Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Katelyn Pearson
Though the use of vibration is being increasingly recognized and utilized in sensory aids
for the hearing impaired, there is still an abundant amount of room for improvement in
applications. In particular, vibrotactile aids and tactile alerting devices are especially useful to
assist deaf people. To make these aids the more efficient, it is necessary to be desirable to
understand the accessibility and availability of potential vibration locations, the body’s
Tactile assistive devices for deaf people are mostly commonly used to alert the user of
surrounding sound, as is done with vibrotactile aids that apply vibration to the skin, or to portray
a message of an alarm or alert. These devices can be used alone or in conjunction with devices
such as hearing aids and cochlear implants. While the latter are very important and improve the
lives of many, vibrating assistive devices are also very important due to the immense number of
people who rely on them. The number of adults in the United States who use hearing aids is
much lower than what most people seem to believe, at 16.2 % as of 2006 ("Text Description,"
2012). This may be because of a variety of reasons such as price, medical limitations, stigma, or
cultural preferences. In any event, alert devices tend to be much cheaper and less invasive, and
Accessibility and availability is a key factor when developing a device to help people;
little would be accomplished if an assistive device is too difficult to use. So when developing a
new aid and choosing a body location for its placement, it is imperative to be aware of the
physical and practical limitations each body location may present. For example, research on
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 3
vibrotactile aids and prototypes reveals some that are placed on body locations that may hinder
everyday life or cause discomfort. This seems to be the case with a vibrotactile aid under
development Colorado State University students that applies vibrations the tongue to alert the
user of surrounding sounds (Sparks, 2015). At the risk of stating the obvious, not only does this
seem uncomfortable, but it would also interfere with how a person eats, drinks, and utilizes facial
expressions. A similar problem is also presented in a device called the Mood Glove, which is a
device that is intended to enhance a wearer’s perception of movies, and which is especially
beneficial to deaf and hard of hearing people people who have varying degrees of hearing loss.
The Mood Glove works by applying vibrotactile stimulus to the hand of the wearer,
synchronized with the movie effects, in an effort to heighten perceived emotions to amplify the
film’s mood (Mazzoni & Bryan-Kinns, 2016, p. 9). Unfortunately, wearing the Mood Glove may
hinder any activity such as eating, drinking, and possibly communicating with sign language
(signing).
Another factor and potential obstacle is that of size. Effective devices generally need to
be compact, since designs that span a large portion of the body are impractical for everyday use.
This factor especially applies to vibrotactile aids due to the complex messages that are trying to
be conveyed. A prime example of the is a vibrotactile aid prototype with sensors all over the
arms that is being developed despite the fact it may interfere with clothing such as long sleeve
shirts and coats and be uncomfortable to wear (Khoo, Knapp, Palmer, Ro, & Zhu, 2013, p. 105).
The size challenge is also revealed in a vibrotactile aid in the form of a vest (Eagleman, 2015).
Though this device may seem to be comfortable and effective, the back of the device appears too
Such factors should be taken into consideration when attempting to improve existing aids
or develop new ones. Two common vibrating alerting devices are vibrating alarm clocks and
vibrating baby monitors worn by a user, typically a deaf person ("Shake-n-wake Vibrating,"
2017; Taylor, 2017). Vibrating alarm clocks are generally designed to be worn on the wrist or as
a bed shaker, and vibrating baby monitors are also generally designed to be worn on the wrist.
The location availability aspect can be overlooked to focus on other concepts. Vibrating baby
monitors are also usually placed on the wrist, so the same analysis applies. While the location
(placement) of such aids might be considered good from the standpoint of practicality to the
wearer, there still may be room for improvement in considering other body locations for devices
Sensitivity to vibration is varied throughout the body depending on the body location.
When considering vibrotactile sensitivity, the body parts ranked most to least sensitive are the
hands, soles of feet, larynx region, abdomen, head region, and gluteal region (Weinstein &
consider sensitivity to pressure, so that a device being worn does not become uncomfortable.
This is especially true for devices that convey messages using vibrations at multiple different
body locations. For sensitivity to pressure, the body parts ranked from most to least sensitive are
the forehead and rest of the face, trunk, fingers, and lower extremities (Weinstein & Weinstein,
1964). For sensitivity to point localization, the body parts ranked from most to least sensitive are
the face region, fingers, hallux, palms, abdomen, arms, lower legs, upper chest, and thigh
The variations in sensitivity to vibration and pressure are is due to the presence and
variability in mechanoreceptors in the skin, of which there are four main types: Meissner’s
corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, Merkel cells, and Ruffini's corpuscles (Purves & Williams,
2001). These mechanoreceptors sense tactile input and send the signals to the brain for analysis.
Meissner’s corpuscles account for most tactile perception on areas with glabrous skin such as the
fingers, palms, and soles. They are specialized to detect low frequency vibrations, 30-50 Hz, and
textured objects that move across the skin (Purves & Williams, 2001). Pacinian corpuscles are
not abundant in number, but are found on many of the same locations as Meissner’s corpuscles.
Pacinian corpuscles are made to detect much higher vibrations, 250-350 Hz, and finer textures
than Meissner’s corpuscles are ("Pacinian Corpuscle," n.d.). Merkel cells, found in the
epidermis, are essential for detecting light-touch sensations (Purves & Williams, 2001). Ruffini’s
corpuscles are elongated mechanoreceptors located deep in the skin, ligaments, and tendons.
They are slowly adapting and respond when skin is stretched and when bones change position in
joints (Parvizi, 2010, p. 315). The uneven distribution of these mechanoreceptors is responsible
for difference in sensitivity of different locations. This makes some areas more sensitive than
others, regardless of the mechanoreceptor receiving information (Purves & Williams, 2001).
One might wonder if these mechanoreceptors tire out if stimulated too long. For instance,
vibrations on the skin? After all, this happens with smell when the nose experiences olfactory
fatigue. Olfactory fatigue occurs when the sensory receptors are bombarded by a smell and
become accustomed to it. The individual experiencing this phenomenon becomes less or
unaware that the source of the smell is still present ("Lab 2: Olfactory," 2003). While secondary
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 6
research has not revealed evidence of a tactile assimilation parallel to olfactory fatigue,
mechanical vibrations have been shown to elicit muscle fatigue, where the power behind muscle
contractions decreases (Bennebach, Rognon, & Bardou, 2013). In any event, for short lived
While the research on the body’s sensitivity to vibration and the brain’s perception to
vibration is helpful, it must be remembered that research on those with normal hearing might not
apply to the hearing impaired. This is because, though similar, there are several neurological
differences between the brains of deaf and those with normal hearing, namely, difference in
sensory compensation, left brain activity, and differences in white and grey matter. These
differences discussed below have varying potential to affect the input and processing of sensory
stimuli that need to be taken into consideration during the development of assistive devices
Sensory compensation occurs when one sense is lost, and the others are heightened.
Hearing loss is not an exception. It has been shown that the auditory cortex is reapportioned in
the brains of deaf people to process visual and haptic input, rather than auditory input as is the
case with people with normal hearing (Napoli, 2014, p. 1). This makes sense, and studies have
shown that deaf people have better peripheral vision, aiding in the interpretation of sign
language, the most common replacement for spoken language (Bavelier, Dye, & Hauser, 2006,
p. 512). Signers split their focus between the hand signs, body language, and facial expressions
of their partner in a conversation. Therefore, when communicating with a deaf people through a
translator, it is important for hearing people to look at the person whom they are conversing with
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 7
out of respect. This gesture will likely be noticed and appreciated even as the deaf participant is
Deaf people alse display heightened left brain activity compared to those with normal
hearing. Stimulation from sign language affects the brain’s use and structure in deaf people
(Livadas, 2011). For example, more of the left parietal lobe is used for the use of signed
languages compared to spoken languages (Macsweeney, Capek, Campbell, & Woll, 2008, p.
438). The parietal lobes are used for the spatial processing of visual input and the integration of
somatosensory information. It is known that damage to the left lobe can result in the
development of Gerstmann's Syndrome, a cognitive impairment that affects the ability to write,
differentiate between left and right, understand arithmetic calculations and concepts, and identify
In addition, studies have found that the auditory cortexes of have less white matter than
those of people with normal hearing ("Brain Anatomy," 2014). The auditory cortex, located in
the temporal lobe, is used by people with normal hearing to process sounds transmitted from the
cochlea. Specific uses vary from processing natural sounds to deciphering the amplitude or
frequency of sound waves (Purves & Williams, 2001). It is perhaps not surprising that the brain
of deaf people would therefore possess less white matter in this way. Instead, those who are deaf
from birth and learn to sign at a young age are found to have more gray matter, which is neuronal
cell matter that processes information in the brain, in the right superior frontal gyrus (Olulade,
The end result is that deaf people have an increased tactile sensitivity compared to
hearing people (Levänen & Hamdorf, 2001, p. 75). This is supported by the fact that more of the
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 8
brain of is used for tactile response in deaf people compared to hearing people, and that deaf
people experience a more intense response to vibration in the secondary auditory cortex than
hearing people (Good, Reed, & Russo, 2014, p. 560; Auer, Jr., Bernstein, Sungkarat, & Singh,
2007, p. 645). Recent research suggests that, for deaf people, the auditory cortex is used to
process somatosensory input (touch and other skin sensation), more so than visual input, contrary
to what has been commonly accepted, which may partly explain the increased tactile sensitivity
The information presented has provided a foundation from which to understand some
important aspects of tactile perception and improve the effectiveness of tactile assistive devices
for the deaf. Such aids help many people in their daily lives, and continuing to improving theses
devices for future users is imperative. Improvements should focus on the practicality and
sensitivity of the body location, the latter of which may differ for deaf people compared to those
with normal hearing and should be investigated. Assistive devices grant independence and
security to many people, and continued improvements and developments for those devices can
References
Auer, Jr., E. T., Bernstein, L. E., Sungkarat, W., & Singh, M. (2007). Vibrotactile activation of
the auditory cortices in deaf versus hearing adults. Neuroreport, 18(7), 645-648.
https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e3280d943b9
This article states that deaf people experience a more intense response to vibrotactile
Bavelier, D., Dye, M. W.G., & Hauser, P. C. (2006). Do deaf individuals see better? Trends in
This journal article examines the relationship between sight and hearing loss. It states
Bennebach, M., Rognon, H., & Bardou, O. (2013). Fatigue of structures in mechanical vibratory
environment. from mission profiling to fatigue life prediction. Procedia Engineering, 66,
508-521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2013.12.103
This article examines the effect of vibration on body parts and states that mechanical
Brain anatomy differences between deaf, hearing depend on first learned. (2014, April 14).
https://gumc.georgetown.edu/news/Brain-Anatomy-Differences-Between-Deaf-Hearing-
Depend-on-First-Language-Learned
This article studies the differences between deaf and hearing brains. It states that there
Department of Defense Army Research Laboratory. (2007, May). The tactile modality: A review
of tactile sensitivity and human tactile interfaces (Technical Report No. ARL-TR-4115)
http://www.arl.army.mil/arlreports/2007/ARL-TR-4115.pdf
This report analyzed how tactile stimulation is perceived by the body to help in the
creation of tactile aids. It is first stated that when a mechanism only utilizes one sense,
it can result in a sensory overload creating a need for multimodal devices. The two
main uses of tactile input are to emphasize vision or hearing and to act as an
independent information source. When vibrations are being used, they are best felt on
Pacinian tissue and on hairy, bony areas rather than fleshy, smooth ones. When
placing vibrating motors it is important to not place them too close together if they are
meant to be felt as separate inputs, though the amount of space needed varies among
different parts of the body. On the head, the face is the most sensitive followed by the
scalp, forehead, and then the temples. The hands are also recognized as being very
sensitive, however they are usually occupied causing developers to look at other areas
This article provides useful information that will directly help in the creation of the
experiment, including specifics on how close motors can be to each other and
graphical analysis of vibration detection. The next step is to find more information
along these lines to create a better understanding of the human body’s reaction to
vibrations.
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 11
Eagleman, D. (2015). Sensory substitution. Retrieved June 12, 2017, from David Eagleman
website: http://www.eagleman.com/research/sensory-substitution
This website details the work of David Eagleman, specifically his vibrotactile vest
https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Gerstmanns-Syndrome-Information-
Page
Good, A., Reed, M. J., & Russo, F. A. (2014). Compensatory plasticity in the deaf brain: Effects
https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci4040560
This article states that more of the deaf brain is sued for tactile processing than the
hearing brain.
Karns, C. M., Dow, M. W., & Neville, H. J. (2012). Altered cross-modal processing in the
https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6488-11.2012
This article claims that the auditory cortex of deaf people is primarily used to process
Khoo, W. L., Knapp, J., Palmer, F., Ro, T., & Zhu, Z. (2013). Designing and testing wearable
https://doi.org/10.1108/17549451311328781
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 12
This journal article tests how off the shelf vibration motors and materials can be used
to make a useful assistive device. The motors are placed along the arms and used for
navigation.
Lab 2: Olfactory fatigue and memory. (2003, October 6). Retrieved from Evergreen State
College website:
http://archives.evergreen.edu/webpages/curricular/2003-2004/perception/Lab1006.htm
This source is a lab for a college science class, teaching about olfactory fatigue. The
background information was used and the lab activity not performed.
Levänen, S., & Hamdorf, D. (2001). Feeling vibrations: Enhanced tactile sensitivity in
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3940(01)01597-X
This article claims that deaf people have an increased tactile sensitivity compared to
hearing people.
Livadas, G. (2011, November). Unlocking the mysteries of the deaf brain. Retrieved November
https://www.rit.edu/research/feature/november-2011/unlocking-mysteries-deaf-brain
This article highlights key topics researched and conclusions made by Peter Hauser
and his team who focus on why the deaf brain differs from the hearing brain and how
sign language affects thought process. Little is understood about the human brain, but
Hauser emphasizes that deaf people may require alternative diagnosis treatment to
medical problems such as strokes. The other point Hauser emphasizes is that growing
up, deaf children require an environment based on visual learning in order to achieve
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 13
their maximum potential. As deaf children grow older, they become more aware of
their peripheral surroundings than their hearing peers, so an education based on visuals
allows them to excel and fully utilize their heightened sight processing. Hauser has
also concluded that when deaf children grow up in hearing families, their language
skills are not as advanced which inhibits executive functions. With his team, Hauser
wishes to encourage education strategies in the deaf community that will aid the
This article focuses more on why the deaf brain is different from the hearing brain
rather than how. This makes it a good source to help bridge the gap between
mechanical innovations that assist deaf people to the biological differences between
deaf and hearing brains which is the next step of the research.
Macsweeney, M., Capek, C. M., Campbell, R., & Woll, B. (2008). The signing brain: The
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.07.010
This journal article talks about the neurology of the deaf brain. it mentions that more
of the left parietal lobe is used for signed languages than it is for spoken languages.
Mazzoni, A., & Bryan-Kinns, N. (2016). Mood glove: A haptic wearable prototype system to
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2016.06.002
This article explores how vibrations can be used to amplify emotions felt during
movies using a device called the Mood Glove. Influence for this project came from
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 14
sources such as Music For Bodies and vibrations used in video games. Rather than
using a chair as has been done in previous experiments, in this investigation a glove is
used as the medium to transmit vibrations. There are three steps to this experiment: the
annotation of movie clips for mood, the study of how vibration patterns are received
by participants, and the study of how the combination of vibrations and movie clips
affect the mood of participants. Through this process it was discovered that placement
of vibrations on the hand have no affect on mood but the intensity and frequency do.
The higher the intensity and frequency, the more pleasurable feelings are heightened.
With lower intensity and frequency, less enthused emotions can be felt.
hand do not elicit different responses when vibrations are applied, was provided by
this article. This information will be useful when determining where to place the
vibrators. The next step is to research more in depth the sensitive locations on the
body.
Napoli, D. J. (2014). A magic touch: Deaf gain and the benefits of tactile sensation. In H.-D. L.
Bauman & J. J. Murray (Authors), Deaf gain: Raising the stakes for human diversity (pp.
http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/dnapoli1/lingarticles/A%20Magic%20Touch.pdf
This source explores the effects of tactile stimulation on hearing and seeing, deaf, and
through touch explains how greetings where where people touch are used around the
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 15
world and why. How touch affects infant development is shown to be positive and
correlates with increased social behavior and weight gain. Cognitive effects of touch
object though through the detection of vibrations by apes and humans, and sustained
memory. Different ways the use of touch can be applied are to guide people and in
medical training. The plasticity of the brain allows the section known as the auditory
cortex to adapt to a lack of hearing and increased sensitivity to sound and touch. All of
this relates to “Deaf Gain” because touch has a large impact on Deaf culture such as
feeling the vibrations of music through a balloon or a deaf mother using touch to
This book explicitly confirms the assumption that was being made without support
from a source that deaf people are more sensitive to tactile sensations than hearing
and places was also provided by this article. The next step is to research how
vibrations can be mechanically produced to assist the tangible aspect of this research.
Olulade, O. A., Koo, D. S., LaSasso, C. J., & Eden, G. F. (2014). Neuroanatomical profiles of
5613-5620. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3700-13.2014
This article links the brain structure of deaf people to sign language and compares it to
spoken language.
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 16
Pacinian corpuscle. (n.d.). Retrieved from Rutgers University Virtual Biology Labs website:
http://bio.rutgers.edu/~gb102/lab_5/104cm.html
This is an interactive webpage form Rutgers University that details the Pacinian
Corpuscle.
Parvizi, J. (2010). Chapter 153 – nerve endings. In High yield orthopaedics (pp. 315-316).
mechanoreceptor.
Purves, D., & Williams, S. M. (2001). Neuroscience (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer
Associates.
used from this book. Information about the auditory cortex was also used.
Shake-n-wake vibrating alarm clock. (2017). Retrieved June 12, 2017, from Assistech website:
https://assistech.com/store/90410
The “Shake-n-Wake Vibrating Alarm Clock” is a product sold at many online stores,
this on call Assistech. It is a watch-like device that is worn on the wrist and vibrates to
Siple, L., Greer, L., & Holcomb, B. R. (2004). Deaf culture tipsheet. Retrieved from Pepnet
website:
https://www.rit.edu/ntid/radscc/sites/rit.edu.ntid.radscc/files/file_attachments/deaf_cultur
e_tip_sheet.pdf
THE ADVANCEMENT OF TACTILE ASSISTIVE DEVICES 17
This document from Rochester Institute of Technology explains some quick facts
about Deaf culture that can be very useful for a hearing person.
Sparks, M. (2015, January 19). New device allows deaf people to ‘hear with their tongue’
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/11354541/New-device-allows-deaf-people-
to-hear-with-their-tongue.html
This article describes a vibrotactile aid made by students at Colorado State University
that applies vibrations on the tongue to alert the user of sound around them. This
2017.
Taylor, J. (2017, March 7). Mom’s guide 2017: Best baby monitor for deaf parents. Retrieved
https://www.momtricks.com/baby-monitors/best-baby-monitor-deaf-parents/
This source reviews the best baby monitor for deaf parents. The device chosen, called
the “Summer Infant Babble Band,” is worn on the wrist and allows the user to set it to
Text description for use of hearing aids in 2006. (2012, October 18). Retrieved June 12, 2017,
https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/statistics/text-description-use-hearing-aids-2006
This source publishes statistics collected on the number of adults with moderate to
Weinstein, D., & Weinstein, S. (1964). Intensity and spatial measures of somatic sensation as a
https://doi.org/10.1037/e572342012-122
This document details how vibrations are perceived as sensitive to vibrotactile input