3, sheets ND 37-6, ND 37-7, ND 37-10 and
ND 37-11, scale 1:250,000, first edition, published and prepared by the Ethiopian
Mapping Agency, 1979. Universal Transverse Mercator Grid, Zone 37, Clarke
Spheroid.
4.2.3 Results
A photomap with topographic data and the SPOT Image (Bands 321) as a
background. The total area covers about 5600 km2 and is printed on a scale 1:50,000
on 25 A3 sheets, each covering 16 x 14 km. Topographical features: roads, drainage
network, towns, villages, 100 m contour lines and altitude points.
4.2.4 Reliability
Input SPOT Image:
Age: 3 March 1990
Quantitative accuracy:
20
Reference points for the geometric correction of the satellite image were taken from
the topographic sheets 1:250,000. The accuracy is expressed as the 'RMS-error',
which is the distance between the input location of a reference point and the
transformed location for the same point. The RMS-error for the SPOT Image was
within 5 pixels (= 100 m).
Input topographical map:

Age: 1979 (based on aerial photos of 1964).
Quantitative accuracy:
The topographic map 1:250,000 mentions a horizontal plotting accuracy less than
125 metres, with 90% assurance. The accuracy of the contour lines is stated to be
within 50 metres. The scanned maps were resampled to a 30 metre resolution.
Accuracy of the geometrical transformation for the scanned maps was within 0.9
pixel, i.e. 27 metres. Digitization of the topographical features results in a difference
between objects on the map and in the field of 5 m9.
Resulting photomap:
The deviation between data obtained from the scanned topographical map and the
satellite image may amount up to 260 metres occasionally. Deviation between
objects derived from the map and objects in the field may amount to 155 metres
(contour lines: 55 metres in Z), the deviation between objects on the satellite image
and the real world may amount to 100 metres.
Qualitative accuracy:
Maps, digitization and interpretation were performed by experienced experts.
4.2.5 Improvements
The drainage network, infrastructure and villages can be derived more accurately
from aerial photos. However, current photos are not always available and interpretation
and photogrammetrical corrections will take considerable time. The approach used in
the case study seems the best way to get an acceptable topographical map for field
work within a relatively brief period. The RMS error in the SPOT photomap can be
reduced by taking reference points in the field with a GPS, rather than deriving these
points from the 1:250,000 map.
4.3.1 Procedure
The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was derived from 45 aerial photos, 1:50,000. For
reasons of time and bu
dget it was decided to develop the DEM semi-automatically: a combination of manual
interpretation and automatic processing. To development a DEM this way, many points
have to be digitized by stereoscopic interpretation (Weibel and Heller, 1991). The hard-
ware used for digitizing were a 386 PC, a digitizer, a parallax-bar and a stereoscope.
The stereo digitizing was carried out with the software MONSTER-MEASURE ('mono-
stereo'). After this, the DEM was developed in ArcInfo.
The process to develop the DEM can be divided into three steps: aerotriangulation,
digitizing and generating the DEM. The first step of the aerotriangulation was to relate
all the 45 aerial photos to one another. This was done by using two kinds of points:
21
4.3 Topographical Information - Altitude
LS: Slope + Slope length

Procedure: Improvements:
Air photo Real Air photo Real

1:50,000 World 1:50,000 World
Scanning
DEM-
Interpretation-
Generating
stereo-digitizing
Digital Elevation
Model
DEM-
Generating
Digital Elevation
Model
Figure 5 Data gathering procedure and improved procedure: topography -

altitude.
pass- and tiepoints. Passpoints are points with known x-, y- and z-(terrain)coordinates.
These coordinates were measured in the terrain with a GPS. Tiepoints are points
without terrain coordinates, which are well visible on all the aerial photos which cover
one area. Because the overlap between two photos is around 60%, one point can be
visible in 9 photos (maximum). Both the pass-and the tiepoints were marked and
digitized (mono). The aerial photo itself provides a lot of information: the fiducial marks,
the camera-constant and the negative-size. This information, combined with the pass-
and tiepoints is required for the aerotriangulation.
The conversion of the local coordinate system on the photos to a terrain coordinate
system is based on three types of coordinates: photo coordinates in the coordinate
system of the photo, camera coordinates in the focal plane of the camera, and terrain -
coordinates in the UTM system. The conversion from photo- to camera-coordinates is
22
called internal orientation, the conversion from camera- to terrain coordinates external
orientation.
After the aerotriangulation the stereo-digitizing started. This was done by manual
composite sampling (Figure 6) with a stereo digitizer. The density of the sample points
was adapted to the complexity of the terrain surface, combined with the digitizing of
abrupt topographic changes (Makarovic, 1977 and 1979). The stereoscope and the
parallax-bar were used to digitize points in two photos at the same time. In these photos
(i.e. one model) corresponding points were measured. In one model, which took about
3 days to digitize, 2500-3500 points were measured. As 40 models had to be digitized,
it may be clear that this was a time-consuming process. The programme used,
'Measure', was specially written for this project. With Measure it is possible to digitize
points and lines. These lines are 'hard' lines, which means that when building the TIN
(Triangular Irregular Network), the triangles do not cross the lines. The result of the
digitizing were files with points and lines in terrain coordinates (x, y and z).
Figure 6 Composite sampling (after Weibel and Heller, 1991)
After digitizing all models, the DEM was generated using ArcInfo software. This process
included the generating of TIN's, filtering, recalculating the TIN's to point coverages,
generating and editing Lattices (representations of the surfaces in a grid) and
generating and editing contour line coverages. The procedure how the DEM was
generated in Arc-Info is delineated in Appendix 2.
4.3.2 Data sources

1. Aerial photos: 45 Aerial photos (5 columns, 9 rows), U.S. Army Topographic
Engineers 1963-1964. Scale: 1:50,000. Total area: 30 * 40 km.
2. Field measurements: 22 points measured with GPS and altitude meter. GPS:
Magellan NAV 5000 PRO, stating a horizontal RMS accuracy of 12 metres.
4.3.3 Results
23
A Digital Elevation Model, available as a TIN (Triangular Network) and a Lattice
(Grid) with a cell size of 25 metres, 1737 rows, 1276 columns (2,216,412 mesh points).
The area covered is 28 x 40 km. Products from the DEM are: a slope map, altitude
map, contour map (1:50,000, 25 m contour lines). The contour map, combined with the
man-made constructions from the 1:250,000 map, the stream network from the SPOT
interpretation and slope map resulted in a new topographical map 1:50,000 of the study
area (Topographical map: Map I, Altitude map: Map II).
4.3.4 Reliability
Initial tin, based on the digitized point and lines:
103950 nodes, 207870 triangles.
Resulting tin, after editing and filtering:

131,684 nodes, 263,184 triangles, z-tolerance10 14.406 m.
Lattice: 25 m grid cell size,
Because the 40 models were digitized separately by manual interpretation, it

appeared that the z-coordinates were sometimes higher or lower in one model,
compared to the bordering model. To smoothen these differences between the 40
models a filter was used and some models had to be raised or lowered. The altitude
values on the 1:250,000 map served as a reference. The result is a DEM, with an accu-
racy of the altitude of 25 meters. The contour lines are generated by an automatic
interpretation of the surface, represented by the mesh points of the lattice. The
accuracy of 25 m contour lines concerns the relative differences in altitude in the terrain.
It should be noted that the ground truth of the DEM is derived from field measurements
and the topographical map 1:250,000. The field measurements were carried out with a
GPS and an altitude meter. The reliability of the GPS altitude values often was low, due
to the high relief in the terrain. The 1:250,000 map states an accuracy of the altitude
within 50 metres. Thus it can be concluded that the absolute altitude values have an
accuracy which is not higher than 50 metres. The best way to determine the accuracy
of a DEM, is to determine ground truth points (Monckton, 1994). Based on these
measurements, the RMS (root mean square error) can be calculated. For this, reliable
ground truth points have to be available and have to be compared with the Z values
given for these points in the DEM. The XY reliability of the GPS points is according to
the GPS manufacturer, 12 metres.
4.3.5 Improvements
The most efficient approach to generate highly accurate DEM's is by scanning the
aerial photos and generate the DEM automatically. This approach was not chosen for
this research, mainly because of financial reasons. The software which was available
for automatic DEM generation, could not handle the large amounts of data from
scanned aerial photos. Purchasing new software specially for this project was too
expensive. However, the semi manual-automatic approach took a large amount of
tedious labour, resulting in high labour costs. This approach is not recommendable for
large areas like in this project.
24
Another approach could be to purchase Digital Elevation Models derived from SPOT
stereo images. EOSAT offers DEM's derived from SPOT images with a z accuracy of
20 and 40 metres. However, these were not available for the study area. Producing new
recordings took to much time, and also was expensive.
The measurements of the altitude of ground truth points can be improved by using
sophisticated GPS stations, which operate with ground stations. In this way, accuracy’s
within centimetres can be reached.
4.4 Geomorphology
K: Geomorphology
Real Air photo Air photo Real

World 1:50,000 1:50,000 World
Scanning/geom.
correction
Interpretation
Interpretation
Digitizing
Map
Geom. correction
Digitizing Geomorphological
coverage
Geomorphological
coverage
Figure 7 Data gathering procedure and improved procedure: geomorphology.
25
4.4.1 Procedure
The geomorphological map was developed by the disciplinary experts. The

systematics how the real world was interpreted and translated to a graphical
representation can be found in the contribution of the Geomorphological experts. The
interpretations were drawn on transparencies placed over the aerial photos 1:50,000.
The interpretation was carried out with a stereoscope and was corrected and completed
during field surveys. The studies on the transparencies were transferred manually to a
plotted sheet of the 1:50,000 topographical map. This geomorphological map was
digitized.
4.4.2 Data sources

1. Aerial photos: Aerial photos: 45 Aerial photos (5 columns, 9 rows), U.S. Army
Topographic Engineers 1963-1964. Scale: 1:50,000. Total area: 30 * 40 km.
2. Topographical map 1:50,000 digitized in the project. Topographical features: roads,
drainage network, towns, villages, 100 m contour lines and altitude points.
3. Geomorphological field survey.
4.4.3 Results
Geomorphological map 1:50,000, total area 28 x 38 km (Map III).
4.4.4 Reliability
Positional accuracy:
In geomorphology, polygons drawn on the graphical representation (i.e. the
geomorphological map) do not occur as such in the real world. Boundaries on a
geomorphological map are, comparable to soil maps, often gradual and fuzzy.
Nevertheless they are drawn on the maps as polygons enclosing a distinct legend
unit, telling the user which unit can be expected at that location. The certainty with
which this unit actually will occur on that location, however may vary: in the middle of
a legend unit this certainty will be higher than at the boundaries and it will also vary
for each legend unit. For example, the boundary between the unit 'rock slope' and
'flood plain' will be more distinct than the boundary between 'severe badland' and
'undulating badland'.
Errors will occur during the transfer of the boundaries on the interpretations to
the topographical sheet. On the other hand, the contour lines on the topographical
map which was used as a base, will influence the drawing of the boundaries. The
accuracy of these contour lines was stated before: 155 m in xy and 50 m in z
direction. The digitization error can be quantified to 5 m, according to the formula of
Van der Meer and Van der Knaap (1991). Distortion of the paper on which the
topographical map was plotted and on which the geomorphological map was drawn
before the digitization is another source of locational errors: a distortion of 3% will
effect an inaccuracy of 20 mm, which is 1 km in the field!
Qualitative reliability:
The qualitative reliability of the data is high, as they are collected by experienced
experts.
26
It can be concluded that the locational uncertainty of the polygons in the digital
geomorphological model may be considerable. However, one should keep in mind the
fuzziness of the boundaries on these type of maps.
4.4.5 Improvements
Transferring the boundaries of the interpretation to the map sheets is most liable to
errors. However, the contour lines on the map sheet supports the drawing of the bound-
aries. Digitizing the interpretation sheets instead of map-sheets, combined with a geo-
metrical correction based on the DEM excludes the chance of geometrical errors. Later,
the boundaries of the geomorphological units can be edited on screen with the contour
map as a background. However, this procedure still is not optimal, as it requires two
phases of 'manual' interpretation, the interpretation of the photo's and the on-screen
editing based on the contour lines.
The most optimal procedure enables the interpretation of the photos supported by
the contour lines on-screen. The geomorphological units are digitized during the
interpretation on-screen. In this procedure the aerial photo's are scanned and the
contour lines are generated automatically. After this, both the stereo photos and the
contour lines are shown on the screen and serve as a base for the interpretation which
is also carried out in stereo on the screen. The interpretations are geometrically
corrected automatically, resulting in a digital model without any manual transfer of
boundaries to overlays and map sheets. The procedure requires software with
capabilities for stereo viewing and producing contour lines.
27
4.5 Climate
R: Rainfall
Procedure:
Real
World
Digitizing
Interpolation
Isopleth
coverage
Figure 8 Data gathering procedure: climate.
4.5.1 Procedure
The data on rainfall are derived from the National Meteorological Services Agency
and the Ministry of Agriculture. The mean annual precipitation and the location of the
station were known (Table 5). The precipitation values were attached to the location of
the stations. After rasterization, the interpolation resulted in a mean annual rainfall map
for the area.
Table 5 Mean annual rainfall for Eastern Tigray.
station: mean annual rainfall (mm)

Aksum 547
Adwa 618
Adigrat 460
May Kinetal 536
Mekelle 469
28
4.5.2 Data sources
Rainfall:
Mean annual rainfall (ten year average) for stations Mekele, Adigrat, Adwa, Aksum.
National Meteorological Services Agency and Ministry of Agriculture11.
Mean annual rainfall based on measurements from October 1993 - October 1994
station May Kinetal (Ministry of Agriculture).
4.5.3 Results
Isopleth map with mean annual rainfall for the study area, cell size 25 x 25 metres
(Map IV).
4.5.4 Reliability
Qualitative accuracy:
The high relief of the study area will result in a very diverse micro-climate which only
can be measured with a dense net of rainfall stations. However, such a network is
not existing. The network of meteorological stations is set up for monitoring the
climate on a regional and national level. In the project these data were used.
Locational accuracy:
The location of the rain stations was supposed to be in the middle of the town
delineated on the 1:250,000 topographical map. Depending on the size of the town,
the locational errors for the rain stations may amount to 1500 metres. The values for
all other pixel cells were calculated by 'gravitational interpolation'12, the cell size was
25 x 25 metres.
4.5.5 Improvements
The GIS procedure which was used was the most optimal procedure. The reliability
of the data can be improved by more stations in the field. The influence of the relief was
not taken into account, with the help of more measurements this influence can be
studied and modelled.
29
4.6 Vegetation
C: Vegetation
Real Real
World
World
Landsat Landsat
image image
Geom. correction
Interpretation Unsupervised
classification
Atmospheric corr.
Vegetation Prel. vegeta-

coverage tion map
Supervised
classification
Vegetation
coverage
Figure 9 Data gathering procedure and improved procedure: vegetation.
4.6.1 Procedure
The vegetation cover of the area was determined with a LandSat satellite image. It
was required that the image should be from a date when the vegetation cover was
optimal, which means immediately after the rainy season. Only one cloud free image of
the area in this period was available. At the start of the image processing the image was
geometrically corrected, based on the 1:250,000 topographical map. Next, an unsuper-
vised classification was carried out, using a sequential clustering method (Sarraute and
Vonder, 1994). The sequential method analyzes the pixels of the image line by line, and
groups them by spectral distance. Clusters are determined based on relative distance
and the number of pixels per cluster. Unsupervised classification is used when little
ground truth is known, which was the case in this study. The advantage compared to
30
the supervised classification is that at the unsupervised classification, all the six input
bands are used to calculate the mean spectral signature for all objects, while the
supervised classification only can use three bands. An unsupervised classification
provides a good basis for field work for a supervised classification. During the
unsupervised classification, the image was classified into 30 classes, which were
subsequently plotted in a 'scatterplot' and merged into 14 classes (Figure 10). Of all
classes the spectral signature was calculated. (Appendix 3, spectral signatures). On
these classes a preliminary interpretation was performed, using the available
knowledge from the field. The unsupervised classification supported the fieldwork of the
vegetation experts for a supervised classification which resulted in the vegetation map.
Scatterplot (Red band : X3, Near infrared : X4)
X4 Reflectance
0.4
Wooded grassland 2
Vegetation Open woodland
0.35 16
Scrubland (m.a.) Bare soil 1
25
13
0.3 A
15 12
18
6 14
0.25 11
Wooded grassland 1 4 22
5
1 17
7 3 20 B
0.2 Scrubland (l.a.) 29
27 30 21
2 28 Bare soil 2
0.15 23
10 8
Scrubland (h.a.)
26
19
0.1
24
Karstic depression
0.05 Steep slopes/chimney

9
Water
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

X3 Reflectance
Figure 10 Scatterplots Landsat (after Saraute and Vonder, 1994)
4.6.2 Data sources

1. LANDSAT TM scene recording 28 September 1987, Path 169, row 50. The Landsat
TM records the reflection in seven bands.
Bands Wavelength (µm)
1 Blue light visible 0.45 - 0.52
2 Green light visible 0.52 - 0.60
3 Red light visible 0.63 - 0.69
4 Near infra red 0.76 - 0.90
5 Middle infra red 1.55 - 1.75
6 Thermic infra red 10.4 - 12.5
7 Middle infra red 2.08 - 2.35
31
2. Reference points: Topographical map, series EMA 3, sheets ND 37-6, ND 37-7, ND
37-10 and ND 37-11, scale 1:250,000, first edition, published and prepared by the
Ethiopian Mapping Agency, 1979. Universal Transverse Mercator Grid, Zone 37,
Clark Spheroid.
3. Field survey on land cover.
4.6.3 Results
Vegetation map 1:50,000 with 12 legend units (Map V).
4.6.4 Reliability
Locational error:
The RMS error tolerance for the geometrical rectification was set to two pixels.
Furthermore, the topographical map has an accuracy of 90% (plotting accuracy),
which causes an error of ± 100 metres in the x and y direction. The total RMS
error can be between ± 200 metres.
The interpretation was carried out by vegetation experts with a broad knowledge of
the Ethiopian Highlands and experience in Remote Sensing, therefore the reliability
of the interpretation is high.
4.6.5 Improvements
An unsupervised classification takes not much time and turned out to be a guidance
for setting up the field work. During the unsupervised classification, spectral signatures
of the identified vegetation classes are generated. During the fieldwork is advisable to
describe at least three sample areas within every class. The location of the sample
areas should be identified during the preparation of the field work, taking into account
the accessibility of the area. Because of the inaccuracies in the location and the pixel
size, the sample areas should be at least 200 x 200 metres, homogeneous within a
class. The location of the areas should be determined with a GPS. Sarraute and Vonder
(1994) advice to make spectral signatures of the areas in the field, using a field
radiometer, which can be compared with the spectral signatures generated during the
unsupervised classification. Building up a library of spectral signatures is valuable,
because it enables to compare the signatures with others that can be found in the
literature and it supports the application of the conclusions during satellite interpretation
in other areas. An interesting study would be the shade effects of the relief on the
images, which can be studied if a DEM is available.
32
4.7 Land Management
K: Landmanagement
Real Real
World Air photo's
World
Interpretation
Scanning, Geom.
correction
land man.
map Interpretation,
digitization
Digitization
Land management
coverage
Land management
coverage
Figure 11 Data gathering procedure and improved procedure: land management.
4.7.1 Procedure
Land management is defined as the way the farmers and other environmental actors
physically manage their land. It comprises the way the agricultural fields are shaped, for
example bunding or terracing and the way non agricultural land is managed, for
example as grazing area or protected area13. The inventory of the actual land
management was a problem, as the aerial photos which were available were to old to
be reliable on this aspect. For this reason, the land management was inventoried during
a field survey, with the help of students of the Queen of Sheba's High School in Adwa.
The assistance of the students was necessary because the area was to large to be
covered by only a few researchers. The students selected for the research studied in
the final grades, with geography as one of their subjects. They were instructed in the
33
field in map reading and land management inventory. Each student worked a week to
map an area of approximately 6 x 6 km, of which they received a blown up copy of the
topographical map 1:50,000. The work was restricted by the number of students which
were available and the accessibility of the area. After the fieldwork the interpretations
were digitized and rasterized (cellsize: 25 x 25 m).
4.7.2 Data sources

1. As a base: Topographical map 1:50,000 digitized in the project. Topographical
features: roads, drainage network, towns, villages, 100 m contour lines and altitude
points.
2. Field survey of the land management.
4.7.3 Results
The survey resulted in a land management map with eight legend units on
agricultural management, three on vegetation management and one on water
management. The survey covered 718 km2, which is 67.5% of the total area.
4.7.4 Reliability
Locational accuracy:
The locational accuracy of the boundaries of the legend units is very low. First, the
boundaries are the result of interpretation in the field, drawn on topographical maps
by students with little experience in map reading and orientation. Furthermore, the
boundaries were drawn on blown up copies of the topographical map and the same
copies were digitized. As stated before, the shrinking or expanding of the paper
might result in differences up to 3% (i.e. 20 mm) to which the distortion due to
blowing up and copying of the sheets should be added. Finally, the digitizing error
should be taken into account which may be estimated to 5 m. Hence, the locational
error may amount to 30 - 40 mm on the map, which equals 1500 - 2000 m in the
field.
Although the participating students were very motivated and conscientious they had
no experience in identifying land management types. Though they were given an
explanation in the land management types they had to map, the interpretation in the
field was subjective and each student had his own criteria. As the group consisted of
20 students there may be a significant inconsistency in the mapping of the land
management. For this reason, the land management should merely be considered
as a rough impression of the management rather than an accurate inventory.
4.7.5 Improvements
If no recent aerial photos are available, the land management inventory has to be
based on a field survey. Even on a sub-regional level such a field survey in a mountain-
ous area requires a considerable effort. Probably the inaccessible areas will be left out
and the survey will be carried out by a large group of surveyors, which will cause
inconsistency in the interpretations. The only possible improvement in this method is
employing well trained, experienced surveyors, which will influence the labour costs
considerably.
34
If recent aerial photos are available an interpretation of the land management from
the photos, supplemented by a limited ground survey should be preferred. If possible,
the interpretation can be performed as described for the geomorphological
interpretation, by digitizing on screen from scanned areal photos combined with contour
lines derived from a DEM. However, a field survey will always remain necessary to
support the photo interpretation.
4.8 Conclusion
Data collection of inaccessible areas within the restrictions of a limited budget,
restricted time and lacking primary data only is feasible if optimal use is made of remote
sensing technology (aerial photo's and satellite images). A GIS is necessary to process
these data and offer them tailor-made to the user. To make full use of the abilities of the
system and to prevent superfluous labour, the procedures of data collecting, normally
carried out by disciplinary experts, should be discussed with remote sensing and GIS
experts, before the work is commenced. The use of remote sensing data still requires
field work of specialists, however this field work can be restricted to sample areas
determined with the help of an exploring interpretation of aerial photo's or satellite
images. Here, an unsupervised classification of the satellite images provides a valuable
support for the organisation of the fieldwork. Geometrical inaccuracies in the data can
be minimalized by:
- highly accurate measurements of pass points with a GPS using ground stations;
- limiting phases of manual interferences, for example on screen interpretation and
digitizing rather than digitizing interpretations or maps, or automatic DEM generation
rather than manual stereo-digitizing;
However, it should be noted that minimization of geometrical inaccuracies needs

more sophisticated, is equal to more expensive, instruments. A cost-benefit analysis in
the perspective of the applications of the results should always be made. The diagram
gives the suitability of data-gathering techniques, based on our experiences, for the
information used in the USLE model (Q: data quality and L: labour efficiency):
satellite aerial field work

photos
topography Q:+/- L:+ Q:+ L:+ Q:- L:-
rain fall Q:+/- L:+ Q:- Q:+ L:+/-
soil/geomorphology Q:+/- L:+ Q:+ L:+/- Q:+
L:+/-
vegetation Q:+ L:+ Q:+/- L:+/- Q:+/-
L:-
land management Q:- L:+ Q:+ L:+/- Q:+
L:-
35
5 TOWARDS EROSION MODELLING
5.1 Introduction
The data, once stored in the GIS, can be used in various ways:
- for registration of the 'real world' to enable the retrieval of information by specific
queries,
- for monitoring if multi-temporal datasets are stored,
- for modelling (natural)processes by transforming and processing the data.
In the Tigray study, the first and the third application were of relevance. The three
level approach in section 2.2 describes the phases which are gone through when a
data-processing model is implemented.
5.2 Data query
The principal question, formulated at the beginning of this research was: 'What
measures should be taken to maximize a desired type of biomass, while minimizing ero-
sion?'. The information system had to support the search for answers to this question.
At this moment the Information System comprises information on two of the main
aspects in this question: biomass and erosion.
The Information System serves as a repository for data which can be retrieved and
visualized with the help of queries. The structure of both the database tables and the
geometrical information constitutes a powerful environment for executing such queries.
Objects can be selected with queries that can be formulated in the SQL-database lan-
guage. Or in the opposite way, the attribute information belonging to a specific object
can be retrieved by clicking to the object on the map on the screen. Not only the
collected data can be made accessible through the information system. Also the
intermediate and final results of the data processing can be made available to the user.
In this project, the intermediate and resulting maps of the erosion modelling are made
available to the user through the information system.
Various questions can be answered through the information system, for example:
- Which land management practices do actually exist in the area and where are they
located?
- What is the actual natural and agricultural land cover in the area?
- Which geomorphological units can be discerned in the area?
- What is the actual land use in the area?
and after running the erosion model:
- Which areas are vulnerable to erosion?
- What is the rainfall erosivity?
- What is the actual erosion in the area? Where?
The Tigray project resulted in an information system which offers a comprehensive

digital 'atlas', from which all digital information used and produced during the project can
36
be retrieved. This facility and the answers it may give to specific questions, is relevant
for the development of policies for rehabilitation and targeting research for preventing
soil erosion and rehabilitation.
5.3 The USLE concept and flowchart
When using the information system as a storage for data, we use only a very limited
part of the possibilities of information technology. The power of this technology lies in
the capacity of processing large quantities of complex data. This enables analysis of
information and modelling of processes which in a traditional way was impossible. In
this research, the erosion process was modelled, based on the USLE model.
On the conceptual level, the erosion experts of the CSIC-Madrid adapted the USLE
equation for this research in the highlands of Ethiopia.
The USLE equation:
Erosion = LS * K * R * C * P [1]
where:
LS = topography factor composed of slope and slope length

K = surface erodibility factor
R = rain erosivity factor
C = vegetation factor
P = protection factor
The definitions for the variables of the model are described below.
LS factor (topography)
Formula's for calculating the LS factor for slopes < and ≥ 9% (Wischmeier, 1982):
< 9%: λ 0.3 0.43 + 0.30 s + 0.043 s2

L ⋅ S = ──── ⋅ ─────────── [2]
[ 22.1 ] [ 6.613 ]
≥ 9%:
λ 0.3 s 1.3
L ⋅ S = ── ⋅ ─ [3]
[ 22,1 ] [ 9 ]
where: λ = slope length (m)

s = slope (%)
Furthermore, Wischmeier and Smith (1978) point out that the erosion is not evenly
distributed over the entire slope. The rate of soil loss per unit of area increases as the
mth power of the distance from the top of the slope, where m is the slope length
exponent. To calculate the actual soil loss, the slope is divided into segments, and
37
according to an equation by Foster and Wischmeier, the soil loss fraction for each
segment can be determined. To calculate the LS factor for each segment, the LS factor
for the entire slope should be multiplied with the soil loss fraction. In this research, each
slope was divided into equal-length segments of 25 metres, which is equal to the cell
size of the grid maps. Application of the formula for calculating the soil loss fraction,
resulted in the LS factor for each grid cell.
Formula for calculating the soil loss fraction for equal length segments of a uniform
slope14:
jm+1 - [j-1]m+1
a = ───────── [4]
Nm+1
where:
j = segment sequence number
m = slope length exponent (0.5 for slopes > 5%, 0.4 for 4% and 3% for slopes < 3%)
N = number of equal length segments
K factor (surface erodibility)

The K values are derived from the geomorphological map. The K values, as deter-
mined by the geomorphological experts are given in Table 5.
Table 5 K values for the geomorphological units:
geom. unit: K factor:
Erosion surface remnants

- with soil cover 0.25
- without soil cover 0.10
Severe badlands 0.31
Undulating badlands 0.20
Scarps/denudational rock slopes 0.15
Alluvial fans 0.27
Alluvial plain and terraces 0.25
Infilled valleys 0.23
town 0
R factor (rain erosivity)

The R factor was calculated according to the equation given by Hurni, derived from
a spatial regression analysis (Helldén, 1987):
R = -8.12 + 0.562 * Mean Annual Precipitation (mm) [5]
C factor (Vegetation)
The C values, which were determined by the vegetation experts, are given in Table
6.
38
Table 6. C factors for the vegetation classes
Vegetation class: C factor:

Woodland 0.01
Scrubland 0.02
Grassland 0.01
Open Woodland 0.05
Open Scrubland 0.06
Crop 1 (Teff) 0.25
Crop 2 (Wheat, Barley) 0.15
Crop 3 (Sorghum, Maize) 0.10
Crop 4 (Wooded cropland) 0.15
Bare Soil 1 0.15
Bare Soil 2 1.00
Rock Outcrop 0.00
P factor (protection measures)

As stated before, Land management is defined as the way the farmers and other
environmental actors physically manage their land. The P factors, given in Table 7,
were based on the interpretation of findings in previous researches of Helldén (1987),
Pilesjö (1992) and Reining (1992).
Table 7. P factors for the land management types
Management type: P factor:

Grass strips 0.8
Bunds- good shape 0.7
- degraded 0.9
Terrace 0.6
Slope fields 0.9
Flat fields 0.4
Grazing area 0.9
Waste land 1.0
Protected/reforested 0.5
The USLE model had to be implemented in a MGE-GIS 'script' with the help of the
'Cartographic modelling' language.
Cartographic modelling uses command sequences which are composed of commands
which easily can be understood by the user. These command sequences have the form
of scripts which manipulate 'cartographic models' (i.e. digital models of maps). The
script is based on a flow chart (Figure 12) which outlines the strategy how the datasets
should be manipulated to solve a specific problem.
39
USLE : LS*K*R*P*C
Topography (LS)
Potential
Surface erodibility (K) erosion
Rain erosivity (R)

Actual
erosion
Vegetation cover (C)
Protection measures (P)

Figure 12 Flowchart of the USLE model
5.4 Implementation of the model
The commands are written in a 'cartographic modelling language', in this research

this was mapalgebra, developed and described by Tomlin (1990). The commands in
mapalgebra manipulate maps represented as grid files. The language is implemented in
the MGE-GRID Analyst-PC software of Intergraph, which was used for this project. The
resulting script file can be found in Appendix 4. Between brackets the most important
Mapalgebra procedures are mentioned. During the implementation several obstacles
were met which were due to drawbacks specific for the PC-MGE software. These
drawbacks will not be elaborated in this report, as the objective was to develop and
40
describe a method which is not specific for one GIS, but can be implemented in any
GIS.
LS factor (topography: slope length - slope)

The Altitude is derived from the Digital Elevation Model. Mapalgebra calculates the
slope (IncrementalGradient) as the angle at which the surface is inclined in relation to
the horizontal cartographic plane. Subsequently, the angle is converted into
percentages.
The slope length is defined as the distance from the point of origin of overland flow
to the point where either the slope gradient decreases enough that deposition begins, or
the runoff water enters a well-defined channel that may be part of a drainage network or
valley bottom. First of all, the water flow through the area is analyzed. For each cell the
accumulated flow which drains through the cell is calculated. Mapalgebra uses a
'steepest descent' algorithm, which assumes that the water will flow into the neighbour
cell which is connected with the original cell by the steepest descent (Incremental Dr-
ainage). Eight directions in each cell are possible. The pattern of the surficial drainage is
determined by locating the upstream neighbours which drain into the cell (FocalSum).
The ridges (i.e. division of water sheds) are considered as the upper boundary of the
slopes, as they are the point where the overland flow begins. The ridges are determined
by looking for cells into which no upstream cells are draining, and which do not belong
to a flat area (LocalRating). The lower boundary of the slope length was determined by
considering cells through which at least 25% of its surroundings (taking a radius of 250
metres) is draining. These cells can be considered as part of the drainage network or
valley bottom. Areas with a slope of zero were added, because there deposition starts.
It should be noted that the criterium of 25% is an arbitrary boundary, as there is no clear
point where a flowline on a slope ends and where the drainage networks starts.
After this, the distance between the drainage network/valley bottom/deposition area
and the ridges were calculated, measuring through the flow lines of the slopes
(IncrementalAspect, FocalProximity). This distance was attached to all cells on the flow
lines. Now, the LS factor for each slope could be calculated, according to the formula's
of Wischmeier for slopes less and slopes larger than 9% (Wischmeier, 1982)
(LocalRating, LocalProduct, LocalSum, LocalRoot, LocalRatio). After this calculation the
LS value for each slope is attached to each cell on that slope.
K factor (surface erodibility)

In the script, the K factors were assigned to the corresponding legend units on the
geomorphological map (LocalRating).
R factor (Rain erosivity)

The rainfall values of the measuring stations were assigned to the grid cells on the
corresponding locations (LocalRating). From these values, an isopleth map was
generated by gravitational interpolation (FocalGravitation). Three measuring stations
were located outside the study area (Mekelle, Adigrat and Aksum), but were included in
the interpolation. The R factors were calculated according to the formula given in
section 5.3 (LocalProduct).
C factor (vegetation cover)

41
The C values are derived from the interpretation of the Landsat satellite image. In
the script, the C factors were assigned to the corresponding classes on the vegetation
map (LocalRating).
P factor (land management - protection measures)

In the script, the P values were assigned to the corresponding legend units on the land
management map (LocalRating).
42
6 RESULTS OF THE USLE GIS-APPLICATION
6.1 Introduction
One of the pitfalls when employing models in GIS is that the model is presented as
a black box, which gives no opportunity to the experts to scrutinise the data, the model
and it's results. In this report, the input-data were presented and discussed before. The
USLE-model as it was implemented in the GIS can be found in Appendix 4 and it's
description in Chapter Five. In this chapter we will present the results of the USLE GIS-
application. Also, some intermediate steps are worthwhile to receive some attention.
The reader should regard the results cautiously because the error margin of the quanti-
tative results may be high, as will be discussed in Chapter Seven.
6.2 Description of the application
The Altitude and Slope map (Maps II and VI), based on the Digital Elevation Model,
present a clear picture of the topography of the area. These maps form the basic input
to calculate the LS factors for the area. The slope length, drainage area, ridges and
sedimentation areas could be derived from these maps.
The K factors (Map VII) are related to the geomorphological units (Map III). The
softer erosion surface remnants and the alluvial deposits have a high surface erodibility,
whereas bare rocks have a low surface erodibility.
The map with the R factors (Map VIII) for the study area is an outcut of the isopleth
map (Map IV) which was produced for a larger area, including the rainfall stations at
Axum, Adigrat, Mekelle, Adwa and May Kinet 'Al. Only Adwa and May Kinet 'Al are
positioned in the study area. The values for the R factor are related with the average
rainfall, which ranges from 618 mm for Adwa to 536 in May Kinet 'Al. The influence of
the mountain chains, which will result in a local micro climate is neglected. The low
density of rain measurements results in a coarse grid of the interpolation.
The C factor (Map IX) is related to the vegetation map (Map V) and the satellite
image. A dense vegetation cover provides a high protection (= a low C factor). Bare
soils and devegetated agricultural areas provide a low or no protection. Because of a
fault in the satellite image, six columns at the western boundary should not be
considered.
The map with the protection factor P (Map XI) shows the variety in the mapping of
the physical land management, caused by subjective interpretations by the field
workers. The variation concerns both the geometry and the attribute information. Not
the entire area could be mapped, because of lack of manpower and time.
The area for which the potential and actual erosion could be calculated was
determined by the mapped area of the single factors. The limiting factor for the
calculation of the actual erosion was the area mapped for the P factor15.
43
6.3 Results
The GIS script calculated the estimated soil loss for each pixel cell, resulting in a
range of estimated soil loss from 1 - 614187 kg/grid cell, year. For practical reasons the
results were classified. This classification is described in Table 8, and the erosion
map16.
Table 8 Soil loss in kg/grid cell, year ( grid cell size = 25 x 25 m).
Soil loss: area: % of area

(kg/grid cell,year) (grid cells)
< 1 146669 20.1
1- 5 113911 15.6
5 - 10 77349 10.6
10 - 20 93598 12.8
20 - 30 57530 7.9
30 - 50 64164 8.8
50 - 100 67286 9.2
100 - 500 68697 9.4
> 500 39017 5.4
To discuss the extend in which the model approaches reality the estimated soil loss
can be compared with values from field measurements and from comparable exercises
described in the literature. As these values are normally expressed in tons/ha, year, the
calculated values should be recalculated from kg/ha into tons/ha. The soil loss in
Tons/ha is the aggregation of 16 25 x 25 metre grid cells. For this, the grid cells on the
map, were grouped into clusters of 100 x 100 metres (i.e. 16 grid cells). For each
cluster the calculated erosion rate of the individual cells was summarized. This resulted
in a map with the soil loss for areas of 1 ha (i.e. grid cells of 100 x 100 m). Table 9 gives
the classification of this map.
Table 9 Soil loss in tons/ha, year (grid cell size = 100 x 100 m)
Soil loss: area: % of area

(ton/ha,year) (grid cells)
< 1 378836 52.0
1 - 10 217708 29.9
10 - 20 48255 6.6
20 - 30 20910 2.9
30 - 40 15570 2.1
40 - 50 9944 1.4
50 - 100 21291 2.9
100 - 150 6277 0.9
> 150 9430 1.3
A comparison of the results with the results of other USLE calculations found in the
literature, shows that our findings are lower. Heldén (1986) calculated values ranging
from 1 - 150 and larger (ton/ha, year) for an area of 5 x 5 km in the South of Shewa,
Ethiopia. Pilesjö (1992) calculated for the same area for 60 % of the area a soil loss of 1
- 50 tons/ha, year and for 15 % of the area a soil loss of 50 - 150 tons/ha,year. Hurni
(1983) measured the soil losses from a traditional Ethiopian cultivated field in the
highlands with various slopes and slope lengths and found values ranging from 12 to
44
179 ton/ha, year. On the other hand, Nyssen (1995), carried out an elaborate research
on the local level into traditional soil conservation techniques. He also calculated the
estimated erosion using the USLE equation for a slope in the Ethiopian Highlands near
Dega Tembien. He found a value of 8.4 tons/ha, year for the estimated erosion. Reining
(1992) compared the outcomes of a USLE calculation with field measurements for the
Andes in south-western Colombia. He found that as a rule, soil losses calculated with
the USLE were markedly greater than the actually measured amounts of eroded soil. In
our research the erosion rate for a drainage area west of Adwa was estimated from field
measurements, by the Erosion specialists of the CSIC. From the measurements, they
calculated an erosion rate of 17 Tons/ha. A further discussion of the appropriateness of
the model and the results requires a thorough comparison of the model results and field
measurements
6.4 Potentialities of the erosion model
The GIS-USLE model enables the user to study the vulnerability for erosion of the
area. By combining the results with other data in the information system, various
analyses can be performed, such as:
- a comparison of the actual land use and settlement patterns with the erosion risk,
thus supporting the planning of the land use for rehabilitation and erosion protection;
- study of the relation between vegetation and physical components (aspect, slope,
geomorphology);
- assessment of actual and potential biomass;
- calculation of the potential soil run-off;
- detailed scenario studies on changes in rainfall, vegetation and land use;
45
7 EPILOGUE
7.1 Introduction
An important part of this epilogue is reserved for a review of the reliability of the
results of the model calculation. In this research we developed methodologies for data
gathering, analysis and modelling with GIS. We hope that others who consider to use
this technique in future projects may learn from our experiences, as we did. Therefore
we will mention them in section 7.4. We recall our objectives of this project, which were
to develop methodologies that can support the development of a policy for
rehabilitation. Therefore we will describe the conclusions regarding the study area,
resulting from this exercise. They illustrate how GIS technology may support the
planning of rehabilitation of an area. A research project like this one, never finds the
final answer to methodological problems. Especially when new methods and techniques
are developed, new questions and research topics are raised during the project. We
finish our report by describing the research questions which, in our view, should be
dealt with, and by outlining possible future applications of GIS and Remote Sensing
techniques.
7.2 Reliability
When discussing the reliability of the results of the model calculation we have to
consider four aspects:
a. the implementation of the model in the GIS modelling language,
b. the locational accuracy of the results on the map,
c. the reliability of the measurements which were used as input in the model,
d. the extend in which the model describes the real erosion processes correctly.
7.2.1 Reliability of the implementation of the USLE model

The USLE equations were translated into sequences of mapalgebra commands to
process the digital datasets by unfolding the equations into basic steps. For the USLE
model, formula's to calculate the LS factor for slopes <9% and ≥9% and the R factor are
used, other factors are simply attached to specific classes on the thematical maps.
Furthermore, an equation is used to calculate the reduction of the LS factor for the
segments of complex slopes. The results of the model calculations were verified by
comparing the results of the GIS script for points of which slope and slope length were
known, with the outcome of manual calculations of the USLE equations. This review
proved that the model was correctly implemented in the script. However, an important
drawback was the fact that the GIS software only is able to deal with integers.
Therefore, rounding off errors will occur. Although in the script correction factors of 10
and 100 were introduced in the calculations to prevent these errors, frequently values
were rounded off downwards, for example 4.8 will become 4 and 0.6 will become 0.
Differences between the GIS calculations and the manual calculations varied from 19%
to 36 % because of rounding off errors.
46
7.2.2 Locational accuracy
The locational accuracy of the input data was discussed in Chapter Four. The
locational accuracy is expressed in the deviation between a location on the map and the
actual position of this location in the field. Geometrical errors can be caused by
measuring errors during field work, errors in source maps, errors during data input and
generalization during GIS manipulations. The locational accuracy of the USLE factors is
determined by the accuracy of the thematical maps and are stated in Table 10.
Table 10 locational accuracy USLE factors
factor: accuracy:
topography - LS 155 m
rainfall - R stations: 1500 m, isopleths based on linear interpolation
land cover - C 200 m
erodibility - K boundaries of geomorphological units are fuzzy, error in boundaries due to
data processing up to 1000 m
management - Pboundaries of units may be inaccurate, error due to data processing 1500 - 2000 m
Locational accuracy is not only determined by geometrical errors. A discrepancy

between values on the map and reality can also be inherent to the theme which is
mapped. Some boundaries are fuzzy because of their nature, for example the
boundaries on the geomorphological map and the rainfall map. Finally, locational
accuracy can be caused by errors or inconsistencies during the field work. This type of
inaccuracy is determined by the experience and the number of the researchers
carrying out the field work. Locational inaccuracies because of this type are to be
expected at the land management map.
It is impossible to express all different types of locational inaccuracies on the
resulting erosion map in one value. Nevertheless the overview of the locational errors
points out that the estimated soil loss rate of a certain grid cell only gives a coarse
indication of the location of this value. The locational deviation between the various
maps contributes to the error in the calculated soil loss, because of the shift between
the location of a (grid cell) value on one map and the location of a value on another
map. For example, the C factor for a specific location may be shifted to another
location, as a result of which the wrong values will be multiplied in the USLE equation.
7.2.3 Reliability of the measurements and factors

The reliability of the data which formed the input in the model was discussed in
Chapter Four. In this section we will discuss the quantitative reliability of the USLE
factors. The qualitative reliability is related to the experience of the collector of the data
which was discussed before. The discussion of the reliability of the USLE factors in this
section
will be based on Burrough (1986) who discusses the reliability of the results of a USLE
calculation of a study in Kisii, Kenya (Wielemaker and Boxem, 1982).
LS factor
The reliability of the LS factor is determined by the reliability of the DEM, from which
the slope map was derived. The standard deviation of the slope values is estimated
2%17. The slope length was defined as the distance from the point of origin of overland
flow to the point where either the slope gradient decreases enough that deposition
47
begins, or the runoff water enters a well-defined channel that may be part of a drainage
network or valley bottom. It was emphasized that the decision when a grid cell should
be considered as being part of the drainage network is arbitrary. This decision
influences the calculated slope length significantly. For practical reasons a maximum
radius at the calculation of the slope length of 250 metres was taken. For the calculation
of the reliability of the L factor, a very optimistic error of 25 metres in the slope length is
estimated which is one grid cell. The standard deviations of 2% for slopes and of 25 m
for the slope length results in deviations for the LS factor varying from about 25% for
slopes ≥9% to about 70% for slopes <9%, as illustrated in Table 11.
Table 11 Calculation of some LS factors and maximum errors
slope length slope LS error

50 5 0.58 0.432
50 20 3.607 1.004
100 5 0.714 0.465
100 20 4.441 0.934
R factor
The mean annual rainfall is derived from an interpolation of the measurements of
five stations. If the rainfall data of different years are known, it is possible to perform a
statistical analysis on the measurements, to determine the average rainfall and the
standard deviation of all known measurements. For this research, only the mean annual
rainfall was known, which made it impossible to perform any analysis. Wielemaker and
Boxem (1982) performed a statistical analysis on rainfall data of 17 years for Kisii,
Kenya and found standard deviations of 335, 637 and 227 for three different stations
with an average yearly rainfall of 1800, 1525 and 1125 respectively. In this research the
average yearly rainfall varies from 469 (Mekele) to 618 (Adwa), much lower than Kisii.
For this research an optimistic standard deviation of 100 mm is assumed. This results
for the R factor in the USLE equation in an error of 56.2 at a rainfall of 300 mm.
K factor
The soil erodibility was derived from the geomorphological map, as the soil map was
not available at the time the model was implemented. This results in a reduction of the
reliability, for instance badlands on a volcanic sub surface will have a different K value
than badlands on a schist basis. Reining (1992) studied the K factors for three areas in
the Andean mountains in south-western Colombia and found ranges of 0.001 - 0.19,
0.001 - 0.13 and 0.004 - 0.55. Reining emphasizes that especially tropical soils may
have a high variability. For these reasons in this research a maximal deviation of 0.05 is
assumed for the K factor in the USLE equation.
C factor
A vegetation class can have a varying range of C values. For example, Burrough
(1986) refers to Rose18, who found C-values for maize varying between 0.4 and 0.9.
The same author (Rose, 1977) found C values for cassava varying from 0.2 - 0.8. Rein-
inger (1992) found C values for Cassava on contour ridges varying from 0.23 - 1.00.
Burrough assumes a variance in the C factor of ± 0.15, which is adopted for this
research.
48
P factor
The land management was inventoried by inexperienced students. It is likely that
classes might be confused during the field work. This becomes clear when examining
the land management map. For this reason, a maximal deviance of 0.2 for the P factor
was estimated19.
Summarizing, the following errors in the factors for the USLE equation were calcu-
lated:
LS ±70% (<9%) and ±25% (≥ 9%)

R ±56.2
K ±0.05
C ±0.15
P ±0.2
The combination of these errors in the USLE equation results in considerable

unreliabilities of the final results, some examples are given below for various values.
The deviances are obtained by applying all maximal errors for the variables. In practice
this will rarely occur, as the chance for maximal errors is lower than for average
(correct) values. Also, it is not very likely that maximal errors for all variables will occur
in the same time.
R * K * C * P * LS
300 * 0.10 * 0.05 * 0.5 * 0.1 = 0.075 ±1.197 ton/ha,year
300 * 0.25 * 0.15 * 0.5 * 10 = 56,25 ±224.26 ton/ha,year
300 * 0.25 * 0.15 * 0.5 * 50 = 281,25 ±1121.29 ton/ha,year
300 * 0.25 * 1 * 0.9 * 100 = 6750 ±6607.5 ton/ha,year
The large errors are due to the error margins in the data as well to the type of model.
Burrough (1986) quotes Alonso20, who emphasises that in situations where data are
poor we are better of with simple additive models than with complex regression models
using multiplication and powers such as USLE, because of the large errors that will
occur. For the estimated errors in this type of research, quite optimistic values were
already taken for slope length, slope, K and C. More accurate measurements might
improve the R factor slightly, while the error in the P factor might be reduced by more
accurate field work. However, these small changes will not influence the error
significantly. It is not to be expected that the accuracy of the data collected from field
work on this level of scale (1:50,000) will improve drastically. For this reason it can be
concluded that results of the USLE model as a quantitative model on a sub-regional
level should be considered with great caution. However, this conclusion does not rule
out that the USLE model can be used to indicate the erosion risk of the area, notably in
a qualitative way, to support strategic planning for rehabilitation of degraded areas.
7.2.4 Appropriateness of the USLE model

Burrough (1986) raises the question whether it is useful to discuss about which
models are good, if we consider the large error margins resulting from the inaccuracy of
the data. If we consider the various type of errors, described before this question seems
relevant. However, although the quantitative accuracy of the model seems not very
49
high, the qualitative significance of the erosion map still makes this discussion relevant.
This chapter is not the place to discuss the applicability and appropriateness of the
USLE model itself, as this should be left over to erosion experts. The GIS calculations
give leads to discuss the appropriateness of the USLE model, when we compare the
results of the model calculations with field measurements. The implementation of the
USLE model in the GIS modelling language, can be discussed comparing the results
from the model calculations with results from comparable exercises described in the
literature. These comparisons were discussed before. It was concluded that the results
of the model calculation were low compared to other studies found in literature. This
was partly ascribed to the rounding off of values.
The GIS-USLE model is not the appropriate model to assess the soil loss for the
entire area, as it only includes overland flow erosion and neglects other forms of soil
erosion such as gullying, rilling and land slides. Furthermore, deposition of soil in the
area itself is disregarded.
7.3 Rehabilitation of degraded areas
Land degradation forms a major thread, not only to the agricultural production but
moreover to the capacity of the land to support ecosystems. The ongoing degradation
will result in a bare, infertile surface on which neither agricultural nor natural ecosystems
will be able to persist. To stop this degradation process, measures on different fields
should be taken. Hurni (1982) schematized the aspects which should be considered to
combat processes of soil erosion. He considers a selected land area as a geo-
ecosystem, discerning three complexes as internal factors which determine soil erosion
and conservation: a natural complex, a landuse complex and a human complex.
Besides this, he identifies an external soil erosion and conservation complex,
comprising all external factors which influence the processes on the local level. For all
complexes, the significance for the considered area should be studied and appropriate
measures should be outlined. Our research focused on the assessment of soil erosion
as a result of the interference of land use and physical properties of the environment.
Therefore, it one should bare in mind that it is restricted to only a limited aspect of the
problem of land degradation.
The resources for financing rehabilitation measures are often limited. In the study
area farmers have no budget at all to invest in their farms (Deurloo and Teklehaimanot,
1994). The budget available on the regional level has to be divided over a large area.
The funds available on the local level therefore should be spend as effectively as
possible. This research demonstrates a methodology to support the priority setting of
rehabilitation on the local level. The results indicate on a detailed level which areas are
mostly threatened by soil erosion. These areas should get priority when designing
measures for environmental rehabilitation.
7.3.1 Potential Erosion

In the area four main geomorphological units were discerned:
1. Mountain complex of volcanic and sandstone deposits
2. Complex of slope and hills of Precambrian materials
3. Erosion surface of Precambrian Limestones and dolomites
4. Granite depression.
50
The calculated potential erosion (Map XI) shows a relation with these main units.
The complex of volcanic and sandstone deposits East of Adwa has the highest potential
erosion, together with the Granite depression in the South. However, the potential ero-
sion in the latter is restricted to the steep slopes, and is almost none in the flat part of
the depression. The largest part of the study area was characterized as 'complex slopes
and hills of Precambrian materials'. In this unit the potential erosion is associated with
the relief. In the South, along the borders of the Weri valley and South of mountain
Kalila, where one can find a lot of relief and numerous incised valleys the potential
erosion is high. On the other hand, in the smoother areas in the Weri valley, the Endaba
Tsahma area and Zongi tabia and the wider valley bottoms in the area the potential
area is considerably low. Finally, on the erosion surface of Precambrian Limestones
and Dolomites, the potential erosion is negligible.
7.3.2 Protecting vegetation cover

The damage to the vegetation cover is one of the main causes of the severe erosion
in the area. The vegetation cover not only prevents the soil from being washed away,
but also contributes to the formation of new soils. The vegetation cover map (Map V),
derived from the interpretation of the Landsat image, shows 12 classes. These classes
can be divided in two groups: non-protective to degradation and protective vegetation,
contributing to rehabilitation (Table 12). The class 'rock outcrop' was not taken into
consideration.
Table 12 Protective and non-protective vegetation classes
non-protective: protective:
open woodland woodland
open scrubland evergreen scrubland
croplands grassland
bare soil
If we evaluate the vegetation map, it becomes clear that the situation in the whole
area is serious21. If we have a closer look at the C factor map (Map IX), it becomes very
clear that especially around Adwa the protection by a vegetation cover is absent or very
low. A rather good protective vegetation cover is present in the South-East, in the
granite depression and in the North-West of the area. In the Weri valley, still a protective
vegetation cover is present, although the cover is not complete. It appears that the
protective cover is notably still existing in inaccessible and remote areas, for reasons of
relief (granite depression and the North-East corner of the area), or for reasons of
malaria and weeds (Weri valley and bottom of the granite depression). In the rest of the
area a protective cover is almost completely absent. If we take into account that this
goes for both valleys and steep slopes, it can be concluded that here the situation is
critical. The soil will not be protected against being washed away and no new soils will
be formed.
7.3.3 Estimated erosion

The estimated actual erosion (Map XII)22 is derived from a combination of potential
erosion and vegetation cover and land management. The highest estimated erosion
occurs in the North of the study area South, West and East of Adwa. The rest of the
study area shows a more even pattern of spots with a high actual erosion (probably the
51
steep slopes) and areas with a low actual erosion rate. It occurs that the high erosion
rate is related with the damage to the vegetation cover and the geomorphology of the
area. A combination of these two variables results in the concentration of locations with
a high estimated soil erosion in the Adwa area. In this area also the population pressure
is the highest. Accordingly, the need for firewood and building materials is high because
of the presence of the towns of Adwa and Adi Abun. The location of the estimated high
actual erosion around Adwa indicate that the origins of erosion should not only be
sought in population pressure and farm practices of the rural inhabitants. In research
and planning, the existing towns and their influence on the surrounding area should
receive substantial attention.
7.3.4 Planning for rehabilitation

The map with the estimated soil erosion can serve as a base for planning the efforts
for rehabilitation of the area. Two types of measures can be mentioned:
a. measures directed to natural rehabilitation, such as protecting areas from grazing or
reafforestation in combination with terracing/bunding,
b. measures directed to agricultural landuse, such as applying grass strips, bunds and
terraces (Hurni, 1986).
Which measures should be applied depends on the local situation. On steep slopes,
reafforestation and protection seems most appropriate, while on less steep slopes and
flat areas agricultural measurements or a combination of reafforestation and agricultural
protection measures seems appropriate.
Although it should be noted that erosion is a serious problem in the entire area, from
the actual erosion map the tabia's in which the problems are the most acute can be
identified (Table 13, for location of Tabia's see Map XII). Here, measures should be
directed to the rehabilitation of degraded areas. In other tabia's problems occur mostly
on the slopes, where measures should be taken. In these tabia's measures should be
taken to prevent and alter the process of degradation. Only the tabia's in Adwa wereda
are listed.
Table 13 Tabia's with acute problems in the study area (limited to Adwa Wereda)
Tsegereda
Mai Teum
Wereba
Mai Gundi
Eshir
Asay
Milhay
L. Logomti
7.4 The GIS-application discussed
Many of the problems encountered in this research were related to the interdisciplin-
ary, inter-institutional nature of the project. For the data processing and modelling activ-
ities in the GIS various flows of data come together. The shape and format in which
they are presented and the time table according to which they are collected and
52
generated is a critical factor in the research process. Conditions that should not be
neglected for a research like this are:
1. A clear statement of the problem that should be worked out with the help of the GIS;
2. Based on this, an overview of the information that has to be collected and the
methods by which it is collected;
3. A strict time table for the various contributors for collecting and presenting the
information;
4. A clear definition of the attribute information of the objects;
5. If the contributors of the information generate their data with the help of a GIS: a
description of the format in which the data should be offered to the common Infor-
mation System;
If these guidelines are not observed, there is a risk that:

- much time will be spent in transferring data from one system to another,
- fieldwork is inefficiently planned,
- data are collected which later appear to be irrelevant,
- the scale and reliability of the various data will differ,
- much time will be lost waiting for one dataset which is indispensable for the model.
7.5 And next ....research
Remote sensing
The experiences in this project with the application of remote sensing (satellite
images and aerial photos) plea for more research into their significance for organising
and supporting field research to study the biotic and a-biotic environment, it's threats
and opportunities. Satellite images appear to be a very useful tool for studying agricul-
tural and natural vegetation on a detailed scale, especially in inaccessible areas as the
highlands of Ethiopia. With the help of a number of small ground truth studies, a set of
spectral signatures for vegetation classes which are characteristic for the Ethiopian
Highlands can be developed. Subsequently, the natural and agricultural vegetation for
large areas can be mapped on a detailed scale. Combining these inventories in a GIS
with aspects such as altitude can support ecological studies focusing on the delineation
of biotopes and zones for natural development and protection.
The value of satellite images is not limited to the study of landcover. Also in the field
of soil mapping, they can play a supporting role. From the application of satellite images
in this research, it can be concluded that the wave lengths employed by LandSat TM
and SPOI are not sufficient to provide reliable information on the lithology of an area.
Nonetheless, the images proved to give proper information on soil colour and an
indication of the stoniness. This information can be used for soil mapping and suitability
studies in larger areas. More research into the application of Landsat TM, SPOT and
other satellites with more bands is required.
The way farmers use the landscape can be monitored with the help of remote
sensing, by classifying the agricultural vegetation cover. Because of the registration of
the reflection values in different wave lengths, satellite images are the most suitable for
this. At the same time, aerial photos are more suitable for classifying and monitoring the
physical land management by the farmers, settlement patterns and path networks.
53
GIS and socio-economic research
Questions related to land degradation and sustainability of food production are not
only related to natural biotic and a biotic characteristics. Actually, human interferences
and policy may be the determining factors in the degradation of the natural
environment. A new, hardly investigated subject is how information technology could
support the research into the socio-economic subsystem of an area. GIS and Remote
Sensing could play a role in the analysis of the way local farmers make use of their
environment. Combined with local knowledge derived from local NGO's, authorities and
the farmers themselves this can lead to a better understanding of the socio-economic
processes influencing land degradation. Advices for strategies directed on rehabilitation
have to be based on this knowledge and processes.
GIS and planning

Planning can be regarded as a strategic decision making process, which enrols on
the individual, local, regional and national level. Between these levels there can be gaps
and discrepancies in knowledge, goals and strategies. Information systems can play a
role in bridging the gap between a bottom-up and a top-down approach in planning, by
making the knowledge and information available on the various levels and by evaluating
the planning goals employed on these levels. During the symposium on Environmental
Degradation in Mekelle, 1992 regional planning goals and scenarios were formulated.
An interesting exercise would be to evaluate the consequences of these goals on a
local level and compare them with the strategic goals of the local actors in the area.
Modelling natural processes

The study and understanding of the processes and variables leading to environ-
mental degradation is the first step to the identification of strategies to rehabilitate the
natural environment. Modelling these processes makes it possible to evaluate proposed
measurements and anticipate on future developments. As such, they are of importance
for the planning of land use, development strategies and the prediction of possible
hazards. This research focused on the modelling of physical aspects of the erosion
process. Other important aspects can be mentioned which can be studied and
modelled:
- climatic modelling:
Rainfall and temperature are on a micro scale influenced by altitude. The influence
of altitude and landmasses can be incorporated in the model, in order to differentiate
the coarse climatic data. Altitudes can be derived from a digital terrain model.
Landmasses affect the amount of rainfall in the Ethiopian highlands. At Addis Ababa
University the influence of landmasses on rainfall was modelled (Tewolde, 1992). If
these landmasses are digitized, the influence zones of the landmasses can be
determined and studied.
- extended erosion modelling:
The erosion modelling can be extended to determine the effects of erosion on soil,
hydrology, deposition, vegetation and agricultural production. For this, first the
causal relation between these variables should be studied. With the help of historical
data it will be possible to study the erosion process over a longer period. The USLE
model employed in this study is an empirical model, adapted for the highlands of
54
Ethiopia. The only way to check its results is by field measurements with the help of
which the model can be calibrated.
- suitability modelling:
Models which calculate for each vegetation type the potentialities in the area. The
criteria for these models are based derived from experts and literature. For natural
vegetation these criteria will notably be a-biotical and biotical, for the agricultural
species, also socio-economical factors will be of importance. These models can be
based on matrices combining these criteria and the possible vegetation types which
can be realized.
- vegetation modelling:
Models which calculate the (spatial)effect of the vegetation on its a-biotical, biotical
and social environment. For example:
(1) the amount of woody biomass which will be produced in a certain time compared
with the demand for fuelwood (see for example: Helldén, 1987).
(2) the annual production of a certain crop, will vary with the climate and other
environmental circumstances. At various circumstances the production can be
calculated. On the other hand the crops will exhaust the soil.
Towards an expert system

An expert system is an information system that uses human expertise, stored
previously in the system, to process information. In this way, knowledge from experts
becomes available to a broader range of users. The expert knowledge can be stored in
the form of models, decision rules and matrices which give causal relations and in the
form of advices provided to the user. In this way they are especially useful in supporting
decision makers and by showing opportunities or alternative ways which can be used
as guiding principles for policy or new proceedings and by evaluating the consequences
of their choices. Besides this, the expert system can act as a teaching tool for students.
To develop the information system resulting from this project into one of these
directions, it should be extended with a user interface which supports the communi-
cation between the user with few GIS experience and the system, the third column of
the three level approach. Furthermore, the collection of models and decision rules
should be stored in a modelbase. Finally, methods for rehabilitation and advices should
be collected from literature and experts and linked with the data and model base.
Implementation of GIS
In the beginning of this report we quoted Yapa, who points out that GIS and Remote
Sensing technology is at the other end of the spectrum from the usual 'appropriate
technology'. This warning should be taken to heart, by carefully considering and
discussing the usefulness and appropriateness of these technologies at the start of
each project. This to prevent the development of another 'data graveyard' or 'white
elephant' of which the GIS history knows many examples, not only in developing
countries, but also in Western Europe. The implications of GIS on a conceptual level,
data management problems and the required knowledge infrastructure of an
organisation in which the GIS is employed should be investigate further. If these
prerequisites are met, it is our opinion that GIS and Remote Sensing technology can
make an important contribution to the solution of the severe and complex problems
which confront farmers, researchers and authorities in developing countries.
55
Notes
1
.Proposal form to the "Life Science and technologies for Developing Countries (STD3)" programme
1991-1994, Commission of the European Communities, DGXII-G-4.
2
.The information system was implemented in the MGE ('Modular GIS Environment') software of
Intergraph. The package used was the PC-1 version, which is designed as a low cost version of the
MGE workstation package, and able to work as a stand-alone system. The powerful applications of
MGE-PC1 are the facilities for data storage and retrieving in an Oracle database, combined with
geometrical information in the form of digital vector information. The possibilities for vector analysis in the
MGE-PC1 version are rather weak. The analysis was carried out in the grid environment of MGE,
MGGA (MGE Grid Analyst)-PC, which constitutes a very powerful environment for analysis of grid maps,
making full use of the cartographic modelling language developed by Dana Tomlin (Tomlin, 1990).
3
.The DEM was generated with the Arc-Info package (workstation). For the image processing Erdas
(workstation) and Ilwis (PC) were used.
4
.Burrough (1992) gives 24 uses of GIS in developing countries, on international, national, regional and
local level. These applications refer to information management, planning, management and
coordination (for example famin relief) and local studies and analysis.
5
.For the graphical lay out of the maps, the ARC-Info software was used. For each map the presentation
commands were registerd in Macro Language files (AML files).
6
.The study area is situated between 4o82' and 5o10' North latitude and 15o66' and 15o28' East
longitude.
7
.ISAC stands for 'Information Systems work and Analysis of Changes', a working group at the
University of Stockholm, Sweden, which performed research into a new approach for the development
of information systems.
8
.The preliminary topographical map was developed by SYNOPTICS, Integrated Remote Sensing & GIS
Applications, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
9
.Van der Meer and van der Knaap (1991) give a formula to calculate the reliability of objects on a
digitized map: Nxy=(Ndig*S)/f in which Nxy= the accuracy of the terrain XY (metres), Ndig= accuracy of the
digitizer (mm), f= relation number map/terrain, S= map scale.
0
0.The z-tolerance specifies the maximum acceptable difference in z values between the input lattice
mesh points and their corresponding locations in the output tin (ESRI, 1991).
1
1.Compiled by Daniel Gamachu, Addis Ababa University.
2
2.The procedure 'Gravitational interpolation' in the carthographic modelling language developed by
Tomlin, computes a value for each location of unknown value by averaging the known values of sur-
rounding locations, such that each is weighed by the inverse of its distance squared (Tomlin, 1990).
3
3.Hurni (1986) gives in his book 'Guidelines for Development Agents on Soil Conservation in Ethiopia'
a description of various conservation measures. The land management classification is partly based on
this description.
4
4.Govers and Desmet (1995), refer to another formula of Foster and Wischmeier for calculating the LS
factor of non-uniform slopes:
Sj(ljm+1 - lj-1m+1)
LSj = ────────────────
(lj - lj-1)⋅22.13m)
where Sj = slope factor for the j-th segment

Lj = distance from the lower boundary of the j-th segment
to the upslope field boundary
m = the length exponent of the USLE LS-factor
56
The LS value for each grid cell was also calculated using this formula. The resulting LS values were
comparable to the values calculated with the formula for uniform slopes.
5
5.The maps in this report are on a small scale, for reasons of costs. For application of the result maps
for planning activities, they are available on a 1:50,000 scale (A0 format), combining topography and
other themes. These can be ordered at the CGI, Wageningen Agricultural University, PO Box 215, 6700
AE Wageningen, The Netherlands.
6
6.Zoomed in on a detailed level, the erosion map has a good readability. For presenation on a scale of
1:50,000 the soil erosion map was processed with a majority filter to remove single pixels. Actually, the
maps are prepared for presentation on a 1:50,000 scale. In this report they are compressed to the A4
format, which results in loss of information.
7
7.Burrough (1986) mentions a standard deviation of a slope map of 2%. Pilesjö (1992), made a
comparison of three DEMs, developed from a 1:2,000,000, 1: 250,000 and a 1:50,000 topographical
map, comparing 200 sample points on the slope maps, and found the following standard deviations:
scale: st.dev.:
1:2,000,000 - 1:250,000 2.28
1:2,000,000 - 1:50,000 2.35
1:250,000 - 1:50,000 1.32
8
8.Rose, E. (1975). Erosion et ruissellment en Afrique de l'ouest: vingt annees de mesures en petites
parcelles experimentales. Cyclo. ORSTROM, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.
9
9.Burrough(1986) takes a deviance of 0.1 for an interpretation carried out by experts.
0
0.Alonso (1968). Predicting best with imperfect data. J. Am. Inst. Plan. (APA Journal).July 1968, 248-
55.
1
1.It should be noted that the vegetation map is derived from a Landsat image of 1987. Since than,
some reafforestion projects and other measures to protect the vegetation have been implemented in the
area.
2
2.For reasons of presentation the grid map was resampled into a limited number of classes. The
original map contains the estimated soil loss for each grid cell. The map does not cover the complete
study area, because the land management inventory only covered part of the area.
57
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Worboys M.F. (ed) (1994), Innovations in GIS 1. (Taylor and Francis: London)
Reports:
Report of the Symposium on Environmental Degradation, Mekelle, 15 - 20 April, 1992. Prepared by the
organizing committee, June 1992.
59
Appendix 1 Legend ISAC flowcharts (from Lundeberg et al., 1984)
Digital data
collection
Other data source

(not digital)
Manual processing
Computer processing
Relation
60
Appendix 2 Generating the DEM using Arc-Info (for more information see Arc-
Info manuals).
command result comments
CREATETIN TIN based on digitized

Nodes: 103,950 points
Triangles: 207,870
GENERATE <cov> coverage fishnet point

fishnet cellsize 25 m coverage.
3,818,889 points
1 TINSPOT quintic coverage altitude values

are attached to points
by a local bivariate quintic (fifth order) int-
erpolation.
2 CREATETIN TIN based on point coverage.
Nodes: 2,046,796 linear interpolation
Triangles: 4,093,376
3 TINLATTICE quintic lattice

cellsize 25 m
1737 rows
1276 columns
4 LATTICECONTOUR coverage contour map for checking.

25 m contourlines
5 GRID lattices models are masked

and raised/lowered
if necessary.
6 CREATETIN TIN based on lattice

Nodes: 131,684
Triangles: 263,184
z tolerance: 14.406
7 TINLATTICE quintic lattice
8 FILTER low high lattice high pass filter:

enhances edges
low pass filter:
smooths lattice and reduces influence of
anomalous points
9 LATTICECONTOUR coverage contour map
25 m contourlines
61
10 ARCEDIT coverage contour map edited
62
APPENDIX 3 Spectral signatures
Figure 5.19 : Bare soil 1 : Spectral signature

Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
12 13 14 18
The bare soil seems to characterise this class. The ground truth in this place is characterised by one
sample point. Looking at the floristic composition and the vegetation cover (table 5.11b), scrubland at a
high altitude (higher than 2,000 metres) could also characterise this class. During the next field survey it
will be necessary to check the definition of this class. It represents almost 1.5% of the study area.
♦ Class : Vegetation
Figure 5.20 : Vegetation : Spectral signature
Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
15 25 16
This graph shows us a typical vegetation curve. Besides a high level of reflectance in the near
infrared (characteristic of a high vegetation amount), the reflectance is low in the red (chlorophyll
absorption) and in the middle infrared (moisture absorption). This class could be represented by cereal
crops or grassland. The ground truth does not give us information about this vegetation type, so this area
(almost 5% of the study area) will have to be described during the next field visit.
63
♦ Class : Steep slopes/chimney
Figure 5.21 : Steep slopes/chimney : Spectral signature

Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
24
This curve is representative for the points located in the vulcan chimneys or in the steep slopes.
The high blue level, compared to the other bands, could indicate a shadow effect (steep slopes) in this
area. Probably one vegetation type could have been linked to this area (see reflectance level in the near
infrared).
♦ Class : Scrubland (low altitude)
Figure 5.22 : Scrubland (low altitude) : Spectral signature

Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
10 2 8
For the same reasons as we saw in the vegetation class, the spectral signature determines a
vegetation type. But here the vegetation cover density seems lower. We have a soil effect (red level
higher than the green level). There is only one sample point in the ground truth which can help to define
the class. The floristic composition defines a scrubland type (Dycoma tomentosa). A grazing effect seems
64
to be present. This important area (almost 11%) will have to be travelled through during the next field
survey to improve the class description.
65
♦ Class : Wooded grassland 1
Figure 5.23 : Wooded grassland 1 : Spectral signature
Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
7 1
As illustrated in table 5.11a, the ground truth indicates a vegetation type. Some trees are present
beside shrubs and grass. This fact is confirmed by the above curve which has a near infrared level quite
high and a large moisture absorption in the middle infrared. The level of red reflectance can suppose a
soil effect (canopy does not cover the soil in totality) during the wet season. With three sample points,
the ground truth is more accurate. The table management indicates us a protected area with terraces. But
the presence of Euclea shimperi and Cymbopogom nardus characterise a highland vegetation type. The
other species are found in general at a low altitude (Bidens pilosa, Aristida adoensis, Chloris virgata). To
improve this class definition, other samples have to be taken in the field.
♦ Class : Bare soil 2
Figure 5.24 : Bare soil 2 : Spectral signature
Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
17 20 29
66
Without information from the ground truth, only the literature can contribute to the definition of
this class. This curve illustrates a soil type (high red level compared to the other bands). The high level of
blue can indicate the presence of a broken ground (shadow effect in a hilly landscape). So, it will be
necessery to take samples in the field to identify this object during the next field survey .
♦ Class : Karstic depression
Figure 5.25 : Karstic depression : Spectral signature
Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
19
This curve determines with a good accuracy the karstic depression. It was not possible to identify
this area in the soil classification with the SPOT image. This area was defined using the lithological map
(scale 1:50,000). Notice, in the east part of the study area, we find a karstic depression not located on the
lithological map. The next field visit should check the classification in this region.
♦ Class : Open woodland
Figure 5.26 : Open woodland : Spectral signature
Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
4 5
The four sample points located in this area show a good uniformity in the floristic composition
(table 5.11a). Acacia etbiaca, Senna singuana characterise an open woodland. During the wet season,
67
this area is grazed by cattle (see table management). So, in many parts the soil can appear through the
vegetation. This fact can explain the relatively high reflectance level in the red and in the middle infrared
during the wet season. This class represents almost 22% of the study area.
♦ Class : Scrubland (high altitude)
Figure 5.27 : Scrubland (high altitude) : Spectral signature

Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
21 23 26
One other kind of scrubland is indicated by the graph above. A broken ground (hilly landscape)
and a low density of vegetation seem to be the characteristics of this class. Euclea shimperi defines an
ecological condition located in the high altitude. The ground truth is illustrated by only one sample point.
To have a better accuracy, this classification needs new observations in the field. The total area of this
class is not very important (around 4%).
♦ Class : A
Figure 5.28 : A : Spectral signature

Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
22 6
This graph cannot be illustrated by the ground truth. The high reflectance level in the red and near
infrared, compared to the other bands, look like another scrubland type. But today, without descriptions
from the field it is impossible to identify this class.
68
♦ Class : Wooded grassland 2
Figure 5.29 : Wooded grassland 2 : Spectral signature
Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
3 27
The ground truth gives us information about 6 sample points taken in this area. The classification
of this class by wooded grassland is quite accurate. If this class is similar to the Vegetation class, the
management of this last one can explain the differences between these two classes. In the Vegetation
class, there seems to be a protection policy against overgrazing, to struggle against erosion, so there can
be more vegetation. This area seems more cultivated, more grazed in some parts (see table management).
So the higher reflectance level in the red band could confirm the grazing and the appearance of bare soil
in some areas.
♦ Class : Scrubland (middle altitude)
Figure 5.30 : Scrubland (middle altitude) : Spectral signature
Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
Reflectance
28 30
This class represent around 4.7% of the study area. Aristida adoensis is a typical species of the
scrublands in the middle altitude. Often grazed, this area shows a poor vegetation with a low vegetation
cover. The above curve confirms this state. Beside a moderated reflectance level in the near infrared, the
reflectance in the red band shows us the presence in the area of bare soil in the broken ground (blue level
of reflectance compared to the red and the near infrared). The next ground truth should allow to confirm
these remarks by observations in the wet season.
69
♦ Class : B
Figure 5.31 : B : Spectral signature
Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
11
The high reflectance level in the red band can indicate the presence of bare rock. But the
reflectance in the middle infrared (moisture absorption) suggests that we have a high amount of moisture
(water probably). Without ground truth, it is difficult to identify this object. Although the total area is not
very important (less than 1%), a favorable location near Adwa should allow to identify this class during
the next field survey.
♦ Class : Water
Figure 5.32 : Water : Spectral signature
Reflectance
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
B G R NIR MIR MIR
9
This graph is almost similar to the class Steep slopes/chimney. The principal difference rests in the
near infrared reflectance, which is lower than the class Steep slopes/chimney. A different vegetation type
or a lower density could explain this difference. But the high reflectance in the blue band of the visible
light, and a very low reflectance in the middle infrared (moisture absorption) can indicate we are in
presence of water (swamps, flood plains,...).The next field survey will be able to describe this class.
After: Sarautte and Vonder, 1995

70
Appendix IV MGE-script USLE model
71
#
#
# Script for Mapalgebra
# Script 1 for calculating LS factor
#
# input:
# altitude the altitude of each cell in meters
#
#
# Script 1.1 for calculating slopes
#
# This script calculates the slope for each gridcell.
# The operation is described by Tomlin (page 109,110).
# 1.1.1
# The slope is computed by determining that plane whose
# three-dimensional orientation minimizes the sum of the
# squares of the vertical angles between itself and a
# cartographic surface. The slope is measured as the
# largest angle between this inferred plane and the
# horizontal cartographic plane.
Alt3 = LocalRating of Altitude where 1950 replaces 3000 ...
Slope = IncrementalGradient of Alt3
# 1.1.2
# In the USLE model the slope is expressed in %, being
# the tangent of the slope, multiplied by 100
# However trigonometric functions do not work on this
# MGGA version! The following command does not work:
# Slope = LocalArcTangent of Slope
# The slope in degrees has to be recalculated to %

# with the help of a table and the LocalRating command.
# Notice that the maximum of command lines within a
# localrating command is ten!
slope1 = localrating of slope where 0 replaces 0 ~

where 2 replaces 1 where 4 replaces 2 ~
where 31 replaces 17 where 32 replaces 18
slope2 = localrating of slope1 where 34 replaces 19 ~

72


# Script 1.2 for calculating watersheds

#
# This script creates a grid with the ridges which form the
# top of the slopes.
# The top of a slope is defined as the ridges which
# partions the flow direction of the rainfall.
# The foot of a slope is defined as the streamnetwork,
# i.e. cells with a high flow accumulation.
#
#
# 1.2.1
# The direction of the flow is determined by the steepest
# descent from each cell. For each cell there are eight
# adjacent neighbours. There may be up to 256 different
# downstream configurations (see: Tomlin, page 110).
# The direction from which water from adjacent neighbours
# would flow into the cell is calculated.
Upstream = IncrementalDrainage of Alt3
# 1.2.2
# The accumulated flow is calculated for each cell, as the
# accumulated weight of all cells, flowing into each downslope
# cell. A map "1", on which all values are set to one
# simulates the rainfall. (see: Tomlin, page 146).
# The cell value on the output grid is equal to the
# number of cells that flow into the cell.
# By taking a distance of 10 cells, around each cell
# an area with a radius of 250 metres is considered,
73
# which is 196,250 square metres.
Runoff = FocalSum of 1 spreading through Upstream at 1 ... 10
# 1.2.3
# Both flat areas and ridges which form a watershed have an
# accumulated flow of 0 or 1. If the slope of a cell and its
# surrounding cells equal 0, there will be no upstream cells
# draining into the cell. This means it is either a ridge
# forming a watershed, or a flat area.
# After removing areas with a slope of 0 from
# Runoff, the ridges remain. The slopes were calculated
# in script 1.1. The map Ridge gives the slope values for
# the Ridges (= areas with a slope > 0 and an accumulated
# waterflow of 1).
Ridge = LocalRating of Runoff ~

where Slope replaces 0 ... 1 ~
where void replaces 2 ...
# 1.3 Script for calculating the drainage pattern

# A rough drainage pattern is generated with the help of
# the accumulated waterflow through each cell, which
# was calculated in 1.1.2
# 1.3.1
# In the USLE model, the slope length is defined as the
# distance from the point of origin of overland flow
# (i.e. the ridges, calculated in 1.2) to the point
# where either the slope gradient decreases enough that
# deposition begins, or the runoff water enters a well-defined
# channel that may be part of a drainage network or
# a valley bottom.
# Cells with a high accumulated waterflow can be regarded
# as part of the valley bottom. It is supposed that
# deposition starts if the slope is 0.
# The decision when the flow through a cell is so high, that
# is is to be considered as a part of the drainage network
# /valley bottom is fuzzy. In this case it was decided to lay
# this boundary at 79 cells.
# This means: cells through which at least 79 other cells
# (= 490.625 sq metres, = 25% of the considered area)
# are draining, are considered to be part of the drainage
# network or a valley bottom.
Drainage = Localrating of Runoff ~

where 0 replaces 1 ... 79 ~
where 1 replaces 80 ...
Deposit = Localrating of Slope5 where void replaces 1 ...
Deposit2 = Localrating of Ridge where Deposit replaces void ~

Draindep = Localrating of Drainage where Deposit2 replaces 0
# 1.4 Script for calculating the slope length.

# The definition of the slope length is given in 1.3.
#
# 1.4.1
# The distance of each cell to a ridge is calculated,
74
# measuring through the direction of the flowlines of
# the slopes. For practical reasons, the calculation is
# limited to a distance of 20 grid cells (500 metres),
# which is acceptable in the mountaineous area.
Disridge = FocalProximity of Ridge ~

spreading through Upstream at 1 ... 20
# 1.4.2
# The slope length is the distance between the ridge
# and the cells next to the deposition area and
# drainage network.
# A buffer of one cell around these areas is created
# and this buffer gets the value of its distance
# to the ridge.
Drainde3 = LocalRating of Draindep where 0 replaces 0 ...
Buf = FocalProximity of Drainde3 at 1 ... 2
Buf2 = LocalRating of Drainde3 where Buf replaces void
SlopLen = LocalRating of Buf2 ~

where Disridge replaces 1 ~
# IncrementalAspect gives the compass direction of the

# steepest descent of a location and its adjacent cells.
Downstr = IncrementalAspect of Alt3
# the compass direction is recalculated to values which

# give the (downstream) connection of a location with
# its adjacent cells.
Downst2 = LocalRating of Downstr where 4 replaces 23 ... 67 ~

where 16 replaces 68 ... 112 where 128 replaces 113 ... 157 ~
where 2 replaces 1 ... 22 where 0 replaces -1 ~
# 1.4.3
# The slopes are considered as complex slopes and are
# divided into segments of 25 m. Each grid cell is a segment.
# The length of the whole slope is attached to each cell.
# Calculated through the flowlines.
Leneach = FocalMaximum of SlopLen spreading through Downst2 ~

at 1 ... 20
# 1.5 Script for calculating the LS factor for each cell

#
# The LS factor is calculated according to the formulas
# of Wisschmeier (1982), who gives two formulas:
# one for slopes <9% and one for slopes >9%.
# The LS factor for a cell is determined by the distance from
# the cell to the ridge.
75
# The formula of Wisschmeier for slopes =< 9% is:
#
#
#
#
#
# for the calculations in the GIS, which only can take
# integers, the formula is reshaped to:
#
#
#
#
#
#
# 1.5.1
# slopes less or equal than 9% are selected.
Sloles9 = LocalRating of slope5 where void replaces 10 ...
# 1.5.2
# During the following steps, the calculation is
# preformed. Because the GIS only accept integers,
# sometimes correction factors are introduced to prevent
# values becoming too small.
# the slopelength should be in metres, not in pixelcells.
Len = LocalProduct of Leneach and 25
A = LocalProduct of Sloles9 and Sloles9
B = LocalProduct of A and 43
C = LocalProduct of Sloles9 and 300
D = LocalSum of B and C and 430
# A correction factor (10,000) is introduced to prevent

# E becoming too small, this has to be corrected later.
D1 = LocalProduct of D and 10000
E = LocalRatio of D1 and 6613
F = LocalProduct of Len and Len and len
G = LocalRoot of F and 10
# A correction factor (10) is introduced to prevent

# I from becoming too small, this has to be corrected later.
H = LocalProduct of G and 10000
I = LocalRatio of H and 2531
XLS1 = LocalProduct of E and I
# Where XLS1 is X * LS1, X = the correction factor = 100000

# To get LS1 XLS should be divided by X. However, to
76
# prevent roundig off errors by the GIS, we divide only
# by 1000. The result CLS1 is 100 * LS1
CLS1 = LocalRatio of XLS1 and 1000
# The formula of Wisschmeier for slopes > 9% is:

#
#
#
#
#
# for the calculations in the GIS, which only can take
# integers, the formula is reshaped to:
#
#
#
#
#
#
# 1.5.3
# slopes greater than 9% are selected.
Slogt9 = LocalRating of slope5 where void replaces ... 9
# 1.5.4
# During the following steps, the calculation is
# preformed. Because the GIS only accept integers,
# sometimes coorecction factors are introduced to prevent
# values becoming too small.
K11 = LocalProduct of slogt9 and slogt9 and slogt9
K1 = LocalRoot of K11 and 10
K2 = LocalProduct of slogt9 and k1 and 1000
K3 = LocalRatio of K2 and 17399
XLS2 = LocalProduct of I and K3
# Where XLS2 is X * LS2, X = the correction factor = 10 (I)

# The correction factor of CLS1 is 100, to get
# comparable values XLS2 is multiplied by 10
CLS2 = LocalProduct of XLS2 and 10
# 1.5.5
# Finally, the LS factors are put together on one map.
# The map values are 100 * LS
CLSTOT = LocalRating of CLS1 where CLS2 replaces void
# 1.6 Script for correcting the segments of the complex slopes

# The erosion is not evenly distributed over the entire slope.
# The rate of soil loss increases as the m-th power of the
# distance from the top of the slope.
# The soil loss fraction is described by the formula:
#
77
#
#
#
#
#
# where j = segment sequence number;
# m = slope-length exponent: 0.5 if slope >= 5%
# 0.4 if slope = 4%, 0.3 if slope +< 3%.
# N = number of equal length segments into which the
# slope was divided.
# The segment sequence number j is equal to Disridge (1.4.1)

# N = total slopelength LenEach (1.4.3)
# 1.6.1
# Calculation of soil loss fraction for slopes >= 5% (m=0.5)
Slogt5 = LocalRating of Slope5 where void replaces 0 ... 4
j1 = LocalRating of Slogt5 where Disridge replaces 5 ...
j2 = LocalDifference of j1 and 1
j3 = LocalProduct of j2 and j2 and j2
j4 = LocalRoot of j3 and 2
j7 = LocalDifference of j6 and j4
# 1.6.2
# This value is multiplied by 100, which has to be corrected
# later
j8 = LocalProduct of j7 and 100
n1 = LocalProduct of Leneach and Leneach and Leneach
n2 = LocalRoot of n1 and 2
CSofra1 = LocalRatio of j8 and n2
# 1.6.3
# Calcultation of LS factor for each cell (s>=5%)
# The factor C = 100 (1.6.2) * 100 (1.5.5) = 10000
# here, clstot1 is divided by 10, so C=1000
clstot1 = localrating of clstot where 10 replaces 1 ... 9
clstot2 = localratio of clstot1 and 10
clseac1 = localproduct of clstot2 and csofra1
# 1.6.4
# Calculation of soil loss fraction for slopes = 4% (m=0.4)
# For the calculation is simplified to:
78
#
#
Slo4 = LocalRating of Slope5 where void replaces 0 ... 3 ~

j9 = LocalRating of Slo4 where Disridge replaces 4
j11 = LocalProduct of j10 and j10
j12a = LocalProduct of j10 and j12
j14a = LocalProduct of j9 and j14
j15 = LocalDifference of j14a and j12a
# 1.6.5
# later
# is simplified to:
#
#
n3 = LocalProduct of Leneach and Leneach
n4a = LocalProduct of n4 and Leneach
CSofra2 = LocalRatio of j16 and n4a
# 1.6.6
# Calcultation of LS factor for each cell (s=4%)
# The factor C = 100 (1.6.5) * 100 (1.5.5) = 10000
# earlier, clstot1 was divided by 10 , so C = 1000
clseac2 = localproduct of csofra2 and clstot2
# 1.6.7
# Calculation of soil loss fraction for slopes =< 3 (m=0.3)
#
# is simplified to:
#
#
Slost3 = LocalRating of Slope5 where void replaces 4 ...
j17 = LocalRating of Slost3 where Disridge replaces 0 ... 3
79
j25 = LocalDifference of j24 and j21
# 1.6.8
# later
#
# is simplified to:
#
#
n5 = LocalProduct of Leneach and Leneach and Leneach
n7 = LocalProduct of n6 and Leneach
CSofra3 = LocalRatio of j26 and n7
# 1.6.9
# Calcultation of LS factor for each cell (s=< 3%)
# The factor C = 100 (1.6.8) * 100 (1.5.5) = 10000
# Clstot was divided earlier by 10, so C = 1000
clseac3 = localproduct of csofra3 and clstot2
# The maps are divided by 10, so C = 100
clseac1a = localratio of clseac1 and 10
CLSeac4 = LocalRating of CLSeac1a where CLSeac2a replaces void
CLSeac5 = LocalRating of CLSeac4 where CLSeac3a replaces void
# deposit areas, valley bottoms and drainage network are

# excluded.
CLSeach =LocalRating of DrainDep where CLSeac5 replaces void ~

# script 2 for calculating K factor

# Correction factor C = 100
80
CK = LocalRating of geomorf3 where 25 replaces 1 ~
where 0 replaces 50 where void replaces 0
# script 3 for calculating R factor
Rainmm = Localproduct of rains and 10
M = LocalProduct of Rainmm and 562
O = LocalDifference of M and 8120
# R [mm] = O / 1000
R = LocalRatio of O and 1000
# script 4 for calculating C factor

# Correction factor = 100
CC = LocalRating of vegemap2 where 1 replaces 3 ~

# script 5 for calcultating p factor

# correction factor = 10
cp = localrating of landman where 8 replaces 3202 ~

# script 6 for calculating Soil Loss

# soil loss = R * LS * K * P * C
# 6.1
# reduce maximum values
CLSeach1 = LocalRating of clseach where 100000 replaces 100000 ...
# correction factor LS = 100
LSP = LocalProduct of clseach1 and cp
# correction factor P = 10; LSP = 1000
LSPK = LocalProduct of LSP1 and CK

81
# correction factor K = 100; LSPK = 10 exp 5
# divide by ten
LSPK1 = localratio of lspk and 10
# correction factor LSPK1 = 10 exp 4
LSPKR = LocalProduct of R and LSPK1
# cor fac R = 1
# cor fac LSPKR = 10 EXP 4
LSPKR1 = LocalRatio of LSPKR and 1000
# cor fac LSPKR1 = 10
# (CC1 is the result of an AlignGrid on CC, Same as ...

# CK)
LSPKCR = LocalProduct of LSPKR1 and CC1
# cor fac C = 100; cor fac LSPKCR = 1000
# The result is in Tons/ha, with a C of 1000

# To get Tons per pixelcel (25x25 m) divide the result by 16
# for tons -> kg : * 1000, to correct factor : 1000 so:
# result = kg , corr factor = 1
SoLokg = Localratio of LSPKCR and 16
82

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CONTENTS

2. GIS TECHNOLOGY THE APPROPRIATE INSTRUMENT? 8

4. DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA 18

5. TOWARDS EROSION MODELLING 35

6. RESULTS OF THE USLE GIS-APPLICATION 42

This final report presents a study to develop methodologies for rehabilitation of

Wageningen, January 1996

1.2 Background of the research

This study is a component of the project 'Rehabilitation of degraded and degrading

The overall objectives of the project were1:

1.3 Project objectives for the CGI

In the overall project proposal the need of a geographical information system is

1.4 How to read this report

2.2.1 Description of spatial phenomena

2.2.2 Processing of spatial data

2.2.3 Presentation of results

Process-actions Input Processing Output

2.3 The application base

At the implementation level the Modular Geographical information processing

Tables Created by Define Poject schema Attribute Tables

Figure 1 MGE-PC1 Database (Intergraph, 1993)

3.2 Data Concept

3.3 Formal description

Table 1. Definition of the Oracle table 'Tabia'

Table 2. User defined attribute table 'Tabia'.

MSLINKMAPID NAME POPULATION CLOSED REAFFOR. REAFFOREST

GEOMORPHOLOGY Denudation area severe badlands

Figure 3 Classification hierarchy of the attribute information of the project.

b. The data sources, summarized in Table 3.

Vegetation: natural field + LandSat

e. Improvements of the procedures, based on the experiences in the project. These

4.2 Topographical information - human constructions

Figure 4 Data gathering procedure topo-photomap and final topographical map.

4.2.2 Data sources

Bands wavelength (µm)

1 Green light visible 0.50-0.59

2 Red light visible 0.61-0.68

3 Near Infrared 0.79-0.89

Input topographical map:

LS: Slope + Slope length

Air photo Real Air photo Real

Figure 5 Data gathering procedure and improved procedure: topography -

Figure 6 Composite sampling (after Weibel and Heller, 1991)

4.3.2 Data sources

Resulting tin, after editing and filtering:

Lattice: 25 m grid cell size,

Because the 40 models were digitized separately by manual interpretation, it

Real Air photo Air photo Real

Figure 7 Data gathering procedure and improved procedure: geomorphology.

The geomorphological map was developed by the disciplinary experts. The

4.4.2 Data sources

Figure 8 Data gathering procedure: climate.

Table 5 Mean annual rainfall for Eastern Tigray.

station: mean annual rainfall (mm)

Vegetation Prel. vegeta-

Figure 9 Data gathering procedure and improved procedure: vegetation.

Scatterplot (Red band : X3, Near infrared : X4)

0.05 Steep slopes/chimney

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

4.6.2 Data sources

Bands Wavelength (µm)

1 Blue light visible 0.45 - 0.52

2 Green light visible 0.52 - 0.60