ph005 Unit 1 To 7

UNIT 1: TRANSDUCERS
1.0 Introduction
A transducer is any device that converts energy from one form to another. In this unit, you
are going to cover the following input transducers: light dependent resistor (LDR),
thermistor and strain gauge as well as the following output transducers light emitting diode
(LED), buzzer and relay.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 describe the change in resistance of an LDR with light intensity;
 sketch the temperature characteristics of a negative temperature coefficient
thermistor;
 describe the structure of a metal wire strain gauge;
 relate extension of a strain gauge to change in resistance of the gauge;
 calculate the output from sensing devices using the voltage divider rule;
 explain the use of LEDs as devices that indicate the state of the output of electronic
circuits; and
 describe the use of buzzers and relays in electronic circuits.
1.1 Input transducers: The light dependent resistor (LDR), thermistor and strain
gauge.
1.1.1 The (LDR)

You can make an LDR by sandwiching a film of photosensitive material such as cadmium
sulphide between two metal electrodes. It has a window which allows light to reach the
photosensitive material. An LDR is sensitive to changes in light intensity. Typically, in
complete darkness, its resistance is about 10 M , in moonlight, its resistance is about
1M and in bright sunlight, about 100 . You should also take note that a constant light
intensity gives a constant LDR resistance. The LDR symbol is shown in Figure 1.1 (a).
Figure 1.1 (a): The LDR symbol.
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The LDR’s resistance falls with increasing light intensity as illustrated in Figure 1.1 (b).
Figure 1.1 (b): The variation of resistance with illumination (i.e.), the relationship between
light falling on the LDR (incident light) and the LDR’s resistance.
1.1.2 The thermistor

You can manufacture a thermistor in various shapes and sizes using semi-conductive oxides
of different metals such as nickel oxide or cobalt oxide so that a small change in temperature
produces a significant change in resistance. In this respect, thermistors are also known as
temperature – dependent resistors. The symbol for a thermistor is shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: The thermistor symbol.
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors have resistances that vary inversely with
temperature (i.e.), their resistance becomes smaller as the temperature increases. This is
illustrated in Figure1.3.
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Figure 1.3: The variation of resistance with temperature for an NTC thermistor.
1.1.3 The strain gauge
You can make a strain gauge by sealing a length of very fine wire in a small rectangle of thin
plastic, as shown in Figure 1.4 (a).
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Figure 1.4 (a): The metal wire strain gauge.
If you stretch the plastic, the plastic experiences a strain, and the wire will also be stretched.
This has effects of increasing the wire’s length and decreasing its cross-sectional area slightly.
Both these effects cause the resistance of the wire to increase. This is illustrated in Figure 1.4
(b). If you want to monitor the strain in a material, you should glue the strain gauge very
securely to the material that is to be put under stress.
Figure 1.4 (b): The variation of resistance with strain.
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Example 1.1
Consider a wire with a uniform cross sectional area. Show that the strain which is
proportional to its extension L will also be proportional to the change in resistance R .
Solution
You should recall that the resistance R of a wire of length L and of uniform cross-sectional
area A is given by:
L
R … (i)
A
where ρ is the resistivity of the material of the wire.
If you assume that there is a negligible change in the area of cross section when the wire
extends by a small amount L , then new resistance will be:
 R  R     L  L  … (ii)
A
where R is the change in the resistance.
You can subtract equation (i) from (ii) to get:
L
R   or R α L .
A
Thus, if you assume that the area of cross section is constant, the strain which is proportional
to the extension L will also be proportional to the change in resistance R .
1.2 Using LDRs, thermistors and strain gauges in potential divider circuits
Input transducers (sensing devices) are usually connected to an electrical circuit which is
designed to provide a voltage that will control an output transducer. You can consider an
example of an input transducer which gives rise to a change in resistance R, say a thermistor
in Figure 1.5. A potential divider like the one shown in Figure 1.5 can be used to convert this
change in R into a change in voltage, V0.
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Figure 1.5: Potential divider circuit.
If you connect a supply of emf V S and negligible internal resistance in series with a fixed
resistor of resistance R F and a sensing device of resistance R, the output voltage V0 will
be:
R
V0   VS
RF  R
Alternatively, you can divide both the numerator and denominator of the above equation by
R. This gives you:
.
This alternative expression provides an easier way of observing the dependence of the output
voltage with the changes in the voltage divider’s resistances.
Self Assessment Question 1.1

In Figure 1.5, the sensing device is a negative temperature coefficient thermistor.
(a) What happens to the thermistor’s resistance and eventually, the output voltage V0 as:
(i) the thermistor cools? and
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(ii) the thermistor becomes hot?
(b) Give any real life application of the circuit shown in Figure 1.5.
Example 1.2
A battery of emf 6.0V and negligible internal resistance is connected in series with a fixed
resistor of resistance 1kΩ and a strain gauge of resistance 2kΩ as shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: Potential divider.
Find the the potential difference between the terminals of the strain gauge.
Solution
 Rs 
Potential difference across the strain gauge     Vin
 Rs  R 
 2000 
   6.0
 2000  1000 
 4.0V
Example 1.3
A temperature sensor input subsystem is shown in Figure 1.7.
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Figure 1.7: Temperature sensor input subsystem.
The thermistor shown in Figure 1.7 has a resistance of 40 kΩ at 0 0C, 15 kΩ at 250 C, and
1 kΩ at 100 0C. Calculate the output voltage V0 at X at a temperature of 25 0C.
Solution
You can observe that at a temperature of 25 0C, the thermistor has a resistance R of 20k Ω.
Therefore, if you apply the potential division formula, you get:
 15 
V0   6
 15  5 
 V0  4.5V

The LDR shown in Figure 1.8 has a resistance of 500 in bright light. What is the value of
the output voltage V0 .
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1.3 Output transducers: The light – emitting diode (LED), buzzer and relay
1.3.1 The LED

An LED is a diode that emits light only when it is forward biased. The symbol for an LED is
shown in Figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9: The LED symbol.
LEDs can emit different colours of light such as red, green, yellow, blue, white and amber
(etc.), depending on the material used in their manufacturing. Their low power consumption
makes them suitable for use as indicators. LEDs are solid-state devices, so they are much
more robust than filament lamps. A resistor is frequently connected in series with an LED, so
that when the LED is forward biased (the diode is conducting), the current is not so large as
to damage the LED.

The LED in Figure 1.10 needs a current of 5mA and a forward voltage drop of 1V across it to
make it light correctly.
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Figure 1.10: LED in series with a resistor R.
(a) Calculate the amount of power used by the LED.
(b) Given that the LED is on:

(i) what is the current through resistor R?
(ii) calculate the voltage across resistor R.
Example 1.4
An LED is used as the output device in a digital system that gives an output voltage of
0V or 12V as illustrated in Figure 1.11.
(a) Show in Figure 1.11 how the LED and another component should be connected
to the system to light when the output is high.
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Figure 1.11: Digital system.
(b) (i) The LED has a forward voltage drop of 2 V when it is conducting the required 25 mA
current. Calculate the value of the component you have chosen in part (a).
(ii) Find the power dissipated by this component.
(iii) If 25mA is the maximum allowable current through the LED. Choose an appropriate
preferred value for this component.
(iv) What is the colour code for the chosen value in part (b)(iii) if it has a tolerance of 5%?
Solution
(a)
Figure 1.12: Digital system.
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(b) (i) 12  2  10V
10
 400 .
0.025
(ii) 10  0.025  0.25W .
(iii) 430 Ω (allow 470 Ω).
(iv) Yellow, orange, brown and gold.

Explain the use of LEDs as devices to indicate the state of the output of electronic circuits.
1.3.2 Buzzer
A buzzer is an electronic oscillator circuit connected to a solid-state sounder which is wired
and sealed inside a small plastic case. The leads which emerge from the case must be
connected to a power supply for the buzzer to sound.

Draw the electronic symbol for a buzzer.
1.3.3 The relay

A relay is an electromagnetic switch that uses a small current to switch on or off a larger
current. The small current energises an electromagnet that operates contacts, switching on or
off the larger current. The symbol for a relay is shown in Figure 1.13.
Figure 1.13: The relay symbol.
A relay has normally closed contacts (n.c.) which open or normally open contacts (n.o.)
which close if you energise it.
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List any two input and two output transducers.
1.4 Unit 1 Summary

 LDRs, thermistors and strain gauges are input transducers while LEDs, buzzers and
relays are output transducers.
 Input transducers are usually connected to an electrical circuit which is designed to
provide a voltage that will control output transducers.
 The voltage divider rule can be used to calculate the output voltage from sensing
devices.
1.5 Unit 1 Questions
1. What is a transducer?
2. Describe and explain the use of LDRs, negative temperature coefficient thermistors and
metal wire strain gauges in a voltage divider circuit to provide analogue signals.
3. You can replace R in Figure 1.5 with an LDR such that V0 responds to changes in light
intensity.
(a) What happens to the LDR’s resistance and eventually, the output voltage V0 as:
(i) darkness falls on the LDR?, and
(ii) light falls on the LDR.?
(b) Give any real life application of the circuit shown in Figure 1.5 with R still replaced by
an LDR.
4. Sketch the temperature characteristics of a negative temperature coefficient thermistor.
5. Draw the electronic symbol for a relay and briefly describe its use in electronic circuits.
6. Write out in full the meaning of the following relay contact labels.
(a) NC, and
(b) NO.
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7. With the aid of a clearly labelled diagram, briefly describe the structure of a metal wire
strain gauge and hence show that R  L , where R is the change in resistance and
L is the change in length of the wire.
8. A temperature sensor input subsystem is shown Figure 1.14.
The thermistor shown in Figure 1.14 has a resistance of 45kΩ at 00C, 20kΩ at 250C, and 1kΩ
at 1000C.
(a) At what temperature given above will the current through the circuit be maximum?
(b) Why does maximum current flow at this temperature?
(c) Determine the value of this current.
(d) What is the output voltage at P at this temperature?
9. Figure 1.15 shows a light sensor circuit and an LDR’s data sheet.
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Figure 1.15: Light sensor circuit and the LDR data sheet.
(a) Suppose you find that the lowest resistance of the LDR in bright sunlight is 100Ω. The
LDR maximum power dissipation is 100 mW. Calculate:
(i) the maximum current that can flow safely through the LDR in bright sunlight.
(ii) the total resistance of the LDR and fixed resistor R, that would limit the current
through the LDR to the value found in part (i).
(iii) the minimum resistance that could safely be used for R, and then choose the lowest
appropriate value from the E24 series.
(b) Determine the output voltage of the circuit at point X when the light level is:
(i) 10 lux.
(ii) 0 lux.
(c) State why the value of resistance chosen in part (a) (iii) is a poor choice for measuring
low light levels.
(d) How would you change the value of R calculated in part (a) (iii) to improve the situation
at low light levels?
(e) The circuit is powered from a 12 V battery of low capacity. State one other advantage
of changing the value of R.
10. A student builds a quiz-scoring circuit that has five LEDs as its output. The student
connects each of the five outputs of the circuit to the LEDs via five identical resistors as
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Figure 1.16: Quiz-scoring circuit.
(a) Each LED has a forward voltage drop of 1.7 V at the maximum forward current of
20 mA and the circuit produces a 9 V output signal when the corresponding LED is
switched on.
(i) Calculate the voltage across a resistor R when its LED is switched on.
(ii) Calculate the value of the resistor R needed.
(iii) Select the most suitable preferred value from the E24 series for R if the maximum
current for the LED is not to be exceeded.
(iv) Calculate the actual current through the LED when the preferred value of resistor in
part (a)(iii) is used; assume the LED forward voltage drop remains at 1.7 V.
(v) With no LEDs switched on, the quiz-scoring circuit alone draws 30 mA from the 9 V
power supply. Calculate the current consumption of this circuit with all the LEDs
switched on.
(vi) Comment on the suitability of a small, low capacity 9 V battery to power this system.
(b) The student decides to economise on resistors by connecting all the LED anodes
directly to the outputs of the circuit, and using a single resistor of the preferred value
chosen in part (a)(iii) to connect all LED cathodes to 0 V.
(i) Estimate the current through each active LED when three of them are switched on at
the same time.
(ii) Describe the appearance of the LEDs as different numbers of them are switched on.
Comment on the desirability of using a single resistor.
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11. A battery of emf 6.0V and negligible internal resistance is connected in series with a
fixed resistor of resistance 0.5kΩ and a thermistor as shown in Figure 1.17.
At room temperature, the thermistor’s resistance, RTH is 2.5kΩ. Calculate the potential
difference across the thermistor at room temperature.
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UNIT 2: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
2.0 Introduction
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit of about twenty transistors together
with a few resistors and capacitors, all formed on a tiny silicon slice and sealed in a package
from which different connections to the external circuit emerge. In this unit, you will cover
the properties of op-amps, characteristics of op-amps, feedback and basic application
circuits.
Learning Objectives
 list the properties of ideal and real op-amps;
 deduce, from the properties of an ideal op-amp, the use of an op-amp as a comparator;
 explain the principles of positive and negative feedback;
 recall the circuit diagrams for both the inverting and the non-inverting amplifier for
single signal input;
 use the virtual earth approximation to derive an expression for the gain of inverting
amplifiers;
 recall and use expressions for the voltage gain of inverting and of non-inverting
amplifiers;
 describe the use of an op-amp as a summer in the inverting mode;
 identify and explain the use of an op-amp as a voltage follower;
 describe the use of an op-amp as a non-inverting Schmidt trigger with positive
feedback provided by a potential divider.
2.1 Properties of an op-amp

An op-amp has two input terminals and one output terminal. The positive input is referred to
as the non-inverting input while the negative input is referred to as the inverting input. The
symbol for an op-amp is shown in Figure 2.1. The ground (i.e.), 0 V is used as the reference
point for both input and output voltages as illustrated in Figure 2.1 (a). Usually, the power
supply terminals are omitted and the op-amp symbol is drawn as shown in Figure 2.1 (b).
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(a) (b)
Figure 2.1: Op-amp symbol.
In Figure 2.1 (a), suppose the voltages across the inverting and non-inverting inputs are V–
and V+ respectively, where both V– and V+ are greater than zero. An op-amp connected in this
way operates as a differential amplifier because it amplifies the difference between the two
input voltages V– and V+. The output voltage V0 is proportional to the difference between V–
and V+ (i.e.), if you connect an op-amp to appropriate power supplies, it gives an output
voltage V0  A0 V  V 
 
where A0 is the open-loop gain of the op-amp.

What is meant by open – loop gain?
An ideal op-amp has the following properties:

(i) infinite input impedance, (i.e.), no current flows into either of the two inputs;
(ii) infinite open – loop gain (i.e.), a slight difference between the two input voltages,
saturates the output;
(iii) zero output impedance (i.e.), the whole of the output voltage is provided
across the output load;
(iv)infinite bandwidth (i.e.), it amplifies all frequencies by the same factor;
(v) infinite slew rate (i.e.), a sudden change in the input results in a sudden change in the
output, without any time delay;
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However, a real op-amp has:
(i) very high input impedance, between 106 Ω and 1012 Ω;
(ii) very high open – loop gain, A0, about 105 for dc signals;
(iii) very low output impedance, of about 100 Ω;
(iv) limited bandwidth;
(v) limited slew rate;
2.2 The use of an op-amp as a comparator

If you want to use an op-amp in a circuit, you should connect it to a dual, or split power
supply made up of two sets of batteries, as shown in Figure 2.2. The zero volt line forms the
common link of the two sets of batteries as well as the reference to which all input and output
voltages are measured.
Figure 2.2: Voltage comparator.
Figure 2.2 is in the open loop mode since no feedback connection is put between the output
and either of the inputs. Therefore, you can find the open loop gain A0 as follows:
V0
A0  

V V 


(i.e.), open loop gain = output voltage the pd between the inputs.
You should recall that A0 is 105 for dc voltages.
Example 2.1
Use energy considerations to find the output voltage V0 in the comparator circuit shown in
Figure 2.2, if:
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 positive supply line = +9.0 V,
 negative supply line = –9.0 V,
 V   1.5V , and
 V   1.4V .
Solution
You can find the output voltage V0 as follows:
V0  A0 V   V  
V0  10 5 1.5  1.4  10000V .
Obviously, this cannot be possible because from energy considerations, the output voltage
can never exceed its own power supply voltage. Hence, the output voltage will be +9.0 V
and the op-amp is said to be saturated.
Example 2.2
Find the output voltage V0 in the comparator circuit shown in Figure 2.2, if:
 positive supply line = +6.0 V,
 negative supply line = –6.0 V,
 V   4.541V , and
 V   4.543V .
Solution
You can find the output voltage V0 as follows:
V0  A0 V   V  
V0  10 5  4.541  4.543  200V .
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Again, this cannot be possible because from energy considerations, the output voltage can
never exceed its own power supply voltage. Hence, the output voltage will be – 6.0 V and
the op-amp is said to be saturated.
Therefore, you should take note that, unless the two input voltages are almost identical, the
op-amp is saturated. Also, the output’s polarity depends on which input is the larger. For
example, if V   V  , the output is positive.
The circuit incorporating the op-amp compares the two inputs and gives an output which
depends on whether V   V  , V   V  or V   V  and is known as a comparator.
A potential divider is usually connected to each of the two inputs as shown in Figure 2.3. One
potential divider provides a fixed voltage at one input while the other potential divider
provides a voltage dependent upon some physical property (e.g.), light intensity such that you
will have a comparator for use with an LDR like the one shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Comparator for use with an LDR.
In Figure 2.3, the resistors of resistance R will give rise to a fixed voltage of ½V
at the inverting input.
The LDR, of resistance RLDR is connected in series with a fixed resistor of resistance RF.
If the LDR is in darkness, R LDR  R F , then V   V  and the output saturates positively.
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If the LDR is in daylight, R LDR  R F , then V   V  and the output saturates negatively.
The LDR could be replaced by other sensors to provide alternative sensing devices. For
example, use of a thermistor could provide a frost-warning device or temperature control
device.
Example 2.3
Figure 2.4 shows part of a comparator circuit.
Figure 2.4: Part of a comparator circuit.
(a) The inverting input V– requires a reference voltage of 4V.

(i) In Figure 2.4 draw two components and their connections to show how this is achieved.
(ii) Select suitable values for these components and mark these in Figure 2.4 next to each
component.
(b) The LDR has a maximum power dissipation of 120mW.
(i) Calculate the maximum current that could safely flow through the LDR if it had 12V
across it.
(ii) Calculate the combined resistance of the LDR and R that would allow this current to
flow.
(iii) The LDR has a minimum resistance of 100Ω in very bright light. Calculate the value
of R required if the current calculated in part (b)(i) is not to be exceeded.
(c) Given that the op-amp used in Figure 2.4 is ideal, state its output voltage when:
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(i) V   V  .
(ii) V   V  .
Solution
(a) (i) and (ii)
Using the voltage divider rule:
 1 
The reference voltage, Vref   12  4V , so the two resistors should have the
1 2 
following values, 1k and 2k , respectively, as shown in Figure 2.5.
P 120
(b) (i) ) I    10mA .
V 12
V 12
(ii) R    1.2k .
I 0.01
(iii) 1200  100  1.1k .
(c) (i) 0V.
(ii) 12V.

Consider the comparator circuit shown in Figure 2.6 which is used to light up an LED when it
gets dark as a warning to a bus driver to switch on the headlights. The resistors give a
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constant voltage of 6.0V at the inverting input. Explain what happens to the LED when (i)
darkness and (ii) light falls on the LDR?
Figure 2.6: Comparator circuit.
2.3 Feedback
Feedback refers to the process of taking some, or all, of the output of the op-amp and adding
it to the input. The basic arrangement is illustrated in Figure 2.7 where a fraction β of the
output voltage of the op-amp is fed back and added to the applied input voltage.
Figure 2.7: Feedback circuit.
The op-amp itself amplifies whatever voltage is present at its input by an amount A 0, the
open-loop gain. Therefore, the output voltage is V0  A0  (input to op-amp)
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V0  A0  Vin  V0 
If you rearrange, you get V0 (1   A0 )  A0Vin

V0 A0
Hence, the overall gain of the op-amp with feedback is: 
Vin 1   A0 
If the fraction β is positive, then the denominator in the above equation can be made to be
zero. This produces an amplifying system with an infinite gain (i.e.), an output is produced
for no input.
Here, a fraction of the output voltage is fed back to the non – inverting input, in phase with
the input voltage as illustrated in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: Illustration of positive feedback.
If the fraction β is negative, then the denominator in the above equation must be greater than
unity. This produces an amplifying system with an overall gain that is smaller than the open-
loop gain A0 of the op-amp itself. Here, a fraction of the output voltage is fed back to the
inverting input, out of phase with the input voltage as illustrated in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Illustration of negative feedback.
Negative feedback may seem to make the process of amplification fruitless due to reduction
in overall gain but it has its own advantages:
 an increase in bandwidth (i.e.), an increase in the range of frequencies over which
the gain is constant,
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 less distortion, and
 greater operating stability.
2.4 The inverting op-amp

The input signal Vin is applied to the input resistor R in and negative feedback is applied via
the resistor Rf as illustrated in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Inverting op-amp.
The resistors Rin and Rf form a potential divider between the input and the output of the op-
amp. For the op-amp not to be saturated, the two input voltages must be almost the same.
Here, the non-inverting input (+) is earthed (i.e.), connected directly to the zero-volt line.
Hence, the inverting input (–) must be virtually at the same potential as the non-inverting
input (i.e.), at zero volts (earth) and for this reason, the point P is known as a virtual earth.
You need to recall that the op-amp’s input impedance is very large such that no current flows
into either the non-inverting input or the inverting input. This means that the current from, or
to, the signal source must go to, or come from, the output, as shown in Figure 2.11. Since this
is an inverting op-amp, a positive input voltage gives rise to a negative output voltage and
vice versa.
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Figure 2.11: A positive input gives rise to a negative output and vice versa.
If you refer to Figure 2.10, bearing in mind that the op-amp draws no current because of its
high input impedance, you will observe that the current flowing through R in is equal to the
current flowing through Rf (i.e.), pd across Rin  Rin = pd across Rf  Rf.
Vin  0 0  Vout
Since P is at zero volts, 
Rin Rf
Vout Rf
You can simplify the above equation to get the gain of the inverting op-amp, 
Vin Rin
You should observe that for simplicity, the power supply lines are omitted and also the op-
amp is assumed to be not saturated.
Example 2.4
Calculate the closed loop gain of the inverting op-amp shown in Figure 2.10 when
Rin  10k and R f  40 k .
Solution
Rf 40
Ainv     4
Rin 10 .
2.5 The non – inverting op-amp

The input signal Vin is applied directly to the non-inverting input (+) and negative feedback is
applied by means of the potential divider consisting of resistors R1 and Rf as shown in Figure
2.12.
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Figure 2.12: Non-inverting op-amp.
If you assume that the op-amp is not saturated, then the two input voltages must be virtually
 
the same. Here, V  Vin  V .
You can apply the potential divider formula to find the inverting input voltage as follows:
R1
V  Vout
R1  R f
R1
Therefore, V   Vin  V   Vout
R1  R f .
If you rearrange the above equation, you get the overall voltage gain of the non-inverting op-
Vout Rf
amp,  1
Vin R1 .
The non-inverting op-amp gives an output that is in phase with the input.

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 2.12 with R1  10k and R f  40k . Determine the
gain of the op-amp. Hence, calculate V0 if Vin  2mV .
2.6 The summing amplifier

In Figure 2.13, the non inverting input is at zero volts so point P is at virtual earth.
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Figure 2.13: Summing op-amp in the inverting mode.
If you apply Kirchhoff`s current law at junction P (bearing in mind that no current flows into
the op-amp):
I in  I f  I 1  I 2  I 3  I f
V1  0 V2  0 V3  0 0  Vout
  
R1 R2 R3 Rf
V V V 
Vout   R f  1  2  3 
 R1 R2 R3 
If R f  R1  R2  R3 , then Vout  V1  V2  V3  .
When the inputs are ac sources, the negative sign indicates that the output is 180 0 out of
phase with the actual sum.
Example 2.5
Calculate the output voltage of the summing amplifier circuit shown in Figure 2.13, when
V1  2mV , V2  12mV , V3  5mV and R1  R2  R3  R f  4k .
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Solution
R1  R2  R3  R f  4k , Therefore, V0  V1  V2  V3    2  12  5 mV  19mV
2.7 The voltage follower

The voltage follower circuit is similar to the non-inverting op-amp circuit (see Figure 2.12)
with R f  0 (short circuit) and R1   (open circuit) so that all the output is fed back as
illustrated in Figure 2.14.
Figure 2.14: Voltage follower.
The overall voltage gain of the voltage follower is:

Vout Rf 0
 1  1   1 (i.e.), Vout  Vin . Thus, whatever changes occur to the input voltage
Vin R1 
also occur to the output voltage (i.e.), the output voltage follows the input voltage. This
circuit is used to connect high impedance sources to low impedance loads and is known as a
unity gain buffer.
(a) Write down the name that you give to a special case of the non-inverting op-amp that is
1 f
obtained when R = ∞ and R = 0.
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(b) Determine the voltage gain of this op-amp.
(c) State the use this type of op-amp configuration.
2.8 The Schmitt trigger

The input voltage of a non-inverting Schmitt trigger shown in Figure 2.15 is obtained from
the moveable contact of a potentiometer.
Figure 2.15: The non-inverting Schmitt trigger.
You can set the input voltage to any value between the negative and positive power supply
limits by sliding the moveable contact up or down.
Let us suppose that you start with the wiper at Vin  12V (i.e.), at its lowest point so as to
make the voltage at the non-inverting input X negative and hence, less than the voltage at the
inverting input Y which is kept at 0V. This causes the output voltage to saturate negatively
(i.e.), Vout  12V .
2.8.1 Sliding upwards

If you slide the moveable contact slightly upwards, then V in attains a less negative value.
However, the output remains saturated negatively at – 12V because of feedback through the
12kΩ resistor which keeps X at a lower potential than Y.
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If you continue to slide the wiper upwards, it reaches a point midway along the potentiometer
such that Vin  0V . You can find the potential at X using the potential divider shown in
Figure 2.16.
 4 
The potential at X     12  3V .
 4  12 
Therefore, the output remains saturated negatively at – 12V since X’s potential will be again
less than Y’s potential.
If you continue to slide the wiper further upwards, then V in attains a more positive value until
it becomes equal to 4V. This causes a dramatic change in the output voltage due to positive
feedback. In other words, when Vin becomes approximately 4V, the potential at X
approximately becomes 0V (i.e.), it becomes equal to the potential at Y causing Vout to be 0V.
But if Vout  0V , X’s potential cannot be zero since the potential divider will be having the
potentials shown in Figure 2.17.
This results in a positive potential at X. Hence, X’s potential becomes greater than Y’s
potential causing a rapid increase in Vout until it saturates positively at +12V.
The process of switching Vout from – 12V to +12V occurs instantaneously and if you continue
to slide the moveable contact upwards, then V in attains more positive values. However, the
output remains saturated positively at +12V because feedback through the 12kΩ resistor
keeps X at a higher potential with respect to Y.
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2.8.2 Sliding downwards
If you now slide the moveable contact downwards, V in becomes less positive. However, the
output remains saturated positively at +12V since X’s potential will be still greater than Y’s
potential. Even if the contact reaches midway again (i.e.), Vin  0V , the output still remains
saturated positively at +12V.
If you continue to slide the wiper further downwards, then V in becomes more negative until it
becomes equal to – 4V. This causes a dramatic change in the output voltage due to positive
feedback. In other words, when Vin becomes – 4V, the potential at X becomes 0V (i.e.), it
becomes equal to the potential at Y causing Vout to be 0V.
Again if Vout  0V , X’s potential cannot be zero since the potential divider will be having
the potentials shown in Figure 2.18.
This results in a smaller potential at X as compared to Y (i.e.), X’s potential becomes less
than Y’s potential causing a rapid decrease in Vout until it saturates positively at – 12V.
If you continue to slide the moveable contact downwards, then V in attains more negative
values. However, the output remains saturated negatively at – 12V because feedback through
the 12kΩ resistor keeps X at a lower potential than Y.
You can use Figure 2.19 to illustrate the variation of Vout with Vin as you slide the moveable
contact from one extreme value (i.e.), – 12V to the other (i.e.), + 12V and back again.
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Figure 2.19: Variation of Vout with Vin as you slide the moveable contact from – 12V to
+ 12V and back again.
You should note that the switch over voltage of the trigger as the input moves in one direction
(i.e.), +4V is different from switch over voltage in the opposite direction (i.e.),
– 4V. You can as well alter the switch over voltages by making suitable choice of resistors.

Describe with aid of clearly labelled diagrams, the use of an op-amp as a non-inverting
Schmitt trigger with positive feedback provided by a potential divider.
2.9 Unit 2 Summary

 An op-amp has three terminals (i.e.), two inputs and one output.
 The output voltage of an op-amp can never exceed the dc supply voltage.
 Feedback can either be positive or negative.
 An op-amp can be used for inverting and non-inverting applications.
 The op-amp can also be used as a summer, voltage follower, voltage comparator or
Schmitt trigger.
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1. List the major properties of an ideal op-amp.
2. You have learnt that negative feedback reduces the gain of the op-amp. Explain why this is
favourable.
3. Derive the expression for the gain of an inverting op-amp.
4. Figure 2.20 shows a temperature sensor input subsystem.
(a) Suppose the thermistor shown in Figure 2.20 has a resistance of 35kΩ at 00C, 10kΩ at
250C and 2kΩ at 1000C.
(i) Which one of these temperatures will result in a largest current flow through the
circuit?
(ii) Why does maximum current flow at this temperature?
(iii) Calculate the value of this current.
(iv) Determine the output voltage at A at this temperature.
(b) You are required to connect the temperature sensor subsystem to a comparator circuit so
as to detect when the water in an electric kettle boils.
(i) Find the reference voltage which the comparator must have to detect boiling water.
(ii) Draw a suitable circuit for the comparator which enables it to produce a high output
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when the water boils.
Choose suitable values for the resistors in your voltage divider and label them on
your circuit diagram.
5. Consider the temperature sensor input subsystem shown in Figure 2.20.

(a) Given that the thermistor has a resistance of 45kΩ at 00C, 20kΩ at 25 0C, and 1kΩ at
1000C. Calculate the output voltage at A at a temperature of 25 0C.
(b) You are required to connect the temperature sensor subsystem to a comparator circuit as
Figure 2.21: Comparator circuit.
Calculate and choose values of resistors, in the 1 kΩ to 10 kΩ range, for the circuit that
will make the comparator switch at 250C. Label these on the diagram.
(c) What voltage would you expect from the output of this circuit when:
(i) the temperature is 200C,
(ii) the temperature rises to 300C.
6. You are required to design a circuit that can be used to control the ventilation of an indoor
sporting venue at your school. When the temperature rises above a set level, your circuit
should automatically open the vents which are positioned high above the reach of
spectators.
(a) How can you convert air temperature into an electrical signal?
(b) Given that your circuit should be based on an op-amp. What type of circuit could provide
a switching action when the temperature rises above the set level?
(c) Briefly, describe the switching operation of your circuit - chosen in part (b), with
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reference to the two op-amp inputs and its output.
(d) Basing on your choices above, draw a circuit diagram that can give a high output voltage
when the temperature exceeds the set level.
7. You are asked by a music recording company to help in transferring their music
collection from cassette tape onto CD. Suppose you measure the output signal from the
cassette player and find it to have a typical value of 0.2V. The sound card in your
computer requires a typical input signal of 1.0V. You then decide to use an amplifier to
match the two signal levels.
(a) Calculate the required voltage gain of the amplifier.
(b) Draw the circuit diagram of a non-inverting amplifier which uses an op-amp.
(c) If the feedback resistor has a value of 240kΩ, calculate the value of the other resistor
needed to give the required voltage gain.
8. Figure 2.22 shows a system diagram for a guitar effects unit. The whole system operates
from a ±12Vsupply.
Figure 2.22: System diagram for a guitar effects unit.
(a) The circuit diagram for the input buffer is shown in Figure 2.23.
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Figure 2.23: Input buffer.
(i) State the voltage gain of this circuit.

(ii) State the input resistance of this circuit.
(b) Figure 2.24 shows a circuit diagram for the mixer.
Figure 2.24: Mixer.
(i) What voltage gain does the mixer circuit give to effect 1?
(ii) With the three effects switched off, state two differences between the signal at the
input and the output of the whole system.
9. Figure 2.25 shows the sensing element for the vibration sensor in a car alarm system.
Any vibration of the car causes the magnet to move relative to the coil resulting in the
generation of a small voltage by the coil. The circuit shown in Figure 2.25 is used to
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amplify this voltage.
Figure 2.25: The sensing element for the vibration sensor in a car alarm system.
(a) Give an estimate of the voltage at the inverting input of the op-amp when the output from
the coil is zero. State a reason for your answer.
(b) Calculate the voltage gain of the amplifier circuit when R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 2.0MΩ.
10. You are required to use Figure 2.26 as part of a system that detects when the temperature
in a room exceeds 20°C.
(a) On Figure 2.26 name and label the device that you can use as a
(i) temperature sensor, and
(ii) comparator.
(b) Given that the comparator input B requires a reference voltage of 4 V.
(i) Draw two components and their connections to the circuit to show how you can
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achieve this.
(ii) Select suitable values for these components and mark these on the circuit diagram next
to each component.
(c) The temperature sensor data sheet gives a graph shown in Figure 2.27.
Figure 2.27: Graph from the temperature sensor data sheet.
What is the value of R that would make the comparator switch at 20°C?
(d) Give the output voltage from this circuit when the voltage at X is greater than the
voltage at Y for an ideal comparator.
11. Describe and explain the properties of an ideal operational amplifier with regards to input
impedance, bandwidth and open loop gain.
12. A fridge alarm uses the circuit shown in Figure 2.28 to sound if the temperature becomes
too high.
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Figure 2.28: Fridge alarm circuit.
(a) Find the combined resistance of R1 and R2

(b) Calculate the voltage at B.
(c) State the voltage at A just at the point when Vout changes.
(d) Calculate the resistance of the thermistor when Vout changes.
(e) What will happen to Vout when the temperature of the thermistor changes from being
very cold to warm?
13. What is the effect of negative feedback on the gain of an operational amplifier?
14. A battery tester for 9V batteries lights a green LED as a good indicator if the battery is
more than 9.0 V. A yellow LED lights as a satisfactory indicator if the battery level is
more than 6.3 V but less the 9.0V. Figure 2.29 shows a voltage divider operating from
the tester’s 12V supply.
(a) Calculate the values of R1 and R2 so that the voltages at point P is 9.0V and the voltage
at point Q is 6.3 V.
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Figure 2.29: A voltage divider operating from the tester’s 12V supply.
(b) This voltage divider is connected to two op-amps. The battery to be tested is connected
between 0V and the non-inverting input of the in-put of the op-amps as shown in Figure
2.30.
Figure 2.30: A voltage divider connected to two op-amps.
(i) State the function of the op-amp when connected this way.
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(ii) What name is given to the inputs connected to 9.0V and 6.3V?
(c) The op –amps are powered are powers from 0V and 12V lines, assume that they behave as
ideal op- amps. Copy and complete Table 2.1 to show the voltages at the op-amp outputs M
and N when the battery has the shown voltage.
Table 2.1: Voltages at the op-amp outputs M and N

Voltage of battery to be tested (V) Voltage at M (V) Voltage at N (V)
Less than 6.3
Between 6.3 and 9.0
More than 9.0
(d) (i) Copy the diagram in part (b) and add an LED labelled ‘green’ to show that the
battery being tested is “good’’, which will light if the voltage is more than 9.0V
include a series resistor.
(ii) Explain why a series resistor is needed.
(iii) Calculate the value of the series resistance required if the LED has a forward voltage
of 2.0 V and is designed to operate with a voltage of 2.0V.
(e) Add to the diagram in part (b) an LED labelled “yellow’’ and its series resistor to show
that the battery being tested is “ satisfactory’’, which will only light is the battery voltage
is between 6.3V and 9.0 V.
15. Figure 2.31 shows a non-inverting amplifier.
Figure 2.31: Non-inverting amplifier.
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(a) Calculate the voltage gain of this amplifier.
(b) If the input voltage Vin is 2V, calculate the output voltage Vout.
16. Figure 2.32 shows an amplifier circuit incorporating an ideal op amp.
Figure 2.32: Op-amp circuit.
(a) What type of op-amp is shown in Figure 2.32.

(b) The op-amp in Figure 2.32 uses negative feedback. Explain what is meant by negative
feedback.
(c) With reference to Figure 2.32, explain why the potential at point P is approximately 0V
unless the op-amp is saturated.
(d) Derive an expression for the gain of the amplifier circuit in terms of the input resistance
Rin and the feedback resistance Rf.
(e) In one particular application of the circuit, the gain of the amplifier is -10. State the value
of the output voltage Vout when the input voltage Vin is:
(i) +0.1V.
(ii) -1.0 V.
(f) State three disadvantages of increased gain in an op-amp.
17. (a) Draw the circuit diagram of an op-amp voltage follower.

(b) A student set up the circuit shown in Figure 2.33.
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Figure 2.33: Comparator.
The LEDs, L1 and L2 emit light when the output from the appropriate op-amp is positive and
high. When the negative temperature coefficient thermistor is at700C, the potential difference
across the resistor is 3.5V.
(i) Why does L1 emit light when the thermistor is at 700C while L2 does not.
(ii) The temperature of the thermistor is raised and there is a change of state of one or both
LED(s). State what change is observed.
(iii) Suggest one use of the circuit.
18. The system diagram for an electronic balance is shown in Figure 2.34. The balance is
powered by a ±9Vsupply.
Figure 2.34: The system diagram for an electronic balance.
(a) Output Q is passed through an amplifier with a voltage gain of – 1. Draw the circuit
diagram of an op-amp based amplifier with a voltage gain of – 1 and state suitable values
for any resistors that you use.
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(b) The circuit diagram for the summing amplifier is shown in Figure 2.35.
Figure 2.35: Summing amplifier.
Label the virtual earth point on the amplifier with the letter Y.
UNIT 3: LOGIC GATES
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3.0 Introduction
Logic generally deals with binary variables (i.e.), things with only two possible values. You
can talk of a person to be male or female, a statement to be true or false (etc.). Here, the
binary variable is the voltage which can be high (logic 1) or low (logic 0). A high voltage
refers to one close to the positive of the power supply while a low voltage refers to one close
to the negative of the power supply. Basic logic functions are performed by logic gates which
are the fundamental building blocks of digital integrated circuits. Logic gates combine one or
more digital inputs to give an output.
Most logic gates have two inputs and one output. At any instant, each terminal is in one of
the two binary conditions low (0) or high (1). In most logic gates, the low state is
approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is approximately five volts positive (+5
V). In this unit you are going to cover the seven logic gates (i.e.), AND, OR, EX-OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR, and EX-NOR gates.
Learning Objectives
 draw the logic symbols for AND, OR, EX-OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and EX-NOR
gates;
 construct , recognise and use truth tables for AND, OR, EX-OR, NOT, NAND, NOR,
and EX-NOR gates;
 use AND, OR, EX-OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and EX-NOR gates in logic circuits.
3.1. The three basic logic gates

The three basic logic gates are the NOT gate, the AND gate and the OR gate.
3.1.1. The NOT gate

A NOT gate has a single input terminal and a single output terminal. It reverses the logic state
of an input signal (i.e.) it changes a low input signal to a high output signal, and vice versa,
thus it inverts the input. In other words, the output is true if the input is false and the output is
false if the input is true. Hence, it is sometimes called an inverter because of its behaviour.
The symbol for a NOT gate is shown in Figure 3.1, along with its truth table (see Table 3.1).
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Figure 3.1: The electronic symbol for an inverter or NOT gate.
A truth table is table that gives the state of the output for all possible values of the inputs. The
letters A, B, C (etc.), are conventionally used to denote the inputs while Q is used for the
output. You should take note that since a NOT gate has only one binary input, it has 21  2
possible combinations of input logic states.
Table 3.1: The truth table for a NOT gate.
Input Output
0 1
1 0
3.1.2. The AND gate

An AND gate has two input terminals and a single output terminal. The output is "true" (logic
1) only if both inputs are "true" (logic 1), otherwise, the output is "false" (logic 0). The gate
acts in the same way as the logical "and" operator (i.e.), it performs the basic operation of
logic multiplication. The symbol for an AND gate is shown in Figure 3.2, along with its truth
table (see Table 3.2).
Figure 3.2: The electronic symbol for an AND gate.
You should take note that since an AND gate has two binary inputs, it has 2 2  4 possible
combinations of input logic states.
Table 3.2: The truth table for an AND gate.
Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
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Give an example of a real life situation where you can use an AND gate.
3.1.3. The OR gate

An OR gate has two input terminals and a single output terminal. The output is "true" (logic
1) if any one or both of the inputs are "true" (logic 1), and the output is "false" (logic 0) if
both inputs are "false" (logic 0). The gate acts in the same way as the logical inclusive "or"
operator (i.e.), it performs the basic operation of logic addition. The symbol for an OR gate is
Figure 3.3: The electronic symbol for an OR gate.

Construct a truth table for the OR gate shown in Figure 3.3.
Example 3.1
Give an example of a real life situation where you can use an OR gate.
Solution
You can use an OR gate to design a burglar alarm for monitoring your bedroom’s door and
window as illustrated in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: OR gate.
Example 3.2
A circuit with an on/off switch is shown in Figure 3.5.
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Figure 3.5: A circuit with an on/off switch.
(a) What is the state of the LED when the switch is:
(i) on, and
(ii) off.
(b) Which logic gate behaves in the same way as Figure 3.5? Explain your answer.
Solution
(a) (i) The LED will be off when the switch is on.
(ii) The LED will be on when the switch is off.
(b) The state of the LED is NOT the state of the switch so a NOT gate behaves in the same
way as Figure 3.5.
3.2. Interconnections of the three basic logic gates to form the NAND gate and the NOR
gate.
The NAND gate and the NOR gate can be formed from suitable interconnections of the basic
logic gates as follows.
3.2.1. The NOT AND (NAND) gate

A NAND gate is formed when an AND gate is followed by a NOT gate. It has two input
terminals and a single output terminal. The output is "true" (logic 1) if any one of the inputs is
"false" (logic 0), and the output is "false" (logic 0) if both inputs are "true" (logic 1). The gate
acts in the same way as the logical "and" operator followed by negation. The symbol for a
NAND gate is simply that of an AND gate with a small circle at the output as shown in
Figure 3.6, along with its truth table (see Table 3.3).
Figure 3.6: The electronic symbol for a NAND gate.
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You should take note that since a NAND gate has two binary inputs, it has 2 2  4 possible
Table 3.3: The truth table for a NAND gate.

0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
The NAND gate can be used to construct all other gates, so it has a universal function.
Example 3.3
Give an example of a real life situation where you can use a NAND gate.
Solution
When baking scones, the element in an oven does not need to remain on if the inside
temperature is too high   120 0 C  or if the oven door is closed (see Figure 3.7).
Figure 3.7: NAND gate.
3.2.2. The NOT OR (NOR) gate

A NOR gate is formed when an OR gate is followed by a NOT gate. It has two input
terminals and a single output terminal. The output is "true" (logic 1) if both inputs are "false"
(logic 0), otherwise the output is "false" (logic 0). The gate acts in the same way as the
logical "or" operator followed by negation. The symbol for a NOR gate is simply that of an
OR gate with a small circle at the output as shown in Figure 3.8, along with its truth table
(see Table 3.4).
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Figure 3.8: The electronic symbol for a NOR gate.
You should take note that since a NOR gate has two binary inputs, it has 2 2  4 possible
Table 3.4: The truth table for a NOR gate.

0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

Give an example of a real life situation where you can use a NOR gate.
3.3. Interconnections of AND, NOT and OR gates, or NAND gates only to form
EXCLUSIVE-OR (EX-OR) and EXCLUSIVE-NOR (EX-NOR) gates.
EX-OR and EX-NOR gates can be formed from suitable combinations of AND, NOT and
OR gates, or NAND gates only as illustrated below.
3.3.1. The EX-OR gate
An EX-OR gate has two input terminals and a single output terminal. The output is "true"
(logic 1) if the inputs are in different logic states, and the output is "false" (logic 0) if both
inputs are in same logic state. The gate acts in the same way as the logical "either/or"
operator. The symbol for an EX-OR gate is shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9: The electronic symbol for an EX-OR gate.
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The EX-OR gate is also referred to as the difference gate because the output is logic 1 when
the inputs are different.

Construct a truth table for the EX-OR gate shown in Figure 3.9.
Example 3.4
Use two switches, an LED and a dc power supply to draw a circuit diagram which behaves in
exactly the same way as an EX-OR gate. Explain your diagram.
Solution
The LED will be on if the state of switch 1 is different from the state of switch 2 (i.e.), The
LED will be on if switch 1 is on and switch 2 is off, and vice versa, but it excludes the state
when they are both on (see Figure 3.10).
Figure 3.10: A circuit diagram which behaves in exactly the same way as an EX-OR gate.
3.3.2. The EX-NOR gate
An EX-NOR gate is formed when an EX-OR gate is followed by a NOT gate. It has two
input terminals and a single output terminal. The output is "true" (logic 1) if the inputs are in
the same logic state, and the output is "false" (logic 0) if both inputs are in different logic
state. The gate acts in the same way as the logical "either/or" operator followed by negation.
The symbol for an EX-NOR gate is shown in Figure 3.11.
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Figure 3.11: The electronic symbol for an EX-NOR gate.
The EX-NOR gate is also referred to as the parity gate because the output is logic 1 when the
inputs are the same.
Example 3.5
Construct a truth table for the EX-NOR gate shown in Figure 3.11.
Solution
You should take note that since an EX-NOR gate has two binary inputs, it has 2 2  4
Table 3.5: The truth table for an EX-NOR gate.

0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
3.4 Unit 3 Summary

 Digital signals are in one or two states, (i.e.), logic high (1) or logic low (0).
 Logic gates produce an output by combining one or more digital inputs.
 A truth table provides you with a simpler way of describing the behaviour of a logic
gate by listing the output for all possible input states.
 Conventionally, the letters A, B, C, (etc.), are used to denote inputs and Q to denote
the output.
 NOT gate – Inverts value (i.e.), The output is always the inverse of the input. Output
is high when input is low and vice versa.
 AND gate – Output is high only when both inputs are high.
 OR gate – High output if either first input or second input (or both) is (are) high.
 EX-OR gate – Output is high if either first input or second input is high, but low if
both are high.
 NAND gate – Output is low only when both inputs are high.
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 NOR gate – Output is high only if neither first input nor second input is high.
 EX-NOR gate – Output is high if both inputs are high or both inputs are low.

1. Define the following terms:
(a) logic gate,
(b) truth table.
2. Draw the symbol for an AND gate and construct its truth table.
3. Briefly describe how you can make a NOT gate from:

(a) a NAND gate, and
(b) a NOR gate.
4. Figure 3.12 shows a logic gate.
Figure 3.12: A logic gate.
(a) What name do we give to this type of gate?

(b) Construct its truth table.
5. State with an explanation, the other name for:

(a) the EX-OR gate,
(b) the EX-NOR gate.
6. What is the name of the gate that is often called an inverter? Explain your answer.
7. A circuit with two on/off switches 1 and 2 is shown in Figure 3.13.
Figure 3.13: A circuit with two on/off switches.
(a) What is the state of the LED when:

(i) switch 1 is on and switch 2 is off,
(ii) switch 1 is off and switch 2 is on,
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(iii) both switches 1 and 2 are off,
(iv) both switches 1 and 2 are on.
(b) Name a single logic gate which behaves in the same way as Figure 3.13? Give a reason
for your answer.
8. Use two switches, an LED and a dc power supply to draw a circuit diagram which behaves
in exactly the same way as an OR gate. Explain your diagram.
9. Table 3.6 shows how the input sensors A and B of an electronic system control the
outputs P, Q and R.
Table 3.6: The truth table showing how the input sensors control the output.
A B P Q R
0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
(a) Which type of logic gate will produce the P output?
(b) Which type of logic gate will produce the Q output?
(c) Write down an expression which describes the R output.
UNIT 4: BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND COMBINATIONAL LOGIC
4.0 Introduction
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Complicated operations can be performed using combinations of logic gates. In Boolean
algebra, variables and their functions are represented with upper case letters. You will also
represent the compliment of a variable with a ‘bar’ over the upper case letter. For example,
the compliment of C is C and if C  0 , then C  1 . In this unit you will cover Boolean
algebra and logic gate combinations.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 construct and interpret truth tables for combinations of logic gates;
 describe the operation of combinational logic systems;
 convert logic circuits consisting of mixed gates into circuits with either NAND or
NOR gates only;
 use logic gate combinations to design a logic system from a truth table, written
description or Boolean algebra expression;
 generate the Boolean expression from a truth table or logic diagram.
4.1 Fundamental rules of Boolean algebra

The Boolean expression for the AND function is a dot (.). For example, A AND B  A  B or
simply AB . The Boolean expression for the OR function is a plus (+). For example, A OR B
 A B.
4.1.1 Addition (OR)

(i) 0  0  0 .
(ii) 1  0  1 .
(iii) 0  1  1 .
(iv) 1  1  1 .
(v) A + 0 = A.
(vi) A + 1 = A.
(vii) A + A = A.
(viii) A + AB = A.
Example 4.1
Use an appropriate rule to derive rule (vii).
Solution
A  A  A1  1
But from rule (iv) 1  1  1 , so the right hand side of the equation simplifies to A1  A .
Therefore, A  A  A which is rule (vii).
4.1.2 Multiplication (AND)

(1) 0  0  0 .
(2) 1  0  0 .
(3) 0  1  0 .
(4) 1  1  1 .
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(5) A  0  0 .
(6) A 1  A .
(7) A  A  A .

Use an appropriate rule to derive rule (viii) in sub-unit 4.1.1.
4.2 Fundamental laws of Boolean algebra

The commutative, associative and distributive laws can be applied to Boolean expressions.
4 .2.1 Commutative law

A  B  B  A.
A B  B A.
4.2.2 Associative law

A   B  C    A  B  C .
A BC    AB  C .
4.2.3 Distributive law

A B  C   AB  AC .
Example 4.2
Apply the commutative law to the following expressions.
(a) C + D.
(b) C  D .
Solution
(a) C + D = D + C.
(b) C  D  D  C .

Use the associative law to simplify the following expressions.
(a) D   E  F  .
(b) D  EF  .
4.3 Combinations of logic gates
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Figure 4.1 shows a logic circuit with two logic gates combined together (i.e.), a NOT gate
and an AND gate. The circuit has two inputs (i.e.), A and B. Suppose you want to determine
the dependence of the output Q on the values of A and B so you should identify and label an
intermediate point, say, c.
Figure 4.1: Logic circuit.

You then construct a truth table as illustrated in Table 4.1. Here you should observe that since
there are two binary inputs, the possible number of combinations of input logic states is
22  4 .
Table 4.1: Truth table.

A B c Q
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
You should take note that if a letter, say, ‘c’ is given in lower case in the circuit, then you
should also use lower case in the table.
Example 4.3
Figure 4.2 shows a logic circuit that can be used when designing the safety system for a car
park.
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Figure 4.2: A logic circuit.
(a) Draw a truth table for this logic circuit.

(b) Name a single gate which can perform the same operation as Figure 4.2.
Solution
(a) Table 4.2: Truth table.
A B c d Q
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
(b) EX-OR gate.
Example 4.4
Note: You should recall from unit 3 assessment question 3 that you can make a NOT gate
from a NOR gate by simply connecting both inputs of the NOR gate together as shown on the
lower gate which is connected to the day/night switch in Figure 4.3.
(a) Figure 4.3 shows a logic circuit.
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Copy and complete its truth table shown in Table 4.3.
Day/night Break Smoke R S Output to

switch glass detector outside siren
detector
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0
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0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
(b) Explain whether this proposed system would provide the building with an adequate level
of protection.
Solution
Day/night Break glass Smoke R S Output to

switch detector detector outside siren
0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1
(b) The proposed system will not provide the building with adequate protection because the
siren is not activated if just one of Smoke detector, Break glass detector or Day/night
switch is at logic state 1.

Figure 4.4 shows a logic circuit with three inputs (i.e.), A, B and C.
Figure 4.4: Logic gate combinations.
Construct a truth table for this logic gate network.
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4.4 Logic circuit implementation using NAND gates only
The NAND gate can be used to construct all other gates (i.e.), to produce any logic function,
so it is a universal gate.
4.4.1. The NOT gate

You can generate a NOT function by connecting together the two inputs of a NAND gate as
Figure 4.5: NOT gate.
4.4.2. The AND gate

You can achieve the AND function by connecting a NAND gate followed by a NOT gate as
Figure 4.6: AND gate.

4.4.3. The OR gate
You can generate an OR function by connecting three NAND gates as illustrated in Figure
4.7.
Figure 4.7: OR gate.
4.4.4. The NOR gate

You can make a NOR gate by connecting four NAND gates as shown in Figure 4.8.
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Figure 4.8: NOR gate.
4.4.5. The EX-OR gate

You can achieve the EX-OR function by connecting four NAND gates in a logic circuit as
Figure 4.9: EX-OR gate.
Example 4.5
The truth table for a logic circuit is shown Table 4.5.
W X Y Z Q
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
(a) Inputs W and X are 1 1 0 1 0 connected to two logic
gates having outputs Y and Z. Given that Y and Z form the inputs to a third gate
which provides the output Q. Complete Figure 4.10 by drawing the logic circuit that
would give these outputs.
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Figure 4.10: Part of a logic circuit.
(b) Use Table 4.5 to write the simplest Boolean expression for the logic signals at Y and Z
in terms of the inputs W and X.
(c) Write the simplest Boolean expression for Q in terms of the inputs W and X.
(d) Name a single logic gate which performs the same function as the complete circuit
above.
Solution
(a)

(b) Y W  X
Z W  X
(c)  
Q  W  X  W  X 
(d) EX – OR gate.
Example 4.6
A logic circuit with two inputs X and Y and output Q has the following the Boolean equation:
Q  X Y X Y
(a) Copy and complete Table 4.6.

X Y X Y X Y X Y Q
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0 0
1 0
0 1
1 1
(b) Complete Figure 4.12 to show how a logic circuit can be constructed from two
NOT gates, two OR gates and one AND gate to represent the Boolean equation above.
(c) State which single logic gate has the same function as the complete circuit above.
Solution
X Y X Y X Y X Y Q
0 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0
(b)
(c) EX – OR gate.
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A student constructs a circuit from the logic diagram shown in Figure 4.14.
Figure 4.14: Logic diagram.
(a) Use Table 4.8 to complete the truth table for this logic diagram.
M N P R Q
0 0
1 0
0 1
1 1
(b) Write down Boolean expressions for the logic signals at P, R and Q in terms of the
inputs M and N.
(c) What single logic gate could perform the function of the whole circuit above?
4.5 Unit 4 Summary

 It is possible to construct and interpret truth tables for combinations of logic gates ;
 Logic circuits consisting of mixed gates can be converted into circuits with either
NAND or NOR gates only;
 Logic gate combinations can be used to design a logic system from a truth table,
written description or Boolean algebra expression;
 Boolean algebra can be used to simplify a logic system.
1. Use Boolean algebra to simplify the following expressions:

(a) A .
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(b) A  A .
(c) A  A .
2. Simplify the expression E  F  G  using the distributive law.
3. The truth table for a logic system is shown in Table 4.9.

A B C M N O P Q
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) Write down the Boolean expressions for the logic signals at M, N and O in Table 4.9
in terms of the inputs A, B and C.
(b) Write down the Boolean expressions for P and Q in terms of the inputs A, B and C.
(c) Copy and complete the logic circuit in Figure 4.15 with the correct gates that would give
the logic signals in the Table 4.9.
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(d) Describe the action of this logic circuit.
4. The Boolean equation for a logic circuit with two inputs X and Y and output Q is:

Q   X Y   X Y .
(a) Copy and complete Table 4.10.

X Y X Y X Y X Y Q
0 0
1 0
0 1
1 1
(b) Complete the Figure 4.16 to show how a logic circuit can be constructed that
has the same function as the Boolean equation above using two AND gates, two NOT
gates, and one OR gate.
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(c) State the logic function of the complete circuit above.
5. Suppose you want to fit an alarm to your deep freezer shown in Figure 4.17, which will
warn you if any danger of damage to stock in the freezer occurs.
Figure 4.17: A freezer.
Given that your freezer has sensors with the following outputs:
A in Figure 4.18 is at logic 1 if the temperature is too high to store frozen food and logic 0 if
the temperature is at or below the required temperature.
B is at logic 1 if the lid is closed and logic 0 if the lid is open.
Figure 4.18: Logic system.
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You are required to produce a logic system that gives an output Q which sounds the alarm
if Q is logic 1. You then decide that the alarm should sound if the lid is closed and the
temperature is too high, or the temperature is low and the lid is left open.
(a) If you design a system to implement this function. Write a Boolean expression for the
output Q, in terms of A and B.
(b) Draw a logic circuit for the system, using any type of logic gates.
(c) Using NAND gates only, draw a logic circuit which has the same function as a two-input
OR gate.
(d) Draw a logic circuit for the system in part (b), using NAND gates only. Draw a
ring round any redundant gates or re-draw the final system.
6. Suppose you are designing a simple testing device (see Figure 4.19) to check that metal
bars used in a factory are cut to a set length. The testing device should use three sensitive
switches, X, Y and Z, which give a logic 1 when pressed.
A bar is placed in the device and pressed against switch X.
Figure 4.19: Testing device.
(a) Given that the device operates from a 9 V power supply.

(a) (i) State what is meant by logic 1 in this system.
(a) (ii) Copy and complete the logic circuit in Figure 4.20, adding a resistor and switch so
that the output gives a logic 1 when the switch is pressed.
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Figure 4.20: Circuit diagram.
(b) If the bar is of the correct length when placed against switch X, it presses switch Y, but
not switch Z as shown in Figure 4.21.
Figure 4.21: Testing device.
There are three outputs:

P is logic 1 if the bar is too long.
Q is logic 1 if the bar length is the right length.
R is logic 1 if the bar length is too short.
If the bar is not pressed against switch x, all outputs are logic 0.
Write Boolean expressions for the outputs, in terms of X, Y, and Z.
(c) Using any logic gates, draw a logic circuit in Figure 4.22 to illustrate how output Q can be
produced from inputs X, Y and Z.
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(d) Using NOR gates only, draw a logic diagram which performs the same function as your
logic diagram in part (c).
7. Figure 4.23 is a network of logic gates.
Figure 4.23: Logic gate network.
(a) Construct a truth table indicating the inputs A and B, along with the
intermediate points c, d, e and f and the output Q.
(b) State a single logic gate that is represented by the logic network.
8. Using NAND gates only, show how you can implement the following logic
gates:
(a) NOT gate.
(b) NOR gate.
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9. A logic circuit diagram is shown in Figure 4.24.
(a) Write the simplest Boolean expressions for the logic signals at points R and S.
(b) (i) Write the simplest Boolean expression for Q in terms of R and S only.
(b) (ii) Write a simple Boolean expression for Q in terms of O and P only.
(c) Copy and complete Table 4.11 to show the logic values of R, S and Q for all the
combinations of inputs O and P.

O P R S Q
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
(d) Draw a logic circuit diagram using a single logic gate that would have the same function
as the original circuit.
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UNIT 5: ELECTRONICS IN SOCIETY AND INDUSTRY
5.0 Introduction
Electronics play a vital role in our day to day life. Just imagine a society or industry without
electronic devices such as mobile phones, televisions, radios, computers, (etc). Each
electronic system has an input (sensing) device which is connected to an output device via an
electrical circuit (processing unit) that will provide a voltage as its output. Electronic systems
are used to perform various tasks such as monitoring room temperature by switching a fan on
and off, sounding an alarm when a burglar breaks through a window (etc). You can as well
use them during your study period for light level detection, to indicate when the light level
falls, as a reminder to switch on a reading lamp to avoid eye strain.
.
The sensing device could be for example, an LDR so that light intensity may be monitored
(see 1.1.1) or a thermistor so that changes in temperature may be monitored (see 1.1.2) or a
strain gauge so that the strain experienced by a sample of material may be measured (see
1.1.3). The input device changes one of its physical properties (e.g. resistance) with a change
in whatever is to be monitored. In order that the information gathered by the input device
may be communicated, the change in its physical property must be processed so that an
output device will indicate this change. This output device could be, for example, a simple
indicator lamp, a loudspeaker or a digital meter. The output device will respond to a change
in voltage. In this unit, you will look at simple electronic devices that have made impacts in
society and industry.
Learning Objectives
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By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 recall that each electronic system consists of an input, electric circuit and an output;
 draw a block diagram showing the three basic components of a given electronic
system.
 describe the function of simple electronic devices and systems which are found in the
home, in industry and in communications;
 describe the impact of electronic devices and systems on domestic and industrial
activities;
 describe the impact of electronic devices and systems on modern communication.
5.1 Functions of electronic devices and systems
The information gathered by an input device should be processed for it to be of good use
(i.e.), the change in its physical property (e.g.), temperature in the case of a thermistor must
be processed so that an output device such as a loudspeaker/buzzer will sound to indicate this
change. Here, the output device responds to a change in voltage. Therefore, each electronics
system consists of three basic components illustrated in Figure 5.1, namely:
(i) the sensor or input,
(ii) the electric circuit or processing unit, and
(iii) the output.
Figure 5.1: Three basic components of an electronic system.
Example 5.1
Figure 5.2 shows some good examples of electronic systems and their respective sensing
devices, processing units and output devices.
1. Record player.
2. Computer.
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3. Washing machine.
Figure 5.2: Sensing devices, processing units and output devices for a record player,
computer and washing machine.
Draw block diagrams showing the corresponding sensor, circuit and output for the following
electronic systems.
(a) drinks machine.
(b) radio.
(c) telephone.
Example 5.2
Draw a block diagram showing the three basic components for an electronic system that can
be used to count the number of vehicles passing through a toll gate.
Solution
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Figure 5.3: An electronic system that can be used to count the number of vehicles passing
through a toll gate.
Example 5.3
be used to sound an alarm if you forget to switch off the car headlights.
Solution
Figure 5.4: An electronic system that can be used to sound an alarm if you forget to switch
off the car headlights.

be used to control room temperature.
5.2 The impact of electronic devices and systems on domestic and industrial activities
Factors that contribute to the huge growth in the electronics industry:
Thermionic valve technology has given way to modern solid-state electronics which:
 is relatively much faster, hence, there is growth of modern electronic communication
systems,
 enables very complex circuits to be availed in tiny packages as evidenced by the
reduction in size of electronic devices such as televisions, radios, telephones,
computers, (etc),
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 is very cheap because mass production of integrated circuits reduces the cost
significantly,
 has circuits that are much more reliable, durable due to absence of moving parts,
 has circuits that require very little power to operate. This has facilitated the much
easier powering of modern devices using batteries.
Examples of some of the electronic devices that have made an impact on society:
 Radio and audio,
 Television and video,
 Music reproduction and storage,
 Communication systems (e.g.), mobile phones,
 Computer and information technology (e.g.), internet,
 Security systems (e.g.), vehicle anti-hijack alarms and burglar alarms,
 Safety systems (e.g.), fire-warning alarms and flood warning systems,
 Robotics, and
 Mechatronics.
These electronics devices have generally improved the quality of day to day life but they also
have their own disadvantages, among them:
 Loss of employment especially amongst manual workers due to automation and
control,
 Confidential information may be leaked by electronic surveillance systems,
 Military use of electronics in guided weapons of mass destruction.

List any three electronic devices that have made an impact on society (do not include those
listed above).
5.3 The impact of electronic devices and systems on modern communication

Integrated circuits play a vital role in modern communication since they can operate at
greater speeds, (i.e.), at very high frequencies. This enables more information to be carried
for long distances within a short interval of time. (i.e.), simultaneous transmission of separate
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signals through digital means is made possible. For example, you can use an optical fibre to
have 256 music channels or 1920 telephone circuits.
In addition to the simultaneous transmission of many channels of communication, higher

frequencies are favourable since they can generate electromagnetic waves of relatively short
wavelengths. A good example which you can think of is that of a cell phone operating at 900
MHz using a wavelength of 0.3m. This makes the cell phone convenient to use since the
aerial length required for the transmission of the electromagnetic waves is only a few
centimetres long.
Integrated circuits also play a major role in launching, positioning and maintenance of
geostationary satellites. The to and fro transmission of satellite signals on Earth takes place in
the high frequency region (i.e.), in the GHz region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
As compared to several years ago, the introduction of integrated circuits has brought about
some advantages such as:
 increased reliability and availability of a wide range of electronic equipment, and
 reduction in the capital and operating cost of equipment.

List any three advantages of advances in electronics?
5.4 Unit 5 Summary

 Each electronic system consists of an input, electric circuit and an output;
 Generally, electronic devices and systems have raised the quality of our day to day
life but they also have their own drawbacks;
 Electronic devices and systems have made a huge impact on domestic activities,
industrial activities and modern communication.

1. For each electronic system given below, construct a block diagram showing the
corresponding sensor, circuit and output.
(a) computer.
(b) washing machine.
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(c) record player.
2. List any three disadvantages of advances in electronics?
3. A student designs an electronic system to turn on a 12V lamp for a fixed period of time
when it gets dark.
(a) Choosing appropriate input, process, and output, label the system diagram in Figure 5.5
below to show a possible design for the lamp and its controller.
Figure 5.5: A possible design for the lamp and its controller.
(b) In which sub-system could
(i) an op-amp be used,
(ii) a LDR be used.
(c) The whole system draws a current of 15mA when the lamp is off. The current
increases to 515mA when the 12Vlamp is on. Calculate
(i) the lamp current,
(ii) the power rating of the lamp.
4. A student designs an electronic system to make an audible tone that pulses on and off
repeatedly when the temperature exceeds a certain level.
(a) Draw a system diagram to show a possible design using the following subsystems:
comparator, buzzer and temperature sensor.
(b) In which subsystem could
(i) an op-amp be used,
(ii) a thermistor be used.
5. A student designs an electronic system to control a ventilation fan for a greenhouse. The
fan should be switched on only when the temperature exceeds a certain set level.
(a) Choosing appropriate input, process and output subsystems from the list below, draw a
labelled block diagram to show a possible design for the system. Choose from:
comparator, fan motor and temperature sensor.
(b) In which subsystem would:
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(i) a thermistor be used?
(ii) an op-amp be used?
(c) The controller circuit operates from a 12V power supply and draws a current of 25 mA
under all conditions. The fan motor requires a current of 450 mA when switched on and
operates from the same 12V power supply.
Calculate:
(i) the total current drawn by the whole system when the fan motor is switched on
(ii) the input power to the whole system when the fan motor is switched on.
6. A student designs a noise warning system to alert the user to the presence of a noise level
likely to damage hearing. An LED flashes on and off when the noise level exceeds a safe
value.
(a) Label each subsystem in Figure 5.6 to show a possible design for the noise warning
system using the following subsystems: comparator, LED and sound sensor.
Figure 5.6: A possible design for a noise warning system.
(b) In which subsystem could an op-amp be used?

(c) The comparator circuit diagram is shown in Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7: The comparator circuit.
(c) (i) Calculate the voltage at point Y in this circuit.
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The signal from the sound sensor is connected to point X in the comparator
circuit. What voltage would you expect from the output of this circuit when
(c) (ii) the voltage at X is 2V?
(c) (iii) the voltage at X rises to 6V?
7. A student designs a flood warning system. When the humidity goes above a set level,
a signal that operates a siren is produced.
Draw a system diagram by choosing appropriate input, process, and output subsystems
from the list below.
Alarm (audible warning device) comparator humidity sensor
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Unit 6: Solutions to Self Assessment Questions
Unit 1: Transducers
1.1 (a) (i) As the thermistor cools, its resistance increases and it takes a larger share of the
input voltage, so V0 rises.
(ii) Also as the thermistor becomes hot, its resistance decreases and it takes a smaller
share of the input voltage, so V0 falls.
(b) You can use this circuit to automatically switch on an electric iron if V0 rises above a
certain value or to switch it off when V0 falls below a certain value.
R
1.2 The output voltage, V0   VS
R  RF
500
V0   12
500  1000
V0  4V
1.3 (a) P  IV   5  10 3 1
Therefore the power used by the LED, P  5mW or 0.005W .
(b) (i) 5mA.
(ii) V R  V SUPPLY  V LED
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V R  6  1  5V .
1.4 Refer to sub-unit 1.3.1.
1.5 The electronic symbol for a buzzer.

1.6 Input transducers: LDR, strain gauge and thermistors. (Any two).
Output transducers: LED, buzzer and relay. (Any two).
Unit 2: Operational Amplifiers

2.1 It is the gain of an op-amp without feedback.
2.2 Here, the op-amp compares the ‘variable’ non-inverting input voltage with the ‘constant’
6.0V at the inverting input.
(i) If the LDR is in darkness, R LDR  15k , then V   6.0V and the output saturates
positively causing the LED to light.

(ii) If the LDR is in daylight, R LDR  15k , then V   6.0V and the output saturates
negatively causing the LED not to light.
Vout Rf 40
2.3 The voltage gain, Aninv   1  1  5.
Vin R1 10
Therefore, Vout  Aninv Vin   5  2mV  10mV .
2.4 (a) voltage follower op-amp or buffer op-amp.
(b) unity or 1 (i.e.),
Vout Rf 0
 1  1  1
Vin R1 
(c) To connect high impedance sources to low impedance loads thereby eliminating
loading effects by drawing very little power from the signal source.
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2.5 Refer to sub-unit 2.8.
Unit 3: Logic gates

3.1 An electronic gate lock that needs two separate keys to unlock it.
The gate will be opened only if both keys are unlocked.
3.2 You should take note that since an OR gate has two binary inputs, it has 2 2  4 possible

0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
The output is high if any one or both of the inputs are high, and the output is low if both
inputs are low.
3.3 A safety lock for the door to a mains electric supply that is locked during maintenance of
faulty electricity power lines.
3.4 You should take note that since an EX-OR gate has two binary inputs, it has 2 2  4
Here the output is at logic 1 if either, but not both, of the inputs are at logic 1, and the
output is logic 0 if both inputs are at logic 0 or if both inputs are at logic 1.
Page 87 of 109
The truth table for an EX-OR gate.
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
Unit 4: Boolean Algebra and Combinational Logic
4.1 A  AB  A1  B 
But from rule (ii) in sub-unit 4.1.1: 1 + B = 1. Therefore, the right hand side of the above
equation simplifies to A1  B   A  1 .
Also from rule (6) in sub-unit 4.1.2: A 1  A . Therefore, A + AB = A.
4.2 (a) D   E  F    D  E   F .
(b) D  EF    DE  F .
4.3 Here you should observe that since there are three binary inputs, the possible number of
combinations of input logic states is 2 3  8 .
A B C e f g h Q
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
4.4 (a)
M N P R Q
0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
(b) PM N
RM N
 
Q  M  N  M  N
Page 88 of 109
(c) EX – OR.
Unit 5: Electronics in society and industry
5.1 (a) Drinks machine.
(b) Radio.
(c) Telephone.
5.2
5.3
 Photocopiers,
 Printers,
Page 89 of 109
 ATM. (Many others)
5.4
 Tasks can be performed efficiently,
 Production improves,
 Communication is faster.
Unit 7: Solutions to Unit Assessment Questions
Page 90 of 109
Unit 1: Transducers
1. A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another.
2. Refer to sub-unit 1.2.
3. (a) (i) As darkness falls on the LDR, its resistance R increases and V0 increases.
(ii) But as light falls on the LDR, R decreases and V0 also decreases.
(b) This circuit can be used to automatically switch street lights on at dusk if V0 rises
above
a certain value and to switch them off at dawn when V0 falls below a certain value.
5. Refer to sub-unit 1.3.3.
6. (a) normally closed, and

(b) normally open.
8. (a) 100°C.
(b) The thermistor has its minimum resistance at this temperature
(c) Total resistance = 5kΩ + 1kΩ = 6kΩ

V
Current, I 
R
6
I   1mA .
6  10 3
(d) V0 = (1 ÷ (5 + 1)) × 6V = 1V.
P
9. (a) (i) I  .
R
Page 91 of 109
I  32mA . (Allow 31.6mA).
V
(ii) R  .
I
12
R  375 . (Allow 379 Ω)
0.032
(iii) 375 – 100 = 275, choose 300Ω.
 300 
(b) (i)  12   0.35V .
 10300 
 300 
(ii)  12  0.036V .
 100300 
(c) Too low/ very little difference.

(d) Increase it.
(e) Reduce current drawn and increase battery life.
10. (a) (i) 9  1.7  7.3V .

7.3
(ii)  365 .
0.02
(iii) 390 Ω.
7.3
(iv)  18.7mA .
390
(v) 30   518.7   123.5mA .
(vi) Not suitable, it will quickly become discharged.
18.7
(b) (i)  6.2mA .
3
(ii) Brightness reduces the more LEDs that are on.
Not suitable, should be the same brightness regardless.
 RTH 
11. Potential difference across the thermistor, VTH     V IN
 RTH  R 
Page 92 of 109
 2500 
   6.0
 2500  500 
 5.0V .
Unit 2: Operational Ampifiers

2. Negative feedback increases the bandwidth (i.e.), it improves the frequency response.
Negative feedback makes the circuit stable and easy to control.
4. (a) (i) 100°C.

(ii) The thermistor’s resistance is a minimum at this temperature.
(iii) Total resistance = 7kΩ + 2kΩ = 9kΩ
I = V ÷ R, (i.e.), 9V ÷ 9kΩ = 1mA.
(iv) V0 = (2 ÷ (7 + 2)) × 9V = 2V.
(c) (i) 2V.
(ii)
5. Choice of 20kΩ.
 20  2
(a) potential divider calculation: V0    9   6 V .
 20  7  3
Page 93 of 109
R2 20 10
(b) Ratio of the two resistors:  
R1 7 3.5
Lower resistor R2 can be 10kΩ and upper resistor R1 can be 3.5kΩ.

(c) (i) +9V or high.
(ii) 0V or low.
6. (a) Thermistor, or other means (in potential divider circuit).

(b) Comparator.
(c) When the inverting input voltage V- exceeds the non-inverting input voltage V+, the
output goes low.
When the non-inverting input voltage V+ exceeds the inverting input voltage V-, the
output goes high.
(d)
Vout 1.0
7. (a)   5.
Vin 0 .2
(b)
Page 94 of 109
RF 240
(c) Gain  1   5  1 .
R1 R1
240
R1   60k .
4
8. (a) (i) 1or unity.

(ii) 1MΩ.
(b) (i) -1.
(ii) Amplitude x 10;
Inverted.
9. (a) Voltage divider gives 6V at non-inverting input of op-amp

So inverting input will also be approximately 6V for non saturated output
of op-amp because of large open loop voltage gain of op-amp
R2 2000
(b) Voltage gain     200 .
R1 10
10. (a) and (b).
Page 95 of 109
(c) The thermistor has a resistance of 20kΩ at 20°C.
2 : 1 ratio .
R = 10kΩ.
(d) 0V.
11. Infinite input impedance: No current is drawn into either of the input
Infinite open loop gain: Even a slight difference in the voltage of the inputs will cause the
output to saturate.
Infinite bandwidth: It amplifies all frequencies by the same magnitude.
12. (a) Resistors are in series:

Combined resistance  R1  R2
 6  4  10k
 R2 
(b) Using the potential divider rule: V B   VS 
 R1  R2 
 6 
VB   10   6V .
6 4
(c) The voltage at A = voltage at B = 6V.
 RTH 
(d)  VS   V A
 RTH  R3 
 RTH 
 10V   6V
R
 TH  10 k 
Page 96 of 109
If you make RTH the subject of formula you get: RTH  1.5k .
(e) It saturates positively.
13. Reduces gain.

 R1  R2 
14. (a) Using the potential divider rule:  12   9V .
 R1  R2  3k 
R1  R2  9k …(i)
 R2 
  9V   6.3V .
 R1  R2 
 R2 
  9V   6.3V .
 9k 
R2  6.3k.
From equation (i) R1  R2  9k

R1  6.3k  9k
R1  2.7 k .
(b) (i) Voltage comparator /comparator.

(ii) Inverting input.
(c)
Voltage of battery to betested Voltage at M Voltage at N
Less than 6.3V 0 0
Between 6.3V and 9.0V 0 12
More than 9.0V 12 12
Page 97 of 109
(d) (i)
(ii) To limit LED current.

(iii) Resistor voltage = 12 – 2 = 10V.
V 10
R   500.
I 20mA
(e)
Page 98 of 109
Rf 140
15. (a) Voltage gain of the amplifier  1   1  15 .
R1 10
(b) Vout  gain  Vin  15  2  30V .
16. (a) Inverting amplifier.

(b) Feeding a fraction of the output to the inverting.
(c) V+ is at zero potential / connected to the zero volt line.
V+ = V- unless the op-amp is saturated
so V- = 0V
Therefore P is at zero potential
(d) The current flowing through Rin is equal to the current flowing through Rf (i.e.), pd
across Rin  Rin = pd across Rf  Rf.
Vin  0 0  Vout
Since P is at zero volts, 
Rin Rf
You can simplify the above equation to get the gain of the inverting op-amp,
Vout Rf

Vin Rin .
(e) (i) -1V.

( ii) 10V.
(f) Decrease in bandwidth,
Page 99 of 109
low operating stability, and
more distortions.
17. (a)
(b) (i) For LED1: 3.5V (V+) is greater than 3V (V -).

L1’s op-amp saturates positively to +9V (positive and high), so LED lights.
For LED 2: 3.5V (V+) is LESS than 4V (V -).

Output of op – amp saturates negatively so LED does not light.
(ii) LED 1 turns off.

LED 2 turns on.
(iii) Temperature sensor for green houses Or Tobacco treatment (etc.).
18. (a) Correctly connected inputs,

feedback resistor in correct place,
realistic values of R - accept between 1kΩ and 1MΩ,
both Rs the same.
Page 100 of 109

(b) See Y in diagram above.
Unit 3: Logic gates

1. (a) Refer to sub-unit 3.0.
(b) Refer to sub-unit 3.1.1.
3. (a) and (b) You simply connect both inputs of a NAND gate or a NOR gate together (as
illustrated in the truth tables below) so that the only possible combinations will be C = 0 and
D = 0, or C = 1 and D = 1.
(a)
C D Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
(b)
C D Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
5. Refer to sub-units (a) 3.3.1 and (b) 3.3.2.
7. (a) (i) off.
Page 101 of 109

(ii) off.
(iii) off.
(iv) on.
(b) AND gate because the LED will be on if both switch 1 and switch 2 are on. All other
combinations of switch 1 and switch 2 cause the LED to be off.
8. The LED will be on if either switch 1 is on or switch 2 is on. It includes the state when
both switches are on.
9. (a) NOR gate.

(b) NAND gate.
(c) R is NOT A or S is on if A is off and on when A is off.
Unit4: Boolean algebra and Combinational logic

1.
(a) A  A .
(b) A  A  A .
(c) A  A  0 .
2. E  F  G   EF  EG .
3. (a) M  A  C
N  B C
O  A B
Page 102 of 109

(b) P  A  C  B  C
Q  AC  BC  A B
(c)
(d) Output is a logic 1 when at least 2 inputs are at logic 1.
4. (a) Truth table.

X Y X Y X Y X Y Q
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1
(b)
(c) EX-NOR function.
5. (a) Q  A B  A B
Page 103 of 109

(b)
(c) Suppose the two inputs are A and B.
(d)
OR
Page 104 of 109

6. (a) (i) 9V / >4.5V / high voltage.
(ii) Resistor in series with switch from 0V.
Switch between 9V and output.
(b) P  X  Y  Z (or X  Z ).
Q  X Y  Z .
R  X Y  Z (or R  X  Y ).
(c)
(d) AND to NOR,

NOT to NOR, and
remove double inverter.
7. (a)
A B C d E F Q
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
(b) EX-OR gate.
8. (a) Refer to sub-unit 4.3.1.

(b) Refer to sub-unit 4.3.4
Page 105 of 109

9. (a) ROP
S OP
(b) (i) Q RS .

(b) (ii) Q  (O  P )   O  P  .
(c) Truth table.

O P R S Q
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
(d) EX-OR gate.
Unit 5: Electronics in Society and Industry

2.
 Loss of employment especially amongst manual workers due to automation and
control,
 Confidential information may be leaked by electronic surveillance systems,
 Military use of electronics in guided weapons of mass destruction. (many others).
3. (a)
(b) (i) comparator.

(ii) light sensor.
(c) (i) 515 – 15 = 500 mA.
Page 106 of 109

(ii) P = V x I = 12 x 0.5 = 6W.
4. (a)
(b) (i) comparator.

(ii) temperature sensor.
5. (a)
(b) (i) temperature sensor

(ii) comparator.
(c) (i) 25 + 450 = 475mA

(ii) 12V × 475mA
= 5.7W
6.(a)
(b) Comparator.
(c) (i)
 1 
VY   12  4V .
1 2 
(ii) 12V.
(iii) 0V.
7.
Page 107 of 109

References
Azzorpadi, F. and Stewart, B. (1995). Accessible Physics. Macmillan Press Limited, London.
Page 108 of 109

Duncan, T. (1985). Physics. John Murray Publishers Limited, London, UK.
Electronics Option E Booklet (University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate).
Gibbs, K. (1990). Advanced Physics. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Johnson, K. and Hewett, S. (2000). Advanced Physics for You. Nelson Thornes Limited, Delta
Place, UK.
Muncaster, R. (1993). A’ Level Physics. Nelson Thornes Limited, London, UK.
Nelkon, M. and Parker, P. (1982). Advanced level Physics. Heinemann Educational Books
Limited, London.
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Projects/Labview/gatesfunc/
http://www.howstuffworks.com/digital-electronics.htm
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transucer
http://www.Operational Amplifier Basics, Op-amps Tutorial.htm
Page 109 of 109

ph005 Unit 1 To 7

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ph005 Unit 1 To 7

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UNIT 1: TRANSDUCERS

1.1.1 The (LDR)

Figure 1.1 (a): The LDR symbol.

1.1.2 The thermistor

Figure 1.2: The thermistor symbol.

Figure 1.4 (b): The variation of resistance with strain.

where R is the change in the resistance.

You can subtract equation (i) from (ii) to get:

R. This gives you:

Self Assessment Question 1.1

Figure 1.6: Potential divider.

Self Assessment Question 1.2

1.3.1 The LED

Figure 1.9: The LED symbol.

Self Assessment Question 1.3

(a) Calculate the amount of power used by the LED.

(b) Given that the LED is on:

Figure 1.12: Digital system.

(ii) 10  0.025  0.25W .

(iii) 430 Ω (allow 470 Ω).

(iv) Yellow, orange, brown and gold.

Self Assessment Question 1.4

Self Assessment Question 1.5

1.3.3 The relay

Figure 1.13: The relay symbol.

1.4 Unit 1 Summary

1.5 Unit 1 Questions

4. Sketch the temperature characteristics of a negative temperature coefficient thermistor.

8. A temperature sensor input subsystem is shown Figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14: Temperature sensor input subsystem.

Figure 1.17: Potential divider.

2.1 Properties of an op-amp

where A0 is the open-loop gain of the op-amp.

Self Assessment Question 2.1

An ideal op-amp has the following properties:

2.2 The use of an op-amp as a comparator

Figure 2.2: Voltage comparator.

You should recall that A0 is 105 for dc voltages.

 negative supply line = –9.0 V,

V0  10 5 1.5  1.4  10000V .

 positive supply line = +6.0 V,

 negative supply line = –6.0 V,

V0  10 5  4.541  4.543  200V .

Figure 2.3: Comparator for use with an LDR.

Figure 2.4: Part of a comparator circuit.

(a) The inverting input V– requires a reference voltage of 4V.

Figure 2.5: Part of a comparator circuit.

Self Assessment Question 2.2

Figure 2.6: Comparator circuit.

Figure 2.7: Feedback circuit.

open-loop gain. Therefore, the output voltage is V0  A0  (input to op-amp)

If you rearrange, you get V0 (1   A0 )  A0Vin

Figure 2.8: Illustration of positive feedback.

Figure 2.9: Illustration of negative feedback.

2.4 The inverting op-amp

Figure 2.10: Inverting op-amp.

Rin  10k and R f  40 k .

2.5 The non – inverting op-amp

Self Assessment Question 2.3

gain of the op-amp. Hence, calculate V0 if Vin  2mV .

2.6 The summing amplifier

If R f  R1  R2  R3 , then Vout  V1  V2  V3  .

2.7 The voltage follower