GEOLOGY OF NATURAL

RESOURCES
Gopala Krishna Darbha
IISER Kolkata
Structure of evaluation
 Mid semester: 30 marks (GD)
 End semester: 50 marks (10 GD + 40 SD)
 Seminar : 10 marks ( 5 GD + 5 SD)
/assignment
 Attendance: 10 marks (5 GD + 5 SD)
 Total: 100 marks
Physical properties of petroleum
 Elemental analysis
 Density and specific gravity
 Viscosity
 Boiling point
 Color
Physical properties of petroleum
 Elemental analysis
 Density and specific gravity
 Viscosity
 Boiling point
 Color
 The analysis of petroleum for the percentages of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur to examine the general
nature, and perform an evaluation of a feedstock
 Trace elements – V, Ni and other metals – effects on catalyst
performance during refining by catalytic processes
Physical properties of petroleum
 Elemental analysis
 Density and specific gravity
 Viscosity
 Boiling point
 Color
Density and specific gravity
 Essential for preliminary assessment of the character
and quality of crude oil
 D=m/v at specified temperature (Units : g/cm3)
 Specific gravity = Mass of volume of substance/
Mass of the same volume of water
 Dependent on two temperatures – sample and water

 Volume of 1g of water at 4 0C is 1 mL

 Specific gravity of petroleum range: 0.8 to 1

 Pycnometer method for reliable, precise density

measurements
Density and Specific gravity
 API gravity is preferred property
 API gravity = (141.5/SG) -131.5
 If API gravity is greater than 10, it is lighter and
floats on water; if less than 10, it is heavier and
sinks
Physical properties of petroleum
 Elemental analysis
 Density and specific gravity
 Viscosity
 Boiling point
 Color
Viscosity
 Force in dynes required to move a plane of 1 cm2
area at a distance of 1 cm from another plane of 1
cm2 area through a distance of 1 cm in 1 sec.
 Units (cgs) – poise
 Kinematic viscosity = Viscosity/Specific gravity
 Viscosity index = (L-U)/(L-Hx100)
 Where naphthene crude oil’s viscosity index = 0
 And paraffinic crude oil’s = 100

 For intermediates the viscosity index is calculated

according to the formula
Physical properties of petroleum
 Elemental analysis
 Density and specific gravity
 Viscosity
 Boiling point
 Color
Boiling point – thermal property
 Volatility of a liquid or liquefied gas may be defined
as its tendency to vaporize, that is, to change from
the liquid to the vapor or gaseous state.
 Flash point of petroleum product is the temperature
to which the product must be heated under specified
conditions to give off sufficient vapor to form a
mixture with air that can be ignited momentarily by a
specified flame
 Fire point is the temperature to which the product
must be heated under the prescribed conditions of the
method to burn continuously when the mixture of
vapor and air is ignited by a specified flame.
Other properties-Optical properties
 Refractive index
 For polycyclic nathphenes and polycyclic aromatics, the
refractive index is usually higher than that of the
corresponding monocyclic compounds
 Infrared spectroscopy
 Identification of N-H, O-H, C-H, polynuclear aromatic
systems functions
 FTIR can be applied for quantitative estimation of functional
groups
 Structural parameters can be derived such as: saturated
hydrogen to saturated carbon ratio; methyl group content,
paraffin chain length etc.
Other properties-Optical properties
 NMR
 Mass sprctrometry
 Gas chromatography
 High pressure liquid chromatography
 Etc….
Conventional Vs. Unconventional
resources of petroleum
Conventional:
 Pools in which wells can be drilled so that oil and
natural gas flows naturally or can be pumped to the
surface are commonly referred to as “conventional”
oil and natural gas.
 Pools are located in rock with tiny connected pore

spaces that contain oil or natural gas. One common

example is sandstone.
Conventional
Conventional Vs. unconventional
resources of petroleum
Unconventional:
 Unlike the conventional pools of oil and natural gas,
unconventional oil and natural gas do not flow
naturally through the rock, making them much more
difficult to produce.
 Example: sponge and a piece of clay

 Unconventional often refers to low permeability

rock where the pores are poorly connected, making
it difficult for oil and natural gas to move through
the rock to the well.
Unconventional
Pore connectivity
Oil and gas extraction techniques
 Primary recovery first relies on underground
pressure to drive fluids to the surface. (10%)
 Secondary recovery is the most widely applied
enhanced recovery technique. Water that is
produced and separated from the oil in the initial
phase of drilling is injected back into the oil-
bearing formation to bring more oil to the surface.
(40-45%)
 Enhanced recovery techniques are used to mobilize
the remaining oil. (10-15 %)
Enhanced oil recovery
There are three common approaches: thermal recovery, gas injection or
chemical flooding.
 Thermal recovery entails injecting steam into the formation. The heat
from the steam makes the oil flow more easily, and the increased
pressure forces it to the surface.
 Gas injection uses either miscible or immiscible gases. Miscible
gasses dissolve CO2, propane, methane or other gasses in the oil to
lower its viscosity and increase flow. Immiscible gasses do not mix
with the oil, but increase pressure in the “gas cap” in a reservoir to
drive additional oil to the well bore.
 Chemical flooding involves mixing dense, water-soluble polymers
with water and injecting the mixture into the field. The water pushes
the oil out of the formation and into the well bore.
 Enhanced recovery techniques are employed to bring as much as 60
percent of the reserve to the surface.
Thermal injection
Enhanced oil recovery
There are three common approaches: thermal recovery, gas injection or
chemical flooding.
 Thermal recovery entails injecting steam into the formation. The heat
from the steam makes the oil flow more easily, and the increased
pressure forces it to the surface.
 Gas injection uses either miscible or immiscible gases. Miscible
gasses dissolve CO2, propane, methane or other gasses in the oil to
lower its viscosity and increase flow. Immiscible gasses do not mix
with the oil, but increase pressure in the “gas cap” in a reservoir to
drive additional oil to the well bore.
 Chemical flooding involves mixing dense, water-soluble polymers
with water and injecting the mixture into the field. The water pushes
the oil out of the formation and into the well bore.
 Enhanced recovery techniques are employed to bring as much as 60
percent of the reserve to the surface.
Gas injection
Enhanced oil recovery
There are three common approaches: thermal recovery, gas injection or
chemical flooding.
 Thermal recovery entails injecting steam into the formation. The heat
from the steam makes the oil flow more easily, and the increased
pressure forces it to the surface.
 Gas injection uses either miscible or immiscible gases. Miscible
gasses dissolve CO2, propane, methane or other gasses in the oil to
lower its viscosity and increase flow. Immiscible gasses do not mix
with the oil, but increase pressure in the “gas cap” in a reservoir to
drive additional oil to the well bore.
 Chemical flooding involves mixing dense, water-soluble polymers
with water and injecting the mixture into the field. The water pushes
the oil out of the formation and into the well bore.
 Enhanced recovery techniques are employed to bring as much as 60
percent of the reserve to the surface.
Chemical flooding
Enhanced oil recovery
There are three common approaches: thermal recovery, gas injection or
chemical flooding.
 Thermal recovery entails injecting steam into the formation. The heat
from the steam makes the oil flow more easily, and the increased
pressure forces it to the surface.
 Gas injection uses either miscible or immiscible gases. Miscible
gasses dissolve CO2, propane, methane or other gasses in the oil to
lower its viscosity and increase flow. Immiscible gasses do not mix
with the oil, but increase pressure in the “gas cap” in a reservoir to
drive additional oil to the well bore.
 Chemical flooding involves mixing dense, water-soluble polymers
with water and injecting the mixture into the field. The water pushes
the oil out of the formation and into the well bore.
 Enhanced recovery techniques are employed to bring as much as 60
percent of the reserve to the surface.
Fracking (Hydraulic fracturing)
 The combination of advanced hydraulic fracturing and
horizontal drilling
 Involves safely tapping shale and other tight-rock formations
by drilling a mile or more below the surface before gradually
turning horizontal and continuing several thousand feet more
 Thus, a single site can accommodate a number of wells
 Mixture of water (90%) + sand (9.5%) + additives (0.5%) is
pumped at high pressure to create micro-fractures in the rock
that are held open by the grains of sand
Fracking
Fracking (Hydraulic fracturing)
 Additives play number of important roles:
 Helping to reduce friction (thereby reducing the amount
of pumping pressure from diesel-powered sources,
which reduces emissions)
 Prevent pipe corrosion

 Helps to protect the environment and boost well

efficiency
Why Fracking?
 Safe hydraulic fracturing
 Changed U.S. energy picture from scarcity to
abundance
 Up to 95% of natural gas wells drilled in the next
decade will require hydraulic fracturing
 Used to stimulate new production from older wells
Fracking environmental effect
Fracking - protest
Effects of fracking
Petroleum
Potential impacts of oil and gas
production on the environment
 Depends upon factors such as
 the number and size of wells
 the amount of land disturbed by drilling activities

 The amount of land occupied by facilities over the

life of oil and gas field
 The fields location with respect to other resources
(e.g. wildlife use, distance to surface water bodies
Phases
 Exploration

 Drilling/development

 Production

 Decommissioning/Reclamation
Exploration
Exploration - impacts
 Activities during exploration phase (seismic surveys,
testing, and exploratory drilling) are smaller than
those at the remaining phases
 Most impacts during the exploration phase would
be associated with the development of access roads
and exploratory wells
Exploration - impacts
 Acoustics (noise)
 Earth-moving equipment, Vehicle traffic, Seismic surveys,
Blasting and rig operation
 Air quality
 Emissions and dust from earth-moving equipment,
Vehicles, Seismic surveys, Well completion and testing
and drill rig exhaust
 Pollutants: particulates, NOx, CO, SO2, VOCs

 Emissions during this phase would not have a

measurable impact on climate change
Exploration - impacts
 Ecological resources
 During exploration impact on Vegetation, wildlife,
aquatic biota would be minimal
 Health and safety: not much risk is involved
 Water resources:
 Minimal impact to water resources (water quality, water
flows, and surface water/groundwater interactions)
Drilling
Drilling/development impacts
 Acoustics:Vehicular traffic and blasting,
equipment(bulldozers, drill rigs, diesel engines. Drilling:
115 dBA at source and 55 dBA at distances 549
meters, 24 hrs for 2 to 3 months
 Air quality: Vehicle emissions, particulates from blasting
activities, dust from many sources (clearing, grading,
excavating, trenching, backfilling, dumping, truck and
equipment traffic), mixing concrete, and drilling
 Ecological resources: Vegetation and topsoil would be
removed for the development of well pads, access
roads, pipelines, and other ancillary facilities. Increased
deposition of dust settling on vegetation.
Impact of greenhouse gases
Drilling impact
 Hazardous materials and waste management: solid and
industrial waste would be generated during
development and drilling activities
 Drilling fluids: oil derivatives (PAHs), spilled chemicals,
suspended and dissolved solids, phenols, Cd, Cu, Pb, Hg, Ni
 Produced water: water that coexists with oil and gas in the
formation and is recovered during well development.
Typically water production increasing with the age of
production well. Regulations govern the disposal of this
produced water. Carry Naturally occurring radioactive
materials (NORM) to the surface (Radium-228 and their
progeny).
Drilling impact
 Water resources: increase in turbidity, salinity, cross aquifer
mixing and water quantity depletion.
 Drilling requires water for noise control, making concrete and in drilling
of wells taken from off-site. Generation of produced water can create
several problems: water may be depleted from nearby aquifers; and
produced groundwater that is saline or contaminated with drilling fluids
can contaminate soils or surface water
 If a well is completed improperly such that subsurface formations are
not sealed off by the well casing and cement, the interaction between
surface water and groundwater may be affected if the two are
hydrologically connected, potentially resulting in unwanted dewatering
or recharging.
Drilling impact
 Water quality can be affected by:
 Activities that cause soil erosion or dust that can be washed into water
bodies
 Weathering of newly exposed soils, causing leaching and oxidation
that can release chemicals into the water
 Discharges of waste or sanitary water
 Use of herbicide and dust suppressants (MgCl2)
 Contaminant Spills
 Substances found in high concentrations in produced water
include chloride, sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium.
Other contaminants: PAHs, Pb, As, Ba, Sb, S, Zn and NORM
Oil and gas production
Oil and Gas production phase impacts

 Acoustics: 64 to 86 dBA. 75 dBA at 1 mile

 Air quality: vehicular etc, separation of oil and gas,
VOCs, NOx, SO2, CO, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene,
xylenes, PAHs, H2S, Particulates. Coal bed methane
production may contribute the threat of climate change
 Ecological resources:
 Disturbance of wildlife from noise and human activity
 Exposure to biota to contaminants and

 Mortality of biota from colliding with aboveground facilities

or vehicles
Oil and Gas production phase impacts
 Hazardous materials and waste management: industrial wastes are
generated during routine operations (lubricating oils, hydraulic fluids,
coolants, solvents and cleaning agents).
 Fracking fluids contain toxic substances (benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene,
xylenes, napthalene and other chemicals), PAHs, methannol,
formaldehyde, ethylene glycol, glycol ethers, hydrochloric acid, sodium
hydroxide
 Sand separated from produced water must be disposed of properly
(contaminated with oil, trace amounts of metals, or other naturally
occurring constituents).
 Large volumes of sludge waste can accumulate inside pipelines and
storage vessels. Should be transported to off-site for disposal.
 Mixing with soil for biodegration (hydrocarbon degradation)
 NORM
Oil and Gas production phase impacts

 Water resources: Fracking fluids have the potential to

contaminate the groundwater drinking reservoirs. Most
water is unfit for agriculture or domestic purposes
(extremely salty or contains NORM toxic compounds). If
not disposed of by release to the surface without
treatment, it can cause soil and surface water
contamination.
 Degradation of water quality
 A spill or blowout could potentially cause extensive
contamination of surface waters or a shallow aquifer
Decommissioning
Decommissioning
 Environmental impacts include removal of
aboveground project components, revegetation,
recountouring
 Acoustics
 Air quality
 Hazardous materials and waste management
 Water resources
 Well closure usually is achieved by plugging the
wellbore with cement and metal plugs in order to
permanently seal off the subsurface formation
Decommissioning
Oil spills
 Causes (sources)
 Effects on environment
 Prevention (control)
Oil spill causes
 Oil spill pollution can have multiple causes both of natural
(e.g., climatic factors, natural disturbances) and anthropogenic
origin.
Oil spill causes-anthropogenic
The main anthropogenic sources include:
 Accidental : Storage, Handling, Transport
(millions of gallons), Pipelines
 Offshore drilling: gulf of mexico

 Routine maintenance activities

 Road runoff: traffic, car oil

 Indirectly through burning fuels, including

vehicle emissions
Accidents during transportation/handling
BP oil explosion gulf of mexico
 April 20, 2010, sealed on September 19, 2010
 Leakage of 4.9 million gallons
Environmental Effects of Oil pills
Environmental Effects of Oil pills
 When an oil spill occurs, humans, wildlife and the
environment may be affected. Depending on the
magnitude of the spill and its location, the effects
vary from minimal to serious ones.
Oil spill on humans
 Oil spill effect on environment
 The general fate & transport of oil spill, which
influence its effect on the environment, is based on
several main oil characteristics
Main oil characteristics relevant to fate
Spilled environment
& transport
Aqueous (e.g., marine)
Lighter (less dense) than water
Land or Subsurface
Fate & transport of spilled oil
Spilled oil will accumulate on top of
water surface; if spilled underwater
(such as from offshore drilling) oil will
move upward and settle on surface of
water. Then, it may disperse over large
areas, which is exacerbated in a
marine environment due to the various
water currents and waves.
Spilled oil will move down based on
gravity and may reach groundwater
bodies – in which case it will form a
sheen on top of groundwater and will
move usually at lower speeds
 Oil spill effect on environment
Main oil characteristics relevant to
Spilled environment Fate & transport of spilled oil
fate & transport
Once spilled oil start evaporating
when in contact with air (when it
reaches the top of water). Thus, air
above the spill become polluted with
Aqueous (e.g., marine)
various volatile oil components.
Depending on concentration, such air
pollutants may travel being blown by
wind as well as with aerosols.
Volatilization is accentuated on land
surface and in shallow subsurface
Mixture of volatile compounds (e.g., depths due to the requirement of
hydrocarbons) spilled oil to be in contact with air in
order for the volatilization to occur.
Volatilization may occur also from a
spill accumulated on top of shallow
Land or Subsurface
groundwater. Once evaporated, the
volatile gaseous compounds usually
travel upward through soil pores and,
depending on concentration, may
reach surface and accumulate in any
existing structure (e.g., homes) at the
surface
 Oil spill effect on environment

Although oil is little water

soluble and accumulates on top
of water (as non-aqueous phase
liquid), some oil individual
compounds may dissolve (to
Mixture of compounds with Aqueous (e.g., marine) some extent) in water. If
different water solubility dissolved such compounds
become more mobile (moving
faster with water) and more
bioavailable to be taken by
marine life
Oil spill control
 Controlled burning of spilled oil: 90%
 Use of barriers or adsorbent materials
 Booms (fire-resistant booms)
 Skimmers ( propylene mop-like pads that are placed on
ocean surface to adsorb spilled oil film)
 Natural synthetic sorbent materials: Sponge like behavior

 Spraying of dispersants
 From airplanes
 Use of surface films: compress the oil affected area
to thicken the layer
 Chemical and biological methods
Controlled burning of oil spill
Oil spill control
 Controlled burning of spilled oil: 90%
 Use of barriers or adsorbent materials
 Booms (fire-resistant booms)
 Skimmers ( propylene mop-like pads that are placed on
ocean surface to adsorb spilled oil film)
 Natural synthetic sorbent materials: Sponge like behavior

 Spraying of dispersants
 From airplanes
 Use of surface films: compress the oil affected area
to thicken the layer
 Chemical and biological methods
Use of adsorbant materials
Oil spill control
 Controlled burning of spilled oil: 90%
 Use of barriers or adsorbent materials
 Booms (fire-resistant booms)
 Skimmers ( propylene mop-like pads that are placed on
ocean surface to adsorb spilled oil film)
 Natural synthetic sorbent materials: Sponge like behavior

 Spraying of dispersants
 From airplanes
 Use of surface films: compress the oil affected area
to thicken the layer
 Chemical and biological methods
spraying
Surfactant (dispersant)-Corexit 9500
Oil spill control
 Controlled burning of spilled oil: 90%
 Use of barriers or adsorbent materials
 Booms (fire-resistant booms)
 Skimmers ( propylene mop-like pads that are placed on
ocean surface to adsorb spilled oil film)
 Natural synthetic sorbent materials: Sponge like behavior

 Spraying of dispersants
 From airplanes
 Use of surface films: compress the oil affected area
to thicken the layer
 Chemical and biological methods
Chemical/Biological methods for oil
spill control
Bioremediation or biodegradation
 Biodegradation is a process by which
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and yeast
break down complex compounds into simpler
products.
 Biodegradation of oil is a natural process that
slowly removes oil from the aquatic environment.
However, rapid removal of spilled oil from
shorelines and wetlands is necessary in order to
minimize potential environmental damage to these
sensitive habitats.
Bioremediation
 Bioremediation technologies can help biodegradation processes
work faster. Bioremediation refers to the act of adding materials to
the environment, such as fertilizers or microorganisms, that will
increase the rate at which natural biodegradation occurs. Two
bioremediation technologies that are currently being used in the
United States for oil spill cleanups are:
 Fertilization - the method of adding nutrients such as phosphorus
and nitrogen to a contaminated environment to stimulate the growth
of the microorganisms capable of biodegradation; and
 Seeding - the addition of microorganisms to the existing native oil-
degrading population. As with fertilization, the purpose of seeding
is to increase the population of microorganisms that can biodegrade
the spilled oil.
Biological method for oil spill
 Biodegradation agents (nitrogen and phosphorous)
are sprayed along the shorelines for the natural
breakdown of the oil spill
Bioremediation
Bioremediation - factors
Factors that affect bioremediation
 pH

 RED-OX reaction potential

 Temperature

 Moisture

 Oxygen and other molecules present

 Nutrient availability

 Soil composition

 Solubility of pollutant
Oil spill prevention
 The use of spill prevention devices for any storage and
drilling equipment, as well as any device used in handling and
exploitation of oil
 The use of preventive practices related to waste handling
and disposal, as well as waste minimization – for example: in
the case of off-shore drilling a variety of oil waste is produced
during normal operation, including: oil-based drilling fluids,
deck runoff water
 Constant monitoring for detection of incipient spills and
leaks – for example involving:leaking storage tanks and drums
 flowline and pipeline leaks
 drilling well leaks
 leaks from tanker trucks or ships
Oil spill control
 Minimization of land drainage containing spilled oil
or runoff water – through remedial treatment
before it reaches a water body, the beach or
various sensitive ecological receptors