CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION
 CHAPTER-I
1.1 INTRODUCTION
John Clements (2009) A martial art, in essence, can be said to be
something that originates in skills of war, hence its martial or warlike quality.
Fighting disciplines range from oral traditions and folkways of tribal self-
defense customs, to collected sets of techniques and finally systematic methods
with established curriculum and ranking hierarchies. Considerable literature has
been produced over the last few decades on the question of what defines a
martial art, and there is no need to review these arguments. However, that these
debates have occurred almost exclusively without regard to, or consideration of
the martial arts of Renaissance Europe. What is frequently agreed upon, though,
is that mere fighting techniques alone, whether as self-defense skills for the
individual or war skills for groups of armed men, do not constitute an Art of
fighting.
1.2 MARTIAL ARTS
The martial arts industry is currently undergoing unprecedented growth
and according to Dale & Ford (2001), Sport & Recreation Queensland (2000,
2000a) and Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002, 2002a, 2002b) the
participation rate is ever increasing. Is this a positive thing for the participants
and society as a whole is the question posed. A review of the literature has
revealed overwhelming support for the positive aspects of traditional martial arts
training and has reinforced the need for the traditional values and methodology
to be maintained with the only negative results being from non-traditional
schools.
Indeed, according to the research of Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) in their
famous Bobo doll study, martial arts training should actually increase aggressive
behaviour because it aggression is supposed to be learned through the imitation
of violent behaviour. The theory of Bandura et al. seems to support the intuitive
response to the perceived violence of martial arts training and this has lead to
many martial arts instructors experiencing difficulty in having martial arts
training accepted in schools as part of the curriculum.

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 Traditional martial arts training is not to be confused with the
competitive fighting skills that are glorified in popular culture and are
increasingly taught in many eclectic martial arts transmitting desirable values
and over time, indoctrinates students with the idea of respect, a sense of
consequence, a sense of personal responsibility, and a sense of connection to the
self through a strong mentor / student (i.e., the sempai / kohai in Japanese martial
culture) relationship.
Traditional martial arts have Buddhist/Taoist philosophy and ethics, as
well as specific training methods and goals. Traditional martial arts training is an
effective way of The purpose of this article is to investigate if the theory of
Bandura et al. (1961) is correct and that martial arts training promotes aggression
or if the contrary is true and that it not only decreases violence and aggression
but promotes other, albeit invisible, positive outcomes of good martial arts
training by a professional (at least in attitude) martial arts teacher.
Overall, the philosophy is pacifistic (i.e., it abhors initiation of conflict
and teaches minimization of harm to any would-be assailant) as typified by the
famous phrase by the ‘father’ of modern karate Funakoshi Gichin, “There is no
first attack in Karate”. Investigation of the traditional martial arts, known as
bushido (literally, ‘the way of the warrior’), indicates that the core principles and
values are all to be considered positive. The author of the primary modern text
on bushido, Nitobe (1905), cites the primary virtues as: rectitude; courage;
benevolence; respect; honesty; honour; and loyalty. Many modern authors, such
as Morgan (1992) have adapted and translated the original code into a modern
context, even addressing such culturally sensitive issues as suicide (Morgan,
1992, pp. 177-195). In addition to the obvious self defence benefits, the aim of
traditional martial arts training according to Zivin et al. (2001) “is to develop a
centred, calm, discriminating mind that is subsequently applied in all areas of
life; the antithesis of a mind set for aggression, whether impulsive or not”. It
must be added that the aim for children participating in martial arts is often
different to that of their parents but the two are not necessarily mutually
exclusive. In the experience of the author, the parent’s aim is usually to have

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their child develop a respectful attitude, physical skill, mental clarity, and an
understanding of the body and of the physics of action, whilst the child is
looking for something ‘cool’, fun and stimulating.
These mental benefits are achieved partially through the challenging
physical training, and partially through the incorporation of philosophy into the
training. The specific philosophies differ considerably from style to style, and
even school to school, but the basic principles they share include respect
accorded to “seniors” (such as instructors and parents) as well as peers,
consideration of the younger and weaker, perseverance at difficult tasks, and,
most importantly perhaps, integrity of self and doing what is “right”(Vockell &
Kwak, 1990, Abernathy, 1995, Wiley, 1995; as cited in Ripley, 2003).
There is a positive correlation between length of time practicing or belt
rank and self-confidence (Duthie, Hope & Barker, 1978; Konzak & Bourdeau,
1984), independence, self-reliance (Konzak & Bourdeau, 1984; Kurian, Verdi,
Caterino & Kulhavy, 1994), and self-esteem (Richman & Rehberg, 1986).
Simply put, the longer someone trains, the more benefit they gain from the
training. Daniels & Thornton (1992) found that martial arts practices cultivate
decreases in hostility, Brown et al. (1995) found it decreased feelings of anger,
whilst Madden (1990; 1995) found a reduction of feelings of vulnerability to
attack.
Pyecha (1970) found that martial arts practice also lead to more
easygoing and warm-hearted individuals, Spear (1989) noted increases in self-
confidence, Finkenberg (1990) noted increases in self-esteem, whilst Brown et
al. (1995) noted increases in both self-esteem and self-control. This has led to the
use of martial arts training to engage and teach youth and achieve positive
outcomes and these programs have been well documented. The literature review
by Binder (1999) provides a review of empirical evidence that supports
anecdotal reports about the positive psychosocial consequences of martial arts
practice. Traditional martial arts provide exactly the experience that will engage
people who are at clear risk for delinquent acts or impulsive violence, and even

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Starting them on positive life paths (Cannold, 1982; Fuller, 1988; Penrod, 1983;
Wesler, Kutz, Kutz & Weisner, 1995; Zivin et al., 2001).
Twemlow & Sacco (1998) reported that martial arts training "can be an
extraordinarily helpful, ego-building form of psychotherapy” and noted that this
was particularly true for “control of aggressive impulses". Trulson (1986)
reported that data suggest that training in the traditional martial arts is effective
in reducing juvenile delinquent tendencies.
Furthermore, researchers have presented descriptive, cross-sectional data
showing lower scores on hostility and aggression and/or higher scores on self-
esteem and positive outlook for traditional martial arts students when compared
to students of non-traditional martial arts or other sports. These positive
characteristics increased with greater length of traditional martial arts training
(Daniels & Thornton, 1990; Kurian, Verdi, Caterino & Kulhavy, 1994; Lamarre
& Nosanchuk, 1999; Nosanchuk, 1981; Trulson, 1986). Further investigation
demonstrated that the improvements were not due to natural attrition of more
aggressive students (Nosanchuk & MacNeil, 1989).
It should be noted that Nosanchuk & MacNeil, found aggression actually
increased with greater length of training in a non-traditional school, as did
Trulson (1986). This is likely to be due to the overemphasis of the self-defence,
competitive and violent aspects of the training and a de-emphasis of the ethical
framework. This would support the learned aggression model of Bandura et al.
(1961). It must also be noted that to date, no studies found increased aggression
or hostility to correlate with length of traditional training.
Reynes & Lorant (2001) investigated the possibility that martial arts
attracted more aggressive people. They found that children attracted to martial
arts training were not more aggressive than other 8 year old children in their
study of judo but in a follow up study one year later they not find any reduction
of aggression either (Reynes & Lorant, 2002).
In reference to the reduction of aggressive tendencies Grabert (1996)
went so far as to say “the strong emphasis on mastering techniques in karate,
repetition in training and the delaying of participation in competition involving

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combat are considered to be devices towards achieving this goal”. King &
Williams (1997) found “a goodness of fit between martial arts and task
orientation” (goal setting). This is not surprising given the structured approach to
goal setting engendered by the belt ranking system within martial arts.
Nosanchuk & MacNeil (1989) examined the aggressive tendencies of
participants at 7 schools offering karate, tae kwon do, or jujitsu. At each school,
they evaluated the relative importance of meditation in the class, the amount of
respect the students showed towards the sensei, the dojo, and each other, the
level of contact allowed to vital areas of the body, and the relative importance of
kata. Based on this evaluation, they classified 4 of the schools as ‘traditional’
(more meditation, respect and kata, less contact to vital areas) and 3 of them as
"modern". At the commencement of the study beginning students in both
traditional and modern schools had similar scores for aggression. It was noted
that the more advanced students in the traditional schools showed lower scores
for aggression than beginning students. At the end of the study there was no
change in the scores of the students at the schools with the ‘modern’ emphasis.
Both Trulson (1986) and Regets (1990) obtained similar results. In contrast,
Egan (1993) found that both traditional and modern styles of training led to
improvements in general mental health. However, the traditional martial arts
students showed significant increases in scores for self-acceptance which were
not reported for the students with a modern emphasis in training. Most The
Positive Aspects of Martial Arts research supports the hypothesis that it is the
training environment and style of instruction influencing these differences.
One of the most cited studies in the area of aggression and martial arts
was conducted by Trulson (1986). At the end of the six month study, the
students in the “traditional tae kwon do’ group showed a decrease in
aggressiveness and anxiety and an increase in self- esteem. In contrast, the
modern tae kwon do group showed an increased tendency towards delinquency
and an increase in aggressiveness. Students in the training group showed an
increase in self-esteem, but no other significant changes.

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 Columbus & Rice (1998) conducted a phenomenological analysis of the
reasons people trained in martial arts and found a number of themes where
positive results were reported. These included experiences of self, others,
feelings and emotions, situation outcomes and adaptive functioning. Bouchard,
Focht and Murphey (2000) linked martial arts to improvements in the pain
threshold and the use of martial arts training in pain management.
Biddulph (2003) posits that the modern lifestyle has caused increased
pressure on families, and that this increased pressure is often manifested in
behavioural issues for boys. According to Biddulph, this modern lifestyle has led
to a decrease in contact with fathers and the attendant male role models and
mentors. The statistics on divorce (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002c, 2004)
and single parent families (Rich, 2000; Gold Coast City Council, 2004) appear to
heavily support this position. Rich also found that decreased socioeconomic
status brought about by divorce and single parent lifestyle also led to educational
disadvantage and increase risk of unemployment and juvenile crime.
Figures from the Queensland Police Service (2005) would seem to
support this evidence. Biddulph (2003) clearly supports the practice of martial
arts explicitly (p. 144) and implicitly with his position on positive male role
models and mentors, which can be found in any good, traditional martial arts
school. Lakes & Hoyt (2004) found that martial arts training for children led to a
significant improvement in cognitive self-regulation and classroom conduct with
boys showing greater improvement than girls. This would tend to support
Biddulph’s assertion.
Martial arts training as therapy for children with Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) has also been investigated. Ripley (2003)
found that “martial arts training may help AD/HD children improve their overall
behaviour and lead to better school performance (i.e., higher grades) whilst
Morand (2004) concluded that martial arts training increased the percentage of
homework completion, academic performance, and percentage of classroom
preparation and decreased the number of classroom rules broken and times
inappropriately leaving the seat for children with AD/HD. Both studies lend

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empirical support to martial arts as a positive intervention for children with
D/HD and when taken in context with Trulson (1986), Regets (1990), Biddulph
(2003), and Lakes & Hoyt (2004), then martial arts training in a traditional
environment seems to have overwhelmingly positive psychosocial benefits for
the practitioner, and by inference, the family and community at large.
It must be noted however that Winkle & Ozmun (2003) identified
considerable barriers to implementing martial arts programs in school
curriculum’s, no matter how desirable this may be. These barriers include a lack
of suitably qualified instructors. One of the challenges facing a martial arts
instructor in having their programs approved for addition to (or within) a
school’s curriculum is often the question of ‘qualifications’ or ‘accreditation’. In
the Australian context there is a challenge to sort out the confusion about things
like: does the instructor have to a certain certificate or a certified NCAS level or
belong to a particular martial arts association.
1.3. INDIAN MARTIAL ARTS
Indian martial arts have a rich heritage and tradition, highly acclaimed in
India and abroad were quite varied in nature. Each region in India is unique in
practicing martial arts in great vivacity and enthusiasm. A number of ancient
Dravidian martial arts were originated in South India. In Tamil Nadu `kai por
vilaiyattu is a special art of fighting with empty hands. Another famous art form
, Varma Kalai or the art of vital points is also widely practiced. The most
important one of the martial art is silambam(stick movements).

A number of ancient Dravidian martial arts were developed in South

India, including Kai por vilayattu (empty hand combat), Varma Kalai (the art of
vital points), Silambam(stick movements), thekan kalaripayattu and Adithada
(attack and defend) in Kanyakumari tamilnadu and vadakkan Kalarippayattu
(way of the arena) in Kerala. (from dhanus "bow" and veda "knowledge") is the
term for the "science of archery" in Puranic literature, later applied to martial arts
in general.

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 The theories behind Yoga, Ayurveda and Tantra, such as Kundalini
(coiled energy), Prana (life force), Nadi (meridians), Chakra (aura) and Marmam
(pressure points), were also present in Indian martial arts.
Kaaladi, or footwork patterns, are a fundamental aspect of silambam.
There are sixteen of them among which four are very important. Traditionally,
beginners practice only kaaladi for many months before learning any techniques
but this is not often done today. Training in kai por vilaiyattu allows the
practitioner to get a feel of silambam stick movements using their bare hands,
that is, fighters have a preliminary training with bare hands before going to the
stick.
Gradually, fighters study footwork to move precisely in conjunction with
the stick movements. The ultimate goal of the training is to defend against
multiple armed opponents. In both kaimurai vilayattu and silambam, kaaladi is
the key in deriving power for the blows. It teaches how to advance and retreat, to
get in range of the opponent without lowering one's defence, aids in hitting and
blocking, and it strengthens the body immensely enabling the person to receive
non-lethal blows and still continue the battle. The whole body is used to create
power. In Kai por vilaiyattu, gymnastic, stretching (yoga), and breathing
exercises are conducted before training. It is also said that Bodhidharma (the
founder of ZEN buddhism) was very good at this art. And on his travelling way
towards Nepal, Tibet and China he observed fights between monkeys, snakes
and other animals. Than he implemented this to Kai por vilaiyattu and gave a
Starting to the Chinese Martial Art which we now call as "Kung Fu".Kai por
vilaiyattu is one of the ancient arts of India which is dying.
VarmaKalai is a martial art and esoteric healing art originating
from ancient Tamil Nadu in South India. The name literally translate as "The Art
of Vital Points". It is an element of the Tamil martial art Kai por vilaiyattu.
VarmaKalai teachers are highly selective in their choice of students. Disciples
must meet a number of criteria; beyond martial arts competence they are
required to have an understanding of biology, mathematics, political science,
astronomy, physics, chemistry, Saamuthriga Lakshanam, Yoga, military tactics,

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horsmanship, elephant riding, charioteering and Hindu philosophy (Saiva,
Vaisnava, Saktha, Koumara, Boutha, Samana) etc. The VarmaKalai martial
artist is not allowed to teach the art to others until he receives Deeksha from his
Aasan(master) or Periyaasan (Grand Master) as in recognition of him as an
Aasan.
1.4 SILAMBAM
Silambam (Tamil: சில ப ) or Silambattam (Tamil : சில பா ட ) or
Chilambam, is a traditional Dravidian martial art based on stick fighting. This
style supposedly originates from the Kurinji Hills in present day Tamilnadu
5,000 years ago, where natives used bamboo staves to defend themselves against
wild animals. As per Sangam literature, the Kurinji Hills was one of the five
physiographic divisions within Tamilakam, which became known as Keralam
after the arrival of Brahmins. The kuravar of the Kurinji Hills used a staff called
Chilambamboo as a weapon to defend themselves against wild animals, and also
to display their skill during their religious festivals. The Hindu scholars and
yogies who went to the Kurinji mountains to meditate got attracted by the
display of this highly skilled spinning Chilambamboo.
1.5 OVERVIEW
Silambam is a mainly a form of stick or walking staff fighting. The length
of the staff is roughly 1.68 meters (five and a half feet). Size of the staff is
related to the height of the silambam player. It should just touch the forehead
about three fingers from the head, although different lengths were used in
different situations. The 3 feet stick called "sedikutchi" can be carried covertly.
Separate practice is needed for staves of different lengths. The usual stance
includes holding the staff at one end, right hand close to the back, left hand about
40 centimeters (16 inches) away. This position allows a wide array of stick-and-
body movements, including complex attacks and blocks. Unarmed silambam
utilizes several routines based on the movements of animals, primarily snake and
eagle forms.

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1.6 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF SILAMBAM
Silambam was introduced by Agathiya Maha Muniver and he was written
the book of mayakkanadi. It includeds silambam, kalari, mallu, pottu privu,
varmam, adithada, kai por vilayattu. After that Silambam was patronized by the
ancient Chola, Chera and Pandya kings of South India during the Sangam
period. It has been extensively used by Travancore army.
Silamabam is an age-old art of patronized by the chera, cholo, and
pandiya kings who ruled Tamilnadu in ancient India. It received Royal
Patronage from all kings of Tamilnadu beginning before the Sangam Era (B.C.
2000). The origin and historical development of silambam may have being with
the early Dravidians of ancient Tamilnadu.
Raja Gopalan (1982)“The early tools of man – in Ancient Tamilnadu
must have been river pebbles and blocks of wood and bone. At that time
Silambam stick made of bamboo, used for defense and attack. The forest of
South India abounded with bamboo, right from primitive times and the palaeo–
Lithic and Neo-Lithic man (Ancient Dravidian) found it quite handy and useful
as a weapon for defence and attack against their animal and human enemies”.
A.P. Chandraselaran (1959) The knowledge and practices of this mighty
weapon was not confined to North India. South India knew this weapon well
from the beginning of its written history. The huge figures of warriors
particularly that the Arjuna carved out in the Meenakshi temple of Madura well
might prove its existence in South India as an efficient instrument of fighting –
Apparatus of war in ancient India
K.K. Pillai (1978) “Veddas an ancient people of Sri Lanka are fast
dying out. At present there are just a few thousands of them in jungles of the
island. They still continue their traditional occupation of hunting. The time
honored bow and arrows are still part of their outfit.
The British Cal. Welsh (1927) “ChinnaMaruthu (A Poligar of Siva
Gangai) first taught me to throw the spear and hurl the collery stick (Boomerang)
a weapon.

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 Thurston (1926)“The boomerangs of Southern India, (Tamilnadu) the
madras museum possesses three (two invory, one wooden) from the Tanjore
armoury concerning them, the Dewan of Pudukottai writes to me as follows, “the
valari or valaitadi (bent stick) is a short weapon, generally made of some hard-
grained wood. It is also sometimes made of iron. It is crescent –shaped, one end
being heavier than the other, and the outer end is sharpened. Men trained in the
use of the weapon hold it by, the lighter end, whirl it a few times over their
shoulders to give it impetus, and then hurl it with great force against the object
aimed at. It is said that there were experts in the art of throwing the valari, who
could at one stroke dispatch small games and even man. No such experts are
now-forth coming in the Pudukottai state, through the instrument is reported to
be occasionally used in hunting hares, jungle fowl, etc., its days, however, must
be counted as past. Tradition states the instrument played a considerable part in
the poligar wars of the last century. But it now reposes peacefully in the house
holds of the descendeants of the rude kallan and maravan warriors, who plied it
with such deadly effect in the last century, preserved as a sacred relic of a
chivalric past, along with other old family weapons in their puja (workship)
room. Brought out and scraped and cleaned on occasions like the Ayudha puja
day (when workship is paid to weapons and implements of industry), and
restored to its place of rest immediately afterwards.”
1.7 VARIETY OF SILAMBAM
Silambam is an famous martial art in Tamil nadu, Silambam fight or stick
fight. It is very crucial movement in this art. It should be various division in this
art like touch point, self demonstration, group demonstration, fire demonstration,
single stick fire demonstration, double stick fire demonstration, star fire
demonstration, chine fire demonstration, chest fire demonstration, balance water
(rathal demonstration), Paring: face to face demonstration, (athir bana) cheetah
fight(kurun kambu fight or sedi kuchi), kathi Knife and stick fight
(pichuvakathi), maan kombu(maduvu) and stick fight, padai vichu(one man
show with cover more person in attack that man. Various houses like four side,
Eight side, sixteen side, thirty two side, sixty four side, etc., vichu varisai, chine

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star, ring dive with one man and two man, Alangara vilaiyattu, it should be
divided in various stages like kathadi suthu(outer rotation with single stick and
double stick, nenchu suthu(chest rotation single stick and double stick), pin
pidari vichu or kaluthu suthu(neck rotation inner and outer),kaal suthu(leg
rotation) pin suthu(back rotation),mun suthu(frond rotation)Eduppu suthu(hip
rotation)mun suthu pin suthu(frond with back rotation). Adi varisai. This fight
create the formation like two men stick fight and four men stick fight and Eight
men stick fight sixteen men stick fight thirty two man stick fight etc.,, Multhandi
Kodari fight, Eati sandai(aero stick fight) surul vichu(blade rotation with single
and double hands) Kerala is the hub of special forms of Indian martial arts
like vadakkan Kalarippayattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (attack and
defend). Kalarippayattu is an important martial art form, mainly developed in the
11th century, during the rule of Chola dynasties. Kalarippayattu is an Indian
martial art practiced in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It integrates strikes, bangs,
grapple, martial dance, and arms, as well as curative techniques it is also
interesting is that Indian martial arts were improvised due to certain ancient
theories like Yoga, Ayurveda and Tantra, Kundalini, Prana, Nadi, Chakra and
Marmam.
1.8 VERSATILITY (STYLES) OF SILAMBAM
Multiple attackers Silambam practitioners do not held out their sticks as
they do in man to man combat. Instead they use pose. There were numerous
poses in silambam (snake, tiger, eagle and so on). Using poses makes difficult
for the opponents to predict the attack and counter attack.
There were numerous sub sects in Silambam like Nagam-16 (cobra-16),
kallapathu (the thieves ten), kidamuttu (the goat head butting), kuravanchi,
kalyanavarisai (similar to quarterstaff, thulukkanam (Turkish sequence) and so
on. Each of these sub sets is unique and may differ from one another in grip,
pose, foot work used, method of attack, length of the stick, movement of the
stick etc.
Much of the vast techniques and styles in Silambam have been lost due to
various invasions of the Tamil Nadu, especially the British. The use of guns

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means the stick has lost much of its combat superiority. Also, the British who
ruled for nearly 200 years completely banned the art.
Its emphasis on the staff distinguishes Silambam from Northern
Kalaripayattu considered similar to Southern Kalaripayattu where fighting
techniques emphasize empty hands or simple sticks or swords.
Silambam, Kaimurai vilayattu, a bare hand technique literally meaning
punching sequence, maduvu (deer horn), surul or churul (long double edged
flexible blade), kathi kuthu (knife thrust), Val payattu or val veesu or vaal
veechu (sword play), sheela or cheela (two finger defense) were all closely
related and can be called as a single group of martial arts.
The state of Tamil Nadu is considered to be the cradle of modern and
scientific staff stick movements, popularly known in Tamil as Silambam. The
Pandya kings ruling in Tamil Nadu promoted Silambam stick movements, as
did their Chola and Chera counterparts. Silapathiharam Tamil literature, dating
back to 2nd century A.D., refers to the sale of silamabam staves, swords, pearls
and armour to foreign traders. The ancient trading centre at Madurai city,
renowned globally, was said to be thronged by Romans, Greeks, Egyptians
among others who had regular sea trade with the ancient Dravidian kings. The
silambam staff was one of the martial art weapons, that was in great demand
with the visitors.
Dr. David Manvel Raj(1988)“Silambam being practiced in almost all
regions of the vast democratic country, India. Maharashtra state silambam is
popularly known as “Lathi”, whereas the same is called ‘Dhal Lakadi’ in Gujarat
state, ‘KarraSaamu’ in Andhra state, ‘LatiLakadi’ in Bengal state,
‘DhantaVarisai’ in Karnataka state, ‘NeduVadi’ in Kerala state and Silamabam
in Tamilnadu state. Silambam under the Kalaripayat System is remembered as
Kettukari, KoluVillayattu or KattaSamu is a system of silambam prevalent in
Andhra state now. Kolu is a Tamil word for stick. Vilayattu is Tamil word for
“playing” and Katta or “Kattai” in Tamil means stick. Samu is a Telugu word
meaning fight. Silambam or KoluVilayattu was practiced in ancient
Gymnasium called GaradiKoodam in Andhra Pradesh”.

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 Francois Gautier (1985) Shaolin Boxing and Zen Buddhism travelled
from China to Japan, landing in Okinawa, where Kalari-payat became the art of
the empty hands of Karate. Kalaripayat of ancient Tamilnadu is the ancestor of
all Asian material arts and it still survives in Tamilnadu.
Kalari-payat of ancient Tamilnadu, the ancestor of all Asian material arts,
still survives in Tamilnadu and Kerala. Boddi-dharma of India, the founder of
Zen Buddhism taught the Chinese, this art as shaolin boxing. It then passed on to
Japan to blossom in the art of the empty hand or Karate and Judo. All these
forms have borrowed heavily from the kalari techniques. Kalari-payat when it
became as Shaolin Boxing passed from China to Japan, through the Ryukyu
islands, landing in Okinawa to blossom in the art of the empty hand, later known
as Karate.
Boddi-dharma of India had introduced the bare-hand fighting techniques
called (Verum Kai Adimuraigal) which are still popular in Tirunelveli and
Kanyakumari districts in Tamilnadu, India. Thus, Tamilnadu is the birth place of
all Asian Material Arts.
1.9 ANCIENT IRON WEAPONS AND WARRIORS
Ancient Iron Weapons particularly type of swords have been found in the
Tirunelveli (South Tamilnadu) burials on the bank of TambraParni. We can say
that it was in the later stage of the iron culture of South India may be dated from
2,500-1,800 B.C. The iron industry in South India is more ancient than that
Europe. It began to spread Crete and Greece.
The Prof. Gowland the well-known metallurgist and explorer of the
Japanese islands who expressed the opinion that the smelting of iron may have
been hit upon by sheer accident. The accident might have happened in peninsular
India were according to the best minds the iron industry is much more ancient
than in Europe. After the use of iron became familiar in South India it began to
spread in other countries specially crete and Greece whose architectural
monuments and shrines resemble in several respects those of South India. This is
how crete, Greece and other western countries passed on also to iron culture
from their Neolithic age. The one age men were primarily living on the hills and

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mountain fastnesses and also on the frings of rich forests. Only after the
discovery of iron ore it is reasonable to suppose that primeval man took to the
forest and made it his habits. Therefore it is only iron culture that permitted the
people of the hills to pass on to forest life.”
Development of silambam weapons from AdichaNallur:
Development of the iron culture of AdichaNallur (Tamilnadu) may be
dated from eight to ten thousand B.C the archaelogical evidences are more from
sangam Era
Adihcanallur lies with 20 k.mt of Tirunelvely district in South India. It is
the most important Pre historic burial place and the strong at arghaeological
evidence for the silambam , development from ancient Tamilnadu.
The burial places cover over hundred and fourteen acres of land at
AdichaNallur on the South bank of the Tambraparni (Thennporunai river) in the
Tinnevelly district. These graves at Adichanallur are to be dated in the early Iron
Age which succeeded the Neolithic age in South India”. The Neolithic age in
South India passed on to the Iron Age without any interval long or short.
“The archaeological surprises thrown up at the Iron Age urn-burial site at
Adichanallur do not seem to end. The latest: Some stunningly beautiful motifs in
applique designs on pieces of an urn inside a full urn. The motifs were
apparently made on a full urn which contained a human skeleton. The series of
motifs show a tall, majestic looking woman: a swathe of standing paddy next to
her; a crane; a deer; a crocodile and a lizard too.” (Hindu -2005)
At the same time particularly, above deer horn is a dangerous weapon of
silambam.
Alexander Rea (1915) Spear, Lance, Dagger, Barded javeline, Double
edged sword, Trident, Barded arrow head, Hate hets, Sword, Curved knife,
Hooks with two curved rods, Sacrificed sword, Arrow head, javeline, Axes,
Sulams, Shield, A curious weapon, Small dagger, Small lance, Lance with blade
rectangular in section, Luce, Lance with blade rectangular in section, Hollow
tube handle of lance, Dagger with tapering point, Hatch broadest at the cutting
edge, Lance with long round hollow shaft, Hollow iron handles with rods

15
through the centre, Sword with various curved blades tapering with points,
Lance with tapering blades and hollow handles, Knife, Reaping hook or curved
knifes of various format,
Above weapon names were collected from the Tamil Palm leaf
manuscripts by ‘Rea’ Palm-leaf manuscripts describe a plethora of designs and
shapes of iron weapons knives and lances, archeological evidence for which date
back to a mere back to a mere 2800 B.C to 1800 B.C., when wood had given
way to iron. This goes to prove that silambam is probably the oldest material art
in the world.
However the Dravidian have a continuity of culture from Paleolithic to
Neolithic, from Neolithic to megalithic and megalithic to iron age in south India.
By this historic statement alone the material art form of silambam is said
to be the oldest in the world. From the early Tamil Palm leaf manuscript,
literature ‘PuraNanooru’ (A Collection of heroic poems from 400B.C to 600
AD), we know that warlike and material spirit predominated between the
Dravidian kingdoms (Chera, Chola , Pandya)
The well-known warriors, Puli-Dhevar and Maruthu brothers were also
very good ‘Silambam’ fighters. Though they were ruling small territories only
their influence at that time spread far and wide, throughout the whole of the
South Tamilnadu due to their ability in warfare.
VellaiMaruthipandi was the most important Polygor of “Siva Gangai”.
His strong limbs, hardy frames, fierce looking appearance create a fearful exiting
for the viewers. His power in hunting was so much.
Cal Welsh(1893)“Did a royal tiger appear while his guest was surrounded
by hardy and powerful pikeman, Vellimurdoo was the first to meet the monster
and dispatch him”.Puli-Devar was also a poligar of Nelkattan Chevval at
Tirunelveli District.
R. Caldwell “The Puli-Devar soldiers are tall, well made and well-
featured. Their arms are lances and pikes, bows and arrows, rockets and match
locks, but whether with or without other weapons, every man constantly wears
sword and shield. In battle the different arms move in distinct bodies but the

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lance men are rated the most eminent and lead all attacks. This weapon is
eighteen feet long. They tie under the point aloft of scarlet horse-hair, and when
they attack horse, add a small bell. Without previous exercise, they assemble in a
deep column, pressing close together, and advance at a long. Steady step, in
some degree of time, their lances including forward, but aloft, of which the
elasticity and vibration with the jungle and dazzle scare the cavalry and their
approach is scarcely less formidable to infantry not disciplined with five-arms.
The lance referred to is called in tamil a “Vallayam”.
1.10 SILAMBAM IN ANCIENT TAMIL SONGS
VeeraPandyaKattabomman is a valiant war general of Tamilnadu who
made the British forces suffer the humiliation of defeat many a time in the early
eighteenth century till the British Started using arms like machine guns and
pistols against his fort at Paanjaalamkurichi situated in the district of
Thirunelveli. Tamilnadu had its brave soldiers experts in silambam and they
were armed with silambam staves and swords with the help of which they faced
and chased their enemies.
In the songs called ‘KattabommanKummipPaadalgal’ we have various
references to this. Here are some of the lines:
‘Aan pillai poela edhirththu vandu:
Nindradhu aaradaa satra enum anjaamal:
Poonkattuk kambadi (Silambam) veezhaa munnam:
oedippoengaladaavellaiththoongalgalae’
(Roughly translated these lines warn the white men to run away lest they
be attacked by ‘Silambam – ‘Kambadi’.)
These are some of the significant lines in Tamil verses which highlight
the glory and esteem of ‘Silambam’ in our ancient society.
V. Kanaka Sabhai in his “The tamils eighteen hundred years ago” describes…
“When the line of battle was drawn up, the elephants were placed first,
the chariots and horseman were ranged behind them, and the infantry occupied
the rear. The ordinary foot soilders carried in their left hand large bucklers made
of ox-hide and in their right hand a lance or a battle-axe. The archers carried

17
long bows in their left hand and quivers suspended at their backs. Both lancers
and archers were armed with swords which were broad in the blade and about a
yard long. The cavalry carried lighter arms and shorter bucklers than those
supplied to the infantry. Those who rode on chariots or elephants were the
generals who led the army and were invariably men of noble birth. They carried
lances or swords, and shields adorned with gold and wore coats of mail. The war
chariots were light cars raised on two low wheels with a railing of stout rattan
round the stand, which afforded room for only two men, the charioteer and the
warrior. Each chariot was drawn by a pair of horses. Large and heavy chariot
drawn by four or seven horses were used only in processions or festive
occasions. When attacking an enemy, the archers discharged their arrows aiming
at the elephants in the opposing army and at the generals who rode on them. If
the men were skillful archers and sufficiently strong in number, the first shower
of arrows compelled the enemies’ elephants to beat a retreat and threw their
army into a confusion: but if the elephants withstood the attack the mounted
soilders threw their javelins at them and the infantry also attacked them with
their long spears; and then engaged the enemy at close quarters fighting with
their swords and battle axes. The elephants always formed the most formidable
part of an army and hence, to cut down a soldier or any number of soilders was
not esteemed so great a feat of valour as to kill or disable an elephant. To fly
from the battle-field or to receive a wound on the back was considered a great
disgrace.
“The fighting men who belonged to the military caste among the Tamils
were very loyal to their kings. “Thou lord of the handsome chariot and troops of
elephants”, says a bard to his chief, pointing to young warriors, “share with this
youth the toddy thou drinkest, for his father’s father gave up his life to save thy
father’s father in a fierece fight; and this youth so full of valour will throw
himself between thee and thy foes, when they aim their lances against thee.”
Even the women of the fighting classes were animated by the same material
spirit which the soldiers possessed. “Alas! How bold is she, the worthy marton
of the warrior tribel” exclaims a bard, “it was only the day before yesterday that

18
her father cut down an elephant on the battle-field and fell bravely fighting with
the foes, and yesterday her husband routed a whole array of elephants and was
slaughtered on the same field, and yet today, when she heard the war drum, she
seemed to be filled with joy and gave her only son a white cloth to wear, combed
his hair and putting a lance into his hand, bade him go to the battle-field.” “The
old mother with trembling frame and withered arms” says another bard speaking
of a woman of the military caste, “hearing that her son had fled from the battle-
field, swore that she would cut off her breasts that nursed him, if he had really
turned his back on the foe, and armed with a sword went to the battle-field and
finding among them slain, the mangled body of her son, rejoiced more than she
did when he was born”.
A large area of ground is enclosed with palisades and strong fences. Into
the enclosure are brought ferocious bulls with sharpened horns. On a spacious
loft, overlooking the enclosure, stand the shepherd girls whom they intend to
give away in marriage. The shepherd youths prepared for the fight first pray to
their gods whose images are placed under old banian or peepul trees or at
watering places. Then they deck themselves with garlands made of the bright red
flowers of the kanthal and the purple flowers of the kaya. At a signal given by
the beating of drums, the youths leap into the enclosure and try to seize the bulls,
which, frightened by the noise of the drums, are now ready to charge any one
who approaches them. Each youth approaches a bull, which he chooses to
capture. But the bulls rush furiously with tails raised, heads bent down and horns
leveled at their assistants. Some jump aside and take hold of their tails. The more
wary young men skillfully avoid the horns and clasping the neck cling to the
animals till they force them to fall on the ground. Many a luckless youth is now
thrown down. Some escape without a scratch, while others are trampled upon or
gored by the bulls. A few who succeed in capturing the animals are declared the
victors of that day’s fight. The elders then announce that the bullfight is over.
The wounded are carried out of the enclosure and attended to immediately; while
the victors and the brides-elect repair to an adjoining grove, and there forming
into groups, dance joyously before preparing for their marriage”.

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There are also songs and verses in Tamil wherein we have various references to
the fact that there were Silambam ‘gurus’ (Masters) and also ‘Silamba-koodam
(Shoalin of Silambam) at the foot of ‘Podhigai’ mountain.
Iruvendru amirdhaara sankollum poedhu:
Inbamudan silambirukkum vagai yaichcholli:
Karuvendra pusapilamum kalandhu solli:
Thiruvendra mandhirathin dheerkkam solli:
Sivakayilai podhigayil irundhu kondu:
Guruvaana guruvendu thuaadinaenae.
From these lines the fact that the ‘guru’ of ‘Silambam’ was dwelling in
the mountain region called ‘Podhigai – Malai(hills)’. Thought these lines are
dated 500 A.D.
The Dravidians belong to one of the oldest ethnic group in India. St.
Agathiyar is considered as the originator of ‘silambam- ’. Agathiyars and
Siddhars must have been the originators of the sixty-four arts popularly referred
to in our ancient literary works as ‘aayakalaigalarupaathi-naanginaiyum and that
‘silambam’ literature and folklore are believed to have come down from the time
of Agathiyar or his pupils known as Siddhars.
Those who have undertaken researches in palm-leaf inscriptions and
palm-leaf manuscripts have collected these information’s and they have also
collected the various ‘manuscript verces silambam’ that were in vogue then.
Some of them are; ‘AgathiyarKambuChoodram’ (describes about stick), Veeman
VazhiKarunthaadiSilambam (describes about 3 feet stick), Kalari (describes
about development of weapons), VarmaChoodram (Diagnosis of the vital parts),
Varma Beeranki (Varman hit methods), OdivuMurivu Sari (Concerning the
breaking and wounding of the vital parts), VarmaVaidhyam (Remedial Method
by Siddha Medicine).
Highlighting those constructive aspects of this material art such as self-
defense, warding off danger and attack with their help of just a long stick which
is not costly, team-spirit, physical fitness, mental altertness, maintenance of

20
sound health and sports on and so forth, the interest to learn ‘Silambam’ should
be inculcated in the youngs minds.
‘Silambammudhalmalyudhdham:
yaanaiaetram, kudhiraiaetram:
dhesi, nadaikollin:
vaadham poem, vaayu poem, kabam poem:
thulangupasiundaagum says a renowned tamil classic
PadhaarthaGunasindhaamani, Roughtly translated these lines tell that if
‘Silambam’ and other material arts are learnt on will be relieved of gas trouble,
cold and cough and also various other health problems and become sound in
body and mind. Another songs says,
Paarappasilambadikkaukkithendam:
padhivaanaaadhiandhamaarthaankaanbaar:
Naerappaadhinanthoerumpazhakkamaanaal:
unpuyamumkaalpilamumnilaikkumappa.
These songs stress the various benefits of learning ‘Silambam’ such as getting
cured of various health problems and also turning stronger in body and mind.
1.11 SILAMBAM DISPLAY AT FESTIVALS
Silambam is a stick fighting, part of southern style. This style supposedly
originates from the Kurinji hills, present day Tamilnadu, 5000 years ago, where
natives was used bamboo staves to defend themselves against wild animals. The
natives called kuravar was used a staff called Chilambamboo as a weapon to
defend themselves against wild animals, and also to display their skill during
their religious festivals. In that festival they demonstrate variety of silambam.
The Hindu scholars and yogies who went to the Kurinji mountains to meditate
got attracted by the display of this highly skilled spinning Chilambamboo. It is
also known as Silambam.
The pride and glory of silambam repeated is not to be regarded as just a
weapon used in self-defense. It had played an integral and very important role in
the festivals and cultural events of Tamilnadu. During temple-festivals men used
to display their skill in ‘silambam’ in front of the chapparam (temple-car) in

21
which the idol of god would be placed and taken around in a procession. During
the festivals and marriage processions and in short, on any festive occasions the
display of silambam takes places, especially in villages. Usually it will be
accompanied by music. The silambam display ceremony will always commence
with the contestants praying to their guardian angles.
1.12 SILAMBAM IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
There are a large number of distinct styles and schools of martial arts.
Sometimes, schools or styles are introduced by individual teachers or masters, or
as a brand name by a specific gym. Martial arts can be grouped by type or focus,
or alternatively by regional origin. This article focuses on the latter grouping.
A sport and ritual the Suri take extremely seriously is stick fighting. In
most cases, stick fighting is done so young men can find wives. It is a way for
young men to prove themselves to the young women. To the Suri, the ideal time
to stick fight is just after it rains. The fights are held between Suri villages, and
the fights begin with 20 to 30 people on each side. Of these 20 to 30 people, all
get a chance to fight one on one against someone from the other side. During
these fights there are referees present to make sure all rules are 2being followed.
Many stick fights end within the first couple of hits. Stick fighting has proven to
be dangerous because people have died from being hit in the stomach. Since
stick fighting draws a large audience, it becomes a threat of danger. Shooting can
easily break out and this seems to be the new trend for young Suri men; using
guns instead of sticks. Surma stick fighting (Ethiopia)

1.12.1 Nguni Stick Fighting (South Africa)

Nguni stick fighting (also known as donga, or dlala 'nduku, which literally
translates as playing sticks) is a martial art traditionally practiced by
teenage Nguni herdboys in South Africa. Each combatant is armed with two long
sticks, one of which is used for defense and the other for offense. Little armor is
used.

22
 Although Nguni/ Xhosa styles of fighting may use only two sticks,
variations of Bantu /Nguni stick fighting throughout Southern Africa incorporate
shields as part of the stick fighting weaponry. Zulu stick fighting uses an
"Isiquili" or attacking stick, an "Uboko" or defending stick and an "izoliHauw"
or defending shield.
The object is for two opposing warriors to fight each other to establish
which of them is the strongest or the "Bull" (Inkunzi). In modern times this
usually occurs as part of the wedding ceremony where warriors from the
bridegroom's household and area welcome warriors from the bride's household
and area to meet to "get to know each other", other groups of warriors may also
be welcome to join in. Warriors do this by engaging in combat with one another.
An "induna" or War Captain / Referee from each group of warriors keeps his
crew in check and keeps order between fighters.
This tradition is one which arguably developed in societies, cultures and
civilisations that used herding as part of their systems of survival, where there
are cows, there are stick fighters. The old regimental structures of the great
uShakaKaSenzangakhonaKaJama dominate current modern zulustickfighting.
1.12.2 Nuba Fighting Sudan.
Nuba fighting is done by the Nuba peoples in the Nuba Mountains of
South Kordofan state, in southern Sudan. It involves both stick fighting and
wrestling. The goal of Nuba wrestling is to slam the opponent to the ground.
Wrestling is relatively recreational, and serious injuries are rare.
Nuba wrestling has no pinning and no submissions. Although there are
strikes, these are essentially part of the grappling; in other words, this is not a
boxing system, as is, for example, Hausadambe. Therefore, Nuba wrestling is
best viewed as a system of standing grappling, historically practiced naked, but
in towns, today practiced in T-shirts and shorts.
Nuba stick fighting essentially mimics the movements of fighting with
spear and shield. Little armor is worn, so injuries can be severe.

23
Training for both wrestling and stick fighting includes practicing under the
supervision of former champions, performing athletic dances, learning
traditional songs, and drinking lots of milk while avoiding promiscuity and beer.
Bajan Stick-Licking or Stick Science traditional form of stick fighting in
Barbados. Bajan Stick-Licking or Stick Science is an African system of weapons
fighting that features the use of fire hardened sticks of varying lengths. 'Lickin
Stick' as it is usually known was most likely transferred to Barbados from the
Kongo (Congo)/Angola region of Africa during the 15th century by soldiers who
had been captured as prisoners of war. These soldiers were then purchased by
various European enslavers and shipped as cargo to the Caribbean, where some
ended up in Barbados as slaves.
For much of Barbados' history, this African Fight has been an integral
part of the society. It has been a test of manhood, a fun but dangerous sport, a
means of self-defense and a method of settling disputes. Contrary to some
mythology, Stick Lickin' is not a hybrid of African Stickfighting and European
stick movements, but is a Kalenda system and exists in many other parts of the
African diaspora including Trinidad, Grenada, Puerto Rico and the United
States.
1.13 KARATE

Karate is a martial art developed in the Ryukyu Islands in what is now

Okinawa, Japan. It developed from the indigenous martial arts of Ryukyu
Islands, under the influence of Chinese martial arts, particularly to that of the
Fujian White Crane. Karate is a striking art using punching, kicking, knee
strikes, elbow strikes and open hand techniques such as knife-hands, spear-
hands, and palm-heel strikes. In some styles, grappling, throws, joint locks,
restraints, and vital point strikes are also taught. A karate practitioner is called a
karateka.

Karate developed in the Ryukyu Kingdom. It was brought to the Japanese

mainland in the early 20th century during a time of cultural exchanges between
the Japanese and the Ryukyuans. It was systematically taught in Japan after the

24
Taisho era. In 1922 the Japanese Ministry of Education invited Gichin
Funakoshi to Tokyo to give a karate demonstration. In 1924 Keio University
established the first university karate club in Japan and by 1932, major Japanese
universities had karate clubs. In this era of escalating Japanese militarism, the
name was changed from Chinese hand or Tang hand to empty hand , both of
which are pronounced karate – to indicate that the Japanese wished to develop
the combat form in Japanese style. After World War II, Okinawa became an
important United States military site and karate became popular among
servicemen stationed there.

The martial arts movies of the 1960s and 1970s served to greatly increase
the popularity of martial arts around the world, and in English the word karate
began to be used in a generic way to refer to all striking-based Oriental martial
arts. Karate schools began appearing across the world, catering to those with
casual interest as well as those seeking a deeper study of the art.

Shigeru Egami, Chief Instructor of Shotokan Dojo, opined that the

majority of followers of karate in overseas countries pursue karate only for its
fighting techniques. Movies and television. depict karate as a mysterious way of
fighting capable of causing death or injury with a single blow. the mass media
present a pseudo art far from the real thing. Shoshin Nagamine said, Karate may
be considered as the conflict within oneself or as a life-long marathon which can
be won only through self-discipline, hard training and one's own creative efforts.

In 2009, in the 121st International Olympic Committee voting, karate did

not receive the necessary two-thirds majority vote to become an Olympic sport.
Karate was being considered for the 2020 Olympics, however at a meeting of the
IOC's executive board, held in Russia on May 29, 2013, it was decided that
karate (along with wushu and several other non-martial arts) would not be
considered for inclusion in 2020 at the IOC's 125th session in Buenos Aires,
Argentina, in September 2013.

25
Web Japan (sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there
are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide, while the World Karate Federation
claims there are 100 million practitioners around the world.

Karate is a martial art developed from Chinese kung fu and indigenous

fighting methods from the Islands. It is primarily a striking art, featuring
punching, kicking, knee and elbow strikes, and open-handed techniques, but
grappling, joint manipulations, locks, restraints, throws, and vital point striking
are also taught, depending on the style. A karate practitioner is called a karateka.
In addition to the three early ti styles of karate, a fourth Okinawan
influence is that of Kanbun Uechi (1877–1948), who at the age of 20 went to
Fuzhou in Fujian Province, China, to escape Japanese military conscription.
While there, he studied under Shushiwa, the leading figure of Chinese Nanpa
Shorin-ken at that time. He later developed his own style of Uechi-ryu karate
based on the Sanchin, Seisan, and Sanseiryu kata that he had studied in China.
1.13.1 Basic Skills of Karate
Karate basics consists in 3 forms
1. Kihon.. - Training in fundamentals
2. Kata- Training in formal exercises
3. Kumite - Sparring
1.13.2 Dojo (Training Hall)
When entering the dojo, at the entrance, sensei's (instructor/teacher),
students and instructors should bow towards the hall (standing bow ritsu-rei) out
of respect for the training area. When leaving the dojo, at the entrance, sensei's,
students and instructors should bow towards the hall (standing bow ritsu-rei) out
of respect for the training area. Karate Gi's (training suit) must always be clean
and personal cleanliness/odour should be kept fresh.
At the Starting of a session students and instructor(s) make a standing
bow to each-other, then is some ryu's (styles), bow in the seiza position (kneeling
position - za-rei), followed by standing and bowing again (standing bow ritsu-
rei). During a karate training session students regularly bow respectfully to each-

26
other when practicing techniques on each-other. When students bow they always
keep at least peripheral eye contact. During mutual training, combat etc. eye
contact is constant.
The sensei (instructor/teacher) is, traditionally, the highest grade in the
class receives a bow (ni-rei) from the whole class at the beginning and end of a
lesson.
The sensei gives instruction it is usual for students to show respect and
acknowledge the sensei's instruction with the sound oose (which means I
understand). The constant bowing is a way to tell other students that you are not
their to be a personal threat with the idea of causing damage but are instead
respectful and eager to learn.
At the Starting of the class students line up by rank. Dan grades should
allow more experienced black belts that may hold a lower grade stand higher in
the belt/grade order out of respect (to not respect this rule should be seen as
ignorant, rude and arrogant, the sensei should intervene).
The sensei when counting usually counts in Japanese (1 to 10 below):
Ichi, Ni, San, Shi, Go, Roku, Shichi, Hachi, Ku, Ju
The sensei may say Chudan (aim for the abdomen), Jodan (aim to the face
area) or Gedan (lower abdomen and below-as in Gedan-bari), which indicates
the attack or defense should be directed to the face, abdominal or sub-abdominal
area.
When students spar (combat) or practice with each other strict safety rules
should be observed. To strike another student without respect for their individual
safety is extremely disrespectful because the person who has been neglectfully
struck has turned up for the class out of good faith to learn karate skills, not be
put into the local hospital. Students that show no respect for safety should be
reprimanded by the sensei and if their disrespect continues asked to permanently
leave the dojo.
The sensei will explain training moves and positions as students stand in a
preparation position, the sensei will next give the command Yoi (which means
be ready or prepare) to prepare the students, to apply the technique just

27
explained (students sometimes reply Yoi with oose). The next command the
sensei gives is Hajime which is the signal for students to execute the technique
previously shown by the sensei. The students may be asked to complete a
technique repetitively to develop muscle memory.
The sensei wants students to stop and relax the command Yame (stop) is
given and students can either stand into an informal ready stance (Heisoku-
dachi), or stay in the stance they are currently in (depending on the instruction
the sensei gives to the students).
1.13.3 Technical skills
The striking point of the fist (Ken) is usually the index and middle finger
knuckles, this area is known as Seiken. At the end of the class students line up
by rank. Dan grades should allow more experienced black belts that may hold a
lower grade stand higher in the belt/grade order out of respect (to not respect this
rule should be seen as ignorant, rude and arrogant, the sensei should intervene).
Students kneel into seiza and the command Mu-shin is given, students close or
half open their eyes and meditate until the sensei gives the command to open the
eyes Yame, students then bow to the sensei and the sensei replies, the class then
stands and bow again to the sensei and the sensei bows back, students then bow
to each other and the class ends.
Students practice techniques against each-other and some bad practice or
spiteful habits is as follow:
When attacking chudan during outside block practice, the attacker
(Semete) should avoid attacking to the outside of the body but attack in a straight
line to the abdomen with kime ( kime means applying internal energy) and an
understanding of distance. When attacking jodan during rising age-uke block
practice, the attacker (Semete) should avoid attacking to the chest but attack in a
straight line to the face with kime and an understanding of distance. According
to Gichin Funakoshi the mandatory karate strike technique moves to the target in
a straight line, attacks taking the shortest root from A. attacker to B. defender.
Defenders (Ukete) usually exert circular blocking using hip generated power to
deflect the attack.

28
 Karateka that intentionally stamp on peoples feet or any other poor
practice to try to put them off will mean the development of the "Oh no I am
with him (her) again" syndrome, and the practice partner will not
psychologically or physically give 100% whilst training, just contempt. The
karateka that has this response needs to change their ways otherwise their karate
will always be mediocre at best. See Gichin Funakoshi, karateka letting go of
ego.
Some karateka stop and Starting the attack whilst attacking in basic
kumite combinations, doing this will promote resentment, stop the development
of timing and negates any improvement in combat betterment.
One bad practice is when defenders (Ukete) are blocking jodan oi-zuki
(june-zuki), poorly trained attackers or an attacker with evil intentions will aim
for just above the block, and when the age-uke block energy is at its end the
attacker smashes their forearm onto the blocking arm to harm their training
partner. This particularly cowardly technique can be applied to any block and
suggests the attacker may be mentally disturbed.
Defending karateka that intentionally hit an attacker when the attacker
stands still to allow a counter-attack practice from the defender, or an attacker
that intentionally hits a defender without prior agreement (unless by genuine
accident) have no place in the dojo, and should be warned by the sensei. For the
sensei to do nothing and ignore the situation of a student consistently hitting
classmates is negligent at best.
Karateka that attack various parts of the body (such as kicking a loose
hand etc.) during one step, three step, five step kumite with a sneaky intent to
harm their partner should take up street fighting to get their disturbed jollies
instead of plaguing serious martial arts classes.
Karateka that pretend to be hurt to either get a classmate into trouble or to
get out of training should reflect on their actions, as the first instance is the mark
of a fool and the second, the mark of someone who is extremely lazy. Both will
stop any progress of skills or spiritual development, again the sensei should
intervene.

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 Karateka that have knowledge in the skills of Atemi/Dim Mack or any
pressure/nerve striking techniques should not practice on unsuspecting martial
arts partners as striking pressure points without awareness of the long term
damage is ignorance personified. Modern day karate was devised by Gichin
Funakoshi with the Atemi (Dim Mack - death strike/artery striking) techniques
left out for good reason:
1. Applying pressure point striking just to see if it works, or otherwise, can cause
long term mind, body and spirit damage and is not within the true spirit of
karate-do.
2. Pressure point knowledge taught to adults or children via kata without
understanding the consequences i.e. meridian disruption concepts and chi energy
disruption theory could have seriously dangerous implications for fellow
students. To be taught pressure point techniques the sensei must fully understand
energy theories and concepts (and pass them on), trust the students that are being
taught, that those students will not use the Atemi/Dim Mack wasa unreasonably,
or as a very last resort to overcome a more powerful assailant at times of extreme
physical danger (not as a way to try and get the upper hand on fellow students in
the class). A sensei that teaches Atemi/Dim Mack without complete knowledge
would be like a driving instructor taking an untrained-driver to a car, showing
them the pedals, steering wheel and how to turning on the engine, then sitting the
student in the driving seat whilst the car is pointed at a group of unsuspecting
people, then allowing the student to switch the car's engine on and drive the car
at the people on their own, without any supervision or safeguards put in place.
A sensei that has no control of the class or turns a blind eye to negative
situations and comments made by karateka's in the class, just to try to fill his/her
classes has no place in teaching karate. Karateka who recognize these pointers
should seriously look for another sensei to teach them if they want to learn the
true skills and spirit of karate-do. Sensei's that grade their students (and pass
them) to make them attend classes and not because they are at the grade standard
should reflect on this staement as their students skills will be always be sub-
standard.

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 Sensei's that enjoy seeing their students get beat up (or say that some
students are just "cannon fodder") have no place in the dojo no matter how big
their Dan is, as this is a waste of thousands of years of inspiration by truly great
men and women who have developed karate into what it is today.
Sensei's and karateka that apply the above shortcuts or evil intentioned
routines need to learn to focus and show respect for other people/karateka
students or be reprimanded and taught karate correctly by their sensei. All of this
is to help them holistically develop the healing spirit of karate-do; That is if they
have the desire, strength and will power to develop mentally and spiritually as a
true karateka? If not, as master Funakoshi says " They have no right to do karate.
As Gichin Funakoshi informs us in his karate rules it is important to show
respect to our fellow trainees and let go of unnecessary ego.
1.13.4 Karate training
Flexibility - Karate clubs generally spent at least 30 minutes warming up
the body and about 10 minutes at the end to cool the body down. Karateka that
are not naturally flexible should not worry or force themselves to become
unnaturally flexible as this can cause injury which will mean students cannot
train. Karate clubs will always have some naturally flexible students that make
the techniques look easy and beautiful but it does not mean they are good at
combat, that will always be an individual thing (could be genetic). Research into
suppleness suggested that the Mongolian race are genetically the most naturally
flexible race, followed closely by the Chinese. Personal flexibility has a lot to do
with genetic code passed down from generation to generation, as being supple
depends on how genetically elastic the tendons (connects muslce to bone),
ligaments (connects bone to bone) and any connective tissue are formed in each
individuals body.
Twisting energy - Make sure that when striking, punching or blocking, the arm,
hand or fist twists exactly at the point of contact as this will dramatically
increase the force of the strike, punch or block, with the attacker or defender
needing less effort to apply the skills they have been taught. Diligently applying
twisting energy to techniques will help increase timing and improve technique so

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that the power, strength and delivery of an effective blow or block can become
almost hidden.
Muscles - Always make sure the muscles are warmed up when practicing karate
to avoid injury. Do-not become over muscled as this may slow down the speed a
punch or kick can be delivered.
Eating before training - Do-not eat1-2 hours before training as the food that has
been eaten will have to be digested. When food is consumed blood is shunted to
the stomach to aid digestion which means the muscles will have less oxygen
because there is less blood (oxygen is carried in blood cells) available for muscle
use. High exercise without a good blood-oxygen supply for the muscles could
lead to severe muscle cramps and unnecessary muscle fatigue during a training
session.
Drink water - Exercise can cause de-hydration (loss of water) so do have
access to a water source during a training session. A daily consumption of 2
litres of fresh clean water is advisable for all people, and especially when
exercising regularly as blood needs water to be healthy, so do the joints to help
with lubrication and the brain cells for thinking. Do-not drink too much water
(known as over-hydration) as this could cause the brain to swell and flush the
body systems of vitamins and minerals which will lead to severe illness. Poor
water consumption during or before a training session could unnecessarily lead
to severe muscle cramps and muscle fatigue during a training session.
1.13.5 Karate Benefits for Children
While learning the martial arts can benefit those of all age groups, the
most dramatic results are almost always visible in children. I have personally
witnessed miraculous transformations of children’s lives. For example, very shy
and inhibited kids grow up to become very confident, disciplined, hard working
and goal oriented adults. I have taught children of all ages and have learned that
the younger one begins martial arts training, the more dramatic the results will
be. It is a misconception that one can be too young to learn the martial arts,
since basic principles can be learned at almost any age. More importantly,
however, the younger one begins to train, the better the development of the

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mental/internal martial arts component. Confidence development begins during
the early years, when a child begins to develop a sense of self. The more time
invested into cultivating a positive self image, the greater the chance of success.
A very shy child may learn to become confident in his ability to tackle
new situations both in the dojo and in everyday life. Building a child’s
confidence allows him to feel better about himself and he will be armed with the
tools to deal with teasing, name calling, bullies and basic challenges in everyday
life. You, as the parent, will provide your child with a way to protect himself
against a lot life’s obstacles, even when you can’t be with him.
Martial Arts builds confidence as no other sport can because it is not a team
sport. Every child progresses at his own pace, without a comparison to other
children. There is no pressure to perform for the “team” where anything less than
a perfect performance often can lead to loss of confidence and diminished self-
esteem.
The Martial Arts can help with listening skills and following directions as
well. A good karate program will have many drills with many variations. Since
high praise and positive reinforcement always follows a correct response to
specific instructions, listening skills are developed. In addition, each series of
karate moves and responses requires the ability to follow detailed instructions.
As a child develops in the dojo, he becomes more adept at following instructions
and simultaneously he is able to master more complex material.

The Martial Arts can help to develop focus and a means to channel extra
energy in positive instead of disruptive or destructive ways. Boundless energy
can be wonderful if it is utilized constructively. However, when a child does not
appropriately channel his energy, he is usually labeled as a disruptive child.
Energy that has simply not been channeled properly becomes unruly behavior. A
child with this type of energy can really flourish in a Martial Arts environment
and a “negative” behavior pattern will become something that you and your
child can take great pride.

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 A parent first expresses interest in our school program, one of the most
common reasons is that the child doesn’t want to do anything but play video
games. Parents claim that they have tried all types of sports and activities, but
the child does not want do anything. A good karate program will be fun,
exciting and provide a lot of encouragement. It should make children feel
special and provide an environment they want to be part of. Therefore, a karate
program is a great way to get children involved and interested, especially those
who can’t seem to find the “right” extracurricular activity.
1.13.6 Karate Benefits For Adults
It is very common in today’s world to locate a series of extracurricular
activities for our children. However, Martial Arts training is great for adults as
well. As we get older, and spend more time in front of our computer terminals,
the physical activities that were once part of our daily lives become virtually
absent. We are left with excess weight, poor muscle tone and an overall sluggish
feeling. Often individuals, who once exercised regularly, now find it difficult to
climb a flight of stairs. Participation in Martial Arts activities can help to resolve
some of these issues. You will lose weight and increase strength and muscle
tone.
Many times, we reduce our physical activity as we get older since we
become more sensitive to our aches and pains. We may find that running or
basketball, for example, is too rigorous and applies too much strain to a
particular body part. However, through correct Martial Arts instruction, a
program can be designed to meet your specific needs. Training includes
stretching to reduce many of our aches and pains related to tightness and
stiffness. Martial arts training can be tailored to utilize your body strengths and
avoid your body weaknesses. Adults of all shapes and sizes can benefit from
these programs which can be individually tailored to those with weaker backs,
shoulders or knees.

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1.14 KARATE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
1.14.1 Karate in Japan
Gichin Funakoshi, founder of Shotokan karate, is generally credited with
having introduced and popularized karate on the main islands of Japan, although
many other Okinawans were actively teaching, and thus equally responsible for
transmission. Funakoshi was a student of both Asato Anko and Itosu Anko (who
had worked to introduce karate to the Okinawa Prefectural School System in
1902). During this time period, prominent teachers who also influenced the
spread of karate in Japan included Kenwa Mabuni, Chojun Miyagi, Choki
Motobu, Kanken Toyama, and Kanbun Uechi. This was a turbulent period in
history in the region, including Japan's annexation of the Okinawan island group
in 1874, the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the Russo-Japanese War
(1904–1905), the annexation of Korea, and the rise of Japanese expansionism
(1905–1945).
1.14.2 Karate in Korea
Due to past conflict between Korea and Japan, most notably during the
Japanese occupation in the 20th century, the influence of karate on Korean
martial arts is a contentious issue. During the occupation, many Koreans went to
Japan and were exposed to Japanese martial arts. After regaining independence
from Japan, many Korean martial arts schools were founded by masters with
training in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean martial arts.
1.14.3 Karate in Soviet Union
Karate appeared in the Soviet Union in the mid-1960s, during
Khruschev's policy of improved international relations, and the first Shotokan
clubs were opened in Moscow's universities. In 1973, the USSR's Sport
Committee formed the Karate Federation of USSR in December 1978. This was
an exclusive, state-controlled organization with rules and methods intentionally
incompatible with all foreign karate federations. In 1988, karate practice became
legal under strict government regulations. Only after the dissolution of the Soviet
Union in 1992 did independent karate schools resume functioning, and so
federations were formed and national tournaments in authentic styles began.

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1.14.4 Karate in United States
Karate entered the United States through members of the US military who
had learned it in Okinawa or Japan and opened schools on their return. In 1961
Hidetaka Nishiyama, a co-founder of the JKA and student of Gichin Funakoshi
began teaching in the United States. As a trial case in spreading the art of karate,
Masatoshi Nakayama arrange to send Teruyuki Okazaki to the United States in
1961 where he Startinged a karate dojo in Philadelphia. Takayuki Mikami were
sent by the JKA in 1963.
1.14.5 Karate in United Kingdom
In the 1950s and 1960s, several Japanese karate masters began to teach
the art in the United Kingdom. In 1965, Tatsuo Suzuki began teaching Wado-ryū
in London. In 1966, members of the former British Karate Federation established
the Karate Union of Great Britain (KUGB) under Hirokazu Kanazawa as chief
instructor and affiliated to JKA.
1.14.6 Karate in Italy
Hiroshi Shirai, one of the original instructors sent by the JKA to Europe along
with Kase, Enoeda and Kanazawa, moved to Italy in 1965 and quickly
established a Shotokan enclave that spawned several instructors who in their turn
soon spread the style all over the country. By 1970 Shotokan karate was the most
spread martial art in Italy apart from Judo. Other styles such as Wado Ryu, Goju
Ryu and Shito Ryu, although present and well established in Italy, were never
able to break the monopoly of Shotokan.
1.14.7 Karate in France
France Shotokan Karate was created in 1964 by Tsutomu Ohshima. It is
affiliated with another of his organizations, Shotokan Karate of America (SKA).
However, in 1965 Taiji Kase came from Japan along with Enoeda and Shirai,
who went to England and Italy respectively, and karate came under the influence
of the JKA.
1.15 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF KARATE
Karate began as a common fighting system known as te (Okinawan: ti)
among the Pechin class of the Ryukyuans. After trade relationships were

36
established with the Ming dynasty of China by King Satto of Chūzan in 1372,
some forms of Chinese martial arts were introduced to the Ryukyu Islands by the
visitors from China, particularly Fujian Province. A large group of Chinese
families moved to Okinawa around 1392 for the purpose of cultural exchange,
where they established the community of Kumemura and shared their knowledge
of a wide variety of Chinese arts and sciences, including the Chinese martial arts.
The political centralization of Okinawa by King Shō Hashi in 1429 and the
policy of banning weapons by King Shō Shin in 1477, later enforced in Okinawa
after the invasion by the Shimazu clan in 1609, are also factors that furthered the
development of unarmed combat techniques in Okinawa.
There were few formal styles of te, but rather many practitioners with
their own methods. One surviving example is the Motobu-ryū school passed
down from the Motobu family by Seikichi Uehara. Early styles of karate are
often generalized as Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te, named after the three
cities from which they emerged. Each area and its teachers had particular kata,
techniques, and principles that distinguished their local version of te from the
others.
Members of the Okinawan upper classes were sent to China regularly to
study various political and practical disciplines. The incorporation of empty-
handed Chinese Kung Fu into Okinawan martial arts occurred partly because of
these exchanges and partly because of growing legal restrictions on the use of
weaponry. Traditional karate kata bear a strong resemblance to the forms found
in Fujian martial arts such as Fujian White Crane, Five Ancestors, and Gangrou-
quan (Hard Soft Fist; pronounced "Gōjūken in Japanese). Many Okinawan
weapons such as the sai, tonfa, and nunchaku may have originated in and around
Southeast Asia.
Sakukawa Kanga (1782–1838) had studied pugilism and staff (bo)
fighting in China (according to one legend, under the guidance of Kosokun,
originator of kusanku kata). In 1806 he started teaching a fighting art in the city
of Shuri that he called Tudi Sakukawa, which meant Sakukawa of China Hand.
This was the first known recorded reference to the art of Tudi,written as Around

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the 1820s Sakukawa's most significant student Matsumura Sōkon (1809–1899)
taught a synthesis of te (Shuri-te and Tomari-te) and Shaolin (Chinese) styles.
Matsumura's style would later become the Shōrin-ryū style.
1.16 YOGA
Yoga is a discipline to improve or develop one’s inherent power in a
balanced manner. It offers the means to attain complete self-realisation. The
literal meaning of the Sanskrit word Yoga is ’Yoke’. Yoga can therefore be
defined as a means of uniting the individual spirit with the universal spirit of
God. According to Maharishi Patanjali, Yoga is the suppression of modifications
of the mind.
Ancient Yogis had a belief that in order for man to be in harmony with
himself and his environment, he has to integrate the body, the mind, and the
spirit. For these three to be integrated, emotion, action, and intelligence must be
in balance. The Yogis formulated a way to achieve and maintain this balance and
it is done through exercise, breathing, and Meditation - the three main Yoga
structures. In Yoga, the body is treated with care and respect for it is the
primary instrument in man's work and growth. Yoga Exercises improve
circulation, stimulate the abdominal organs, and put pressure on the glandular
system of the body, which can generally result to better health. Breathing
techniques were developed based on the concept that breath is the source of life.
In Yoga, students gain breathing control as they slowly increase their breathing.
By focusing on their breathing, they prepare their minds for the next step -
Meditation. There is a general misconception that in Meditation, your mind has
to go blank. It doesn't have to be so. In Meditation, students bring the activities
of the mind into focus resulting in a 'quiet' mind. By designing physical poses
and Breathing Techniques that develop awareness of our body, Yoga helps us
focus and relieves us from our everyday stress.
Yoga is an ancient Indian philosophy based on diverse breathing,
stretching, and meditation exercises. The "physical" part of Yoga (Hatha)
consists of several stretching and strength-building exercises of varying degree
of difficulty called asanas. In complementary alternative medicine, Hatha Yoga

38
(HY) has proved to reduce stress and pain (muscle and systemic) Netz and Lidor
(2003)
Yoga Sutra defines asana as that which is comfortable and easy, as well as
firm. It is a dynamic position, in which the practitioner is perfectly poised
between activity and non-activity, being doing and "being done by" the posture.
A corresponding mental balance exists between movement and stillness. Yoga
teaches that each posture reflects a mental attitude, whether that attitude be one
of surrender, as in a forward bending asana, or the strengthening of the will,
through backward bending postures, or the creation of a physical prayer or
meditation with the body, as in the practice of Padmasana (Lotus Posture). A
posture or asana can be used for rejuvenating specific organs and glands as well
as the spine.
Yoga is the Hindu practice of physical, mental, and spiritual discipline,
originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga,
is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility
while meditating on the Hindu concept of divinity or Brahman The word is
associated with meditative practices in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Yoga
means 'Oneness' and constitutes the essence of every possible religion, the gist of
every creed and the core of every spiritual path. In ancient India, yoga was
practised by such sages as Shiva, Rama, Krishna and Vyasa. Krishna teaches
Arjuna is not Krishnaism, but just Yoga. The root of Jainism is Yoga, since
Mahavira practised Hatha Yoga. Jesus Christ even carried out a lengthy
pilgrimage with the purpose of studying yoga. Gautama Buddha studied Yoga
throughout his life. Bodhidharma brought Buddha's raja yoga from India to
China. In the Middle East countries this practice is known as SUFA or ZUF. As
the Bible teaches, such men as Samuel or David the prophets, were related to the
sufi school. In Tibet, people do not call themselves the Buddhists but the yoga
practitioners. Padmasambhava is a yogi as well.
All teachings guide an embodied spirit in a (non)-personal relationship to
God. The supreme godhead resides in every being in its heart. The native yoga-
paths are a part of the vedic-culture we refer to today as hinduism, but the real

39
importance of vedic culture seems to be that it has enabled native yoga-paths to
stay in the Indian sub-continent unchanged longer than they have in other
locations. It seems as if these philosophies were once known all over the world.
1.16.1 BENEFITS OF ASANA
Raub JA (2002), The three main elements used in hatha yoga to attain its
purposes are the body, the physical part of man; the mind, the subtle part; and
the element that relates the body with the mind in a special way, the breath. Over
the last 10 years, a growing number of research studies have shown that the
practice of hatha yoga can improve strength and flexibility, and may help control
such physiological variables as blood pressure, respiration and heart rate, and
metabolic rate to improve overall exercise capacity. The physical benefits of
yoga are myriad. Yoga keeps our body strong, as it involves all the muscles of
our body to hold and balance yoga Asanas (poses). The various yoga postures
strengthen our feet, legs, hands, abdominals, lower back, legs, and shoulders.
Yoga’s stretching and breathing exercises improve our flexibility, helping joints,
tendons, and muscles stay limber. People suffering from osteoarthritis or
rheumatoid arthritis will see a noticeable improvement in their stiffness, pain,
and other arthritic symptoms by practicing yoga poses and postures. It can
relieve chronic back and neck pain, since the poses and postures gently stretch
and strengthen your back and neck muscles. Yoga is often prescribed to help
heal various injuries, including repetitive strain injuries, knee and back injuries
and pulled hamstrings.
1.16.2 BENEFITS OF ASANA FOR CARDIAC SYSTEM
The finding of Muralidhara and Ranganathan (1982), that yoga training
improves physical efficiency as indicated by significant increase in cardiac
recovery. The gentler forms of yoga lower our blood pressure because the asanas
(yoga poses, postures, and yoga positions keep blood flowing evenly throughout
body while focus on breathing. People suffering from hypertension can benefit
from yoga tremendously, as hatha yoga can lower the heart rate and blood
pressure. Many practitioners claim that yoga has also lowered their cholesterol.

40
Power yoga is an excellent form of cardio conditioning, which strengthens core
muscles while it keeps blood and oxygen circulating throughout body.
1.16.3 BENEFITS OF ASANAS FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
Khanam AA et.al., (1996) Environmental conditions and variety of
behavioural factors such as stress, anxiety, affective and attitudinal dispositions
of the individual influence the cardiovascular responses. Yogic exercise involves
physical, mental and spiritual task in a comprehensive manner. It brings about
the behavioural changes. Yoga in long duration affects hypothalamus and brings
about decrease in the systolic and diastolic BP through its influence on
vasomotor centre, which leads to reduction in sympathetic tone and peripheral
resistance. Yoga can reduce tension, headaches and migraines because yoga
circulates blood and oxygen to head, which can often prevent headaches from
starting. A regular yoga practice helps boost antioxidants throughout our body,
resulting in a stronger immune system and improved ability to heal quickly from
disease or injury. It can help to lose weight and maintain a healthy weight
throughout our life. Power yoga is a vigorous form of yoga that burns calories,
resulting in weight loss.
1.16.4 Pranayama
The process of controlling the Prana is called Pranayama. So pranayama
is the science related to vital force supplying energy and controlling the body
mind complex. Breathing is the process of taking in this vital energy and
removing the waste products out of our body and mind. Generally breathing
includes inhalation and exhalation but pranayama includes retention of breath
(known as 'Kumbhaka' in Sanskrit) as well. This is a very important process. The
air can be retained in the lungs or out of the lungs. The ancient texts say that
retention of air, increases the level of prana (energy) in the body, also it regulates
the flow of pranic energy through out the body. So pranayama helps remove all
the ailments and also can stop the aging process of the body.
1.16.5 Mind and Breath
The mind, consisting of thoughts and emotions is closely related to the
breath. When the mind is calm and relaxed, the breathing is smooth and slow. If

41
you are stressed breathing is fast & shallow but mostly through chest. When one
gets angry, the breathing becomes fast and forceful, in depressed states sighing,
when in pain gasping, in anxiety shallow and rapid. In this way, the mental and
emotional states affect breathing.
1.16.6 Rhythmic Breathing in Pranayama
All the processes and organs like heart, brain, digestive organs, endocrine
glands in the body have rhythms. Also the breathing has specific rhythms.
Pranayama is Rhythmic breathing, bringing the breath in natural rhythm by
controlling the process of inhalation, exhalation and retention.
1.16.7 Physiology of Yogic Breathing
In process of breathing, one uses diaphragm, intercostals muscles in the
chest. The diaphragmatic breathing is called vertical breathing and is considered
a more efficient way to inhale air than inhaling while expanding the chest which
is called horizontal breathing.
In pranayama, one should utilize the diaphragm efficiently to get more
oxygen without making more efforts. The diaphragm is attached to the organs
like heart and lings, also the liver, spleen, pancreas and stomach from the bottom
side. Efficient movement of the diaphragm makes the functioning of these
organs more efficient.
Patanjali in his text of Yoga Sutras mentioned pranayama as means of
attaining higher states of awareness, he mentions the holding of breath as
important practice of reaching Samadhi. Hatha Yoga also talks about 8 types of
pranayama which will make the body and mind healthy.
Five types of prana are responsible for various pranic activities in the
body, they are Prana, Apana, Vyan, Udana & Samana. Out of these Prana and
Apana are most important. Prana is upward flowing and Apana is downward
flowing. Practice of Pranayama achieves the balance in the activities of these
pranas, which results in healthy body and mind.
1.16.8 Types of Pranayama
Quiet Breathing , Deep Breathing , Fast Breathing, Tribandha and
Pranayama, Nadi Shuddhi Pranayama or Anuloma - Viloma (Alternate nostril

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breathing - I), Anuloma - Viloma (Alternate Nostril Breathing - II), Suryan
Bhedan Pranayama (Right Nostril Breathing), Ujjayi Pranayama, Bhramari
Pranayama, Pranayama from Hatha Yoga, Surya Bhedan, Bhasrika, Ujjayi,
Shitali, Sitkari, Bhramari, Murchha & Plavini Pranayama.
1.16.9 Meditation
Meditation is a practice in which an individual trains the mind or induces
a mode of consciousness, either to realize some benefit or as an end in itself. The
term meditation refers to a broad variety of practices (much like the term sports)
that includes techniques designed to promote relaxation, build internal energy or
life force (qi, ki, prana, etc.) and develop compassion, love, patience, generosity
and forgiveness. A particularly ambitious form of meditation aims at effortlessly
sustained single-pointed concentration single-pointed analysis, meant to enable
its practitioner to enjoy an indestructible sense of well-being while engaging in
any life activity.
The word meditation carries different meanings in different contexts.
Meditation has been practiced since antiquity as a component of numerous
religious traditions and beliefs. Meditation often involves an internal effort to
self-regulate the mind in some way. Meditation is often used to clear the mind
and ease many health issues, such as high blood pressure, depression, and
anxiety. It may be done sitting, or in an active way—for instance, Buddhist
monks involve awareness in their day-to-day activities as a form of mind-
training. Prayer beads or other ritual objects are commonly used during
meditation in order to keep track of or remind the practitioner about some aspect
of the training.
1.17. MARTIAL ARTS AND YOGA
Martial Arts-Yoga includes sitting postures, standing meditations and
more advanced hand positions or mudras to circulate energy through the whole
system and the energy bodies. Alchemised energy results from the mixture of
divine light with the inner fires or kundalini. The circulation of power and
energy – especially the alchemised circulation – flows more efficiently when

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practicing a standing posture because it involves the lower centres, including the
legs.
Martial Arts-Yoga dynamic are the systematic, sequenced designs of bio-
mechanical movements synchronised with breathing techniques that maximise
circulation and energise the whole body system. The result is tremendously
powerful than normal martial arts or yoga alone. It’s like combining the best
Japanese martial arts style with the best of Tibetan, Nepalese and Indian yoga
systems. Martial Arts-Yoga is divided into seven levels that integrate the
development of greater physical acumen along with the development of life
skills, higher virtues and values.
1.18 CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
Physical fitness is the ability to carry out daily task with vigor and
alertness without undue fatigue and with ample energy in leisure pursuits and
meet emergency situations.
Health is very important part in ones life. So every one should take care
of their health. Nowadays people are trying to be fit and active. For this they are
joining fitness clubs, doing exercises regularly, etc. If we are active then we can
be fit, strong and healthy. There is relation between physical fitness and health.
If we are physically fit then we was have healthier life. If we overweight then we
can reduce the weight or loose the extra pounds of fat by doing exercises and
controlling the food.
1.18.1 Agility
Sheppard and Young (2006) define agility as “a rapid whole body
movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus.”
Evelyn.L, Shury, (1975)In order to develop agility it is unnecessary to
consistently introduce the sportsmen to new more complicated movements and
carry out already known movements under reveal conditions. Agility is
developed through practice and confidence in movements.
Agility is one of the main components of physical fitness which is
considered to be important agility is the ability of man to co-ordinate his
movement and to synchronise them according to the requirements of changing

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conditions. In sports are distinguish between general and specific agility, general
agility is expressed by the ability of a person to perform any movement from the
entire versatile range of spotting, activities in a functional and resourceful
manner.
Specific agility develops in accordance with the nature of the body
movement of particular competition event. Essentially specific agility is the
agility to vary the technique of the selected experience. But the greater the
agility or a sportsmen, the more precise quickly and more effective and his
movement to restore balance. Agility also gains importance during conscious
movements, correction by the sportsman during training.
Previously it was believed that agility is a single taster by itself. No, it is
believed that agility including strength power and co-operation. It is
demonstrated to such movement as dodging, zig-zag running, stopping and
starting and changing body position quickly.
Agility however must be in response to an opposing player, moving
target, as seen in field sports and racket sports. Aside from improving sports
performance, why would an individual need to maintain or improve agility
Dodging requires agility, such as jumping out of the way of an oncoming car or
avoiding an unexpected hole. If the ever need to run down a crowded street to
catch a bus or escape an assailant, agility will help the avoid knocking the self
out on a utility pole or tripping over a dog leash. Material to exercise the
balance agility for children Exercises. Many of exercises to improve agility
involve an agility ladder. It is a ladder drawn on the floor, with the individual
required to hop or high-step through the rungs with a variety of forward,
backward and lateral motions. A person could also practice the tests of agility.
1. 18.2 Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability to move joints and use muscles through their full
range of motion. There are various techniques of stretching grouped as static,
ballistic and assisted. In static and ballistic the athlete is in control of the
movements. In assisted movement he is controlled by an external force.
Flexibility plays an important role in the preparation of athletes by developing

45
range movements to allow technical development an assisting in the prevention
of injury (Harre and Dietrich, 1982). Protagonist muscles are the cause for
movement of muscles and the antagonistic muscles are the ones that help
muscles in opposing 8 the movement. The training helps to improve the range of
stretch of the antagonistic muscles. In the game of hockey flexibility helps to
stretch the muscles and increase the bending, reaching, twisting and turning to
tackle and beat the opponent in efficient manner.
1.18.3 Muscular Strength
Muscular strength is the ability to generate force at a given velocity of
movement. One of the five primary components of physical fitness, it is
generally developed using resistance training. This type of training typically
aims to stimulate increased strength on a number of physiological levels.
Individual strength can be an indicator of overall health, or a measure of
progress during resistance or rehabilitation training programme. As such, there
are a number of available methods for testing physical strength.
Strength is the ability of the individual to exert force against an object. It
is the ability to overcome resistance or to act against resistance. Muscle strength
is what happens when the nervous system communicates a message to the
muscle fibers to contract so as to produce force. Often the force produced by a
muscle contraction is against resistance. Strength should not be considered as a
product of only muscular contractions. It is in fact a product of voluntary
muscular contractions caused by the neuromuscular system. The abdominal
strength is very much useful in the field of sports and games. When an
individual possess a high degree of abdominal strength, he will be able to
perform any type of activity such as running, jumping and throwing. The
abdominal strength helps to maintain the body postures, thereby involving in
many activities in the field of sports and games. Lifting a load or moving an
inanimate or animate object essentially depends on the abdominal muscular
strength.
Strength is the most important element in motor performance. Strength is
a consistent differentiator of ability to make and to achieve success in sports.

46
Young athletes develop strength through natural, unbroken movements such as
jumps, throws and other body weight exercises. Proper strength training serves
not only to improve overall performance, but also to secure the body and help
the athlete avoid injury.

1. 18.4 Explosive Power

Explosive power is the ability to release maximum force as fast as

possible. It is a maximum muscular contraction against a resistance in a
minimum amount of time. Power = Force x Velocity. It is a compound element
of motor fitness. It needs specific muscular strength, speed of limb movement
and skill in integrating and co-ordinating the action. Increased velocity of parts
of the body is related to improved neuromuscular initiation, co-ordination and
precision of movement patterns. When a highly skilled level is attained, further
performance improvement is primarily attributable to the increase in strength.
Muscular power exists in its own right. Strength and power are separate entities.

Successful sporting performance at elite levels of competition often

depends heavily on the explosive leg power of the athletes involved. Many team
sports also require high levels of explosive power, such as Basketball,
Volleyball, Netball and the Rugby and Football codes for success at elite levels
of competition. Explosive power comes from the development of speed strength
and pure strength. Power represents the amount of work a muscle or muscle
group can produce per unit of time (Shorten, 1994). Until recent years powers as
it relates to sports performance has been the subject of limited research, but in
the last decade or so researchers have realized the importance of training for
power in a wide variety of sporting activities (Clutch et al, 1983).

Vertical and horizontal jumping, in its many different forms, requires

high levels of explosive muscular power. Brukner and Kahn (1997) note power
as the equivalent of explosive strength. According to Brukner and Kahn (2001),
Power is the equivalent of explosive strength. Young and Bilby (1993) used the
term "speed-strength" synonymous with power. Paavolaienen et al, (1999),

47
suggested that muscle power is the ability of neuromuscular system to produce
power during maximal exercise when glycolytic and oxidative energy production
is high and muscle contractility may be limited.

1. 18.4.1 Arm Explosive Power

Arm Explosive power is the ability to release the maximum muscular force in on
explosive manner, in the shortest possible time. (Hardayal Singh, 1991).
1.19 PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES
Physiology meaning nature, origin, and meaning is the scientific study of
function in living systems. This includes how organisms, organ
systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical
functions that exist in a living system. Human physiology is the science of the
mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and
the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology
is at the level of organs and systems within systems. Much of the foundation of
knowledge in human physiology was provided by animal experimentation.
Physiology is closely related to anatomy; anatomy is the study of form, and
physiology is the study of function. Due to the frequent connection between
form and function, physiology and anatomy are intrinsically linked and are
studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.
1.19.1 Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of
the arteries. This pressure is created by the contractions of the heart and it is that
propels the blood through the blood vessels. During each heartbeat, the heart
pumps a volume of blood. The ejection of this additional volume of blood into
the arterial system serves to raise the pressure of blood in the arteries during
systole is called systolic pressure. During diastole, the distended arteries recoil
due to their elasticity and press on the blood contained in them. This serves to
maintain the arterial blood pressure during diastole although no blood is being
pumped in the arteries by the heart in diastole is called diastolic pressure. The
maximum blood pressure during contraction of ventricles is called systolic blood

48
pressure. The minimum blood pressure during relaxation of ventricles is called
diastolic blood pressure.
1.19.1.1 Systolic Blood Pressure
Systolic pressure is the highest blood pressure of the cardiac cycle
occurring immediately after systolic of the ventricles of the heart (Fox, 1993).
1.19.1.2 Diastolic Blood Pressure
Diastolic pressure is the lowest arterial blood pressure of the cardiac cycle
occurring during diastolic of the heart (Fox, 1993).
1.19.2 Maximum Oxygen Consumption (Vo2 max)
Maximum oxygen uptake (Vo2 max) refers to the highest rate at which
oxygen can be taken up and consumed by the body during intense exercises.
Traditionally, the magnitude of an individual’s Vo2 max has been viewed as one
of the most important predictors of endurance. The ability of the cardio
respiratory system to transport oxygen to the exercising muscles refers to the
central component of Vo2 max. The role of the central component is for oxygen
to be transported from the atmosphere and delivered to the muscles where it is
utilized during mitochondrial respiration to produce ATP. The major limitations
to oxygen delivery are pulmonary diffusion, cardiac output, blood volume and
flow. In aerobic work, oxygen is obtained from the air and is transferred from
the lungs to the blood and then to the muscles via the circulatory system.
Maximal oxygen uptake or maximal aerobic power (Vo2 max) is the indicator of
aerobic fitness. As VO2 max increases, the level of aerobic fitness also increases
which refers to individual aerobic capacity. An individual who is fit will have a
cardio-respiratory system that is capable of meeting the demands of the tissues
under conditions of intense exercise.
1.19.3 Resting Heart Rate
Resting heart rate (RHR) refers to the number of times your heart beats in
one minute while at rest. The average RHR is 70-80 beats per minute (BPM),
though athletes may have resting heart rates as low as 40-50 BPM. RHR is often
a measure of fitness as you become fit; RHR will decrease as your heart
becomes more efficient. It reflects the health of a person and hence is an

49
important health factor that should be measured. RHR tells how efficiently our
heart and lungs work. Lower the resting heart rate, healthier is the person. There
are certain factors that govern one's resting heart rate, they are, sex, age, physical
fitness, anxiety, medication, etc. Heart rates vary from person to person and
according to some scientific studies, resting heart rate does not determine a
person's health. Read more on Healthy Pulse Rates - Normal Pulse Rate for
Humans. It should be measured early in the morning before you get out of your
bed. Once you get out of your bed the heart rate will increase due to the daily
activities. Even getting up and walking in your bedroom can increase your heart
beat, hence early morning is the best time to measure resting heart rate.
Measuring resting heart rate at regular interval of time can give you an idea of
your health improvement, if you are under any health training program.
1.20 PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES
According to M.L.Kamlesh sports psychology is the application or
psychological principles to sport and psychological activity at all levels of skill
development. Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human
relationship. Sports psychology means applying psychological theories and
concepts to aspects of sports such as coaching and teaching. Sports psychology
is concerned with analyzing human behaviour in various types of sport settings.
It is individual’s behaviour acting individually and acting in a group. This sport
psychologist uses psychological in assessment techniques and intervention
strategies are an effort to help individuals to achieve their optimal performance.
Sports psychology is an applied psychology with three major activities as
clinical, education and research.
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves
the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors. Psychology has the
immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both establishing
general principles and researching specific cases, and by many accounts it
ultimately aims to benefit society. In this field, a professional practitioner or
researcher is called a psychologist, and can be classified as asocial, behavioral,
or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental

50
functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the
physiological and neuro biological processes that underlie certain cognitive
functions and behaviors.
Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention,
emotion, phenomenology, motivation, behavior, brain functioning, personality
and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists of diverse stripes also consider
the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ empirical methods to
infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables.
In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods,
some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely
upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has
been described as a "hub science", with psychological findings linking to
research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine,
and the humanities, such as philosophy.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment
and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards
understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity.
The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role,
practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research
on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically
work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings
(e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and
organizational settings, or in other areas such as human development and
aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation and
other aspects of law.
1.20.1 Anxiety
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by
cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components
combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with
uneasiness, apprehension, fear, or worry. Anxiety is a generalized mood
condition that can often occur without an identifiable triggering stimulus. As

51
such, it is distinguished from fear, which occurs in the presence of an observed
threat. Additionally, fear is related to the specific behaviors of escape and
avoidance, whereas anxiety is the result of threats that are perceived to be
uncontrollable or unavoidable. Another view is that anxiety is “a future-oriented
mood state in which one is ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming
negative events” suggesting that it is a distinction between future vs. present
dangers that divides anxiety and fear. Anxiety is considered to be a normal
reaction to stress. It may help a person to deal with a difficult situation, for
example at work or at school, by prompting one to cope with it. When anxiety
becomes excessive, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder.
Anxiety is man tested in a varied of ways. Some times individual
experiences it, as merely in sense of harmless dread without being able to
identity or of what he is fearful. Psychiatrists call this three floating anxiety to
indicate that it is not attached to any specific object. When all individual main
symptoms are that of free floating anxiety psychiatrists diagnose the condition as
an anxiety state.
Anxiety is the sense of uneasiness that is experienced in the individual’s
relationships with other people (and in his / her relationship to their own
conscience). In any situation where the person’s vanity is undermined, fear
arises. The conjunction of this fear with the vanity creates anxiety. Anxiety =
fear + vanity. Anxiety is a generalized mood that can occur without an
identifiable triggering stimulus. As such, it is distinguished from fear, which is
an appropriate cognitive and emotional response to a perceived threat.
Additionally, fear is related to the specific behaviours of escape and avoidance,
whereas anxiety is related to situations perceived as uncontrollable or
unavoidable. Another view defines anxiety as "a future-oriented mood state in
which one is ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative
events, suggesting that it is a distinction between future and present dangers
which divides anxiety and fear. In a 2011 review of the literature, fear and
anxiety were said to be differentiated in four domains: duration of emotional
experience, temporal focus, specificity of the threat, and motivated direction.

52
Fear was defined as short lived, present focused, geared towards a specific
threat, and facilitating escape from threat; while anxiety was defined as long
acting, future focused, broadly focused towards a diffuse threat, and promoting
caution while approaching a potential threat.
1.20.2 Aggression
Karl (1991) points out that even something as clear-cut as killing another
man can have radically different interpretations. A man is accused of a
"cowardly attack" if he kills another during a robbery, but is praised for a
"courageous deed" if he kills a guard while escaping from a prisoner of war
camp. While it is fairly certain that most people would suggest that aggression
has occurred in both cases, the degree of justification and approval differs. It
might be suggested that when an act is justified, it is less aggressive than one
that is unjustified.
Groebel and Hinde (1989) define aggression as an interaction between
two individuals. "Attack on another individual usually involves risk of injury for
the attacker. It is therefore rarely single-minded, but is associated with self-
protective and withdrawal responses." (p.4) Other authors have suggested that
aggression may be directed toward inanimate objects as well. Aggression may be
of several types. Instrumental aggression is goal oriented and occurs during theft
or war. This may also be called felonious aggression. Hostile or teasing
aggression, or emotional aggression is directed toward another and harm is
intended. Defensive aggression occurs when one is attacked or provoked. Games
aggression occurs when one deliberately tries to injure someone during a
sporting venture. Dyssocial aggression is associated with gang behavior, and
bizarre aggression is due to psychopathic behavior. Violence is defined by these
authors as physical but not psychological damage to a person or object.
1.21 NEED OF THE STUDY
Many studies have examined the physical, physiological, psychological
and skill performance difference between players and difference martial art
players of various calibers. The better players have been older, stronger, larger
and able to jump higher. To the research knowledge, no research has examined

53
silambam, karate with yoga performance capabilities of different calibres of
martial art players. Hence A study has been under taken to find out the effects of
silambam and karate training with yogic practices on physical, physiological
and psychological variables among male students.
1.22 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The purpose of the study was to find out the effects of Silambam and
Karate training with yogic practices on physical, physiological and
psychological variables of collegiate male students.
1.23 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1. To find out whether silambam training would improve physical variables
of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive power,
physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood
pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables anxiety and
aggression of collegiate male students.
2. To find out whether Karate training would improve the be improve physical
variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive power,
physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood
pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables anxiety and
aggression of collegiate male students.
3. To find out whether silambam training with yogic practices would improve
physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive
power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure,
diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables
anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.
4. To find out whether karate training with yogic practices would improve
physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive
power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure,
diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables
anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.
5. To find out whether silambam training with yogic practices would improve
physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive

54
 power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure,
diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables
anxiety and aggression better than the karate training with yogic practice
group, karate training group, silambam training group, and control group of
collegiate male students.
6. To find out whether karate training with yogic practices group would
significantly improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength,
agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic
blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and
psychological variables anxiety and aggression better than the karate
training group, silambam training group and control group of collegiate
male students.
7. To find out whether silambam training would significantly improve
physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive
power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure,
diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables
anxiety and aggression better than the karate training group and control
group of collegiate male students.
8. To find out whether karate training would significantly improve physical
variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive power,
physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood
pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables anxiety and
aggression better than the control group of collegiate male students.
1.24 HYPOTHESIS
1. It was hypothesized that the silambam training would not significantly
improve the physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm
explosive power, physiological variables of systolic blood pressure,
diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables
anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.
2. It was hypothesized that the karate training would not significantly improve
physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive

55
 power, physiological variables of systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood
pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables anxiety and
aggression of collegiate male students.
3. It was hypothesized that the silambam training with yogic practice would
not significantly improve the physical variables of flexibility, muscular
strength, agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic
blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and
psychological variables anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.
4. It was hypothesized that the karate training with yogic practices would not
significantly improve the physical variables of flexibility, muscular
strength, agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic
blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and
psychological variables anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.
5. It was hypothesized that the silambam training with yogic practices group
would not significantly improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular
strength, agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic
blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and
psychological variables anxiety and aggression better than the karate
training with yogic practices group, karate training group, silambam
training group and control group of collegiate male students.
6. It was hypothesized that the karate training with yogic practices group
would not significantly improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular
strength, agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic
blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and
psychological variables anxiety and aggression better than the karate
training group, silambam training group and control group of collegiate
male students.
7. It was hypothesized that the silambam training group would not
significantly improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength,
agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic blood
pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological

56
 variables anxiety and aggression better than the karate training group and
control group of collegiate male students.
8. It was hypothesized that the karate training group would not significantly
improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm
explosive power, physiological variables of systolic blood pressure,
diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables
anxiety and aggression better than the control group on of collegiate male
students.
1.25 DELIMITATION
1. The total numbers of subjects were delimited to one hundred with equal
number of twenty in each group.
2. Subjects of the present study were selected from Karpagam University
only. The subjects age; Body weight; Height;(19± 2.3 years; 65 ± 5.4 kg;
166 ± 4.5 cm) respectively.
3. The physical variables were delimited to flexibility, muscular strength,
agility, arm explosive power.
4. The physiological variables were delimited to Vo2 max, systolic blood
pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate.
5. The psychological variables were delimited to anxiety and aggression.
6. The duration and frequency was delimited to weekly five days for a period
of 12 weeks.
1.26 LIMITATION
The study was conducted with the following limitations
1. The influence of certain factors like life style, daily routine work, diet and
other factors on the results of the study were not taken in to consideration.
2. No attempt has been made to control the factors like air resistance, intensity
of light atmosphere and temperature during training and testing period.
3. The educational and socio-economic back grounds of the subjects were not
taken into consideration.
4. The knowledge of previous experience in training were not taken into
consideration

57
 5. The psychological stress and other factors, which affect the metabolic
function were not taken into consideration
1.27 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study would be significant in the following ways
1. The finding of the study may add to the existing fund of knowledge with
regard to the silambam, karate training and yogic practice to improve the
physical, physiological and psychological variables and helpful to the
student to learn the Indian traditional martial art of Silambam and karate.
2. The finding of this study would add to quantum of knowledge, the level of
improvement in silambam students and learners.
3. This study may help the silambam players to prepare for future
competitions.
4. This study can provide guidelines for the silambam coaches and physical
education teachers to understand the importance of silambam training in
order to improve the game techniques of the players.
5. The study can give information to silambam coaches to add silambam
training with yogic training in the regular training program in order to
improve physical fitness components of silambam players.
6. The contribution of this study would bring healthy fit society in India.
7. This study may help the future research scholars to select the problem
relating to the study.
8. This study can give special knowledge to the fitness experts, health
consultants, conditioning experts and athletes of different levels of
performance and achievement with reference to silambam training.
1.28 DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL TERMS
1. 28.1 Martial Arts
John Clements (2009) A martial art, in essence, can be said to be
something that originates in skills of war, hence its martial or warlike quality.

58
1. 28.2 Silambam
Silambam is a traditional Dravidian martial art based on stick fighting. To
meditate got attracted by the display of this highly skilled spinning
Chilambamboo.
1.28.3 Karate
Karate is a martial art, primarily a striking art, featuring punching,
kicking, knee and elbow strikes, and open-handed techniques, but grappling,
joint manipulations, locks, restraints, throws, and vital point striking were also
taught, depending on the style.
1.28.4 Yoga
According to Maharishi Patanjali, Yoga is the suppression of
modifications of the mind and to attain complete self-realisation.
1.28.5 Agility
Barry, L. and Jack Nelson (1972) defined as the physical agility which
enables an individual to rapidly change body position and a direction in a precise
manner.
Sheppard and Young (2006) define agility as “a rapid whole body
movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus.”
1.28.6 Flexibility
(Harre and Dietrich, 1982) define flexibility is the ability to move joints
and use muscles through their full range of motion.
1.28.7 Muscular Strength
The ability to generate force is necessary for all types of movement.
Muscle fibre cross-sectional area (CSA) is positively related to maximal force
production (Finer et al 1994).
The arrangement of fibres according to their angle of pennation, muscle
length, joint angle, and contraction velocity can alter the expression of muscular
strength (Gulch 1994, and Kibler 2006).

59
1.28.8 Arm Explosive Power
Hardayal Singh, (1991) Arm Explosive power is the ability to release the
maximum muscular force in on explosive manner, in the shortest possible time.
1.28.8 Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of
the arteries. This pressure is created by the contractions of the heart and it is that
propels the blood through the blood vessels.
1.28.8.1 Systolic Blood Pressure
Systolic pressure is the highest blood pressure of the cardiac cycle
occurring immediately after systolic of the ventricles of the heart (Fox, 1993).
1.28.8.2 Diastolic Blood Pressure
Diastolic pressure is the lowest arterial blood pressure of the cardiac cycle
occurring during diastolic of the heart (Fox, 1993).

1.28.9 Maximum Oxygen Consumption (Vo2 max)

Vo2 max is the maximum capacity of an individual’s body to transport
and utilize oxygen during incremental exercise, which reflects the physical
fitness of the Individual.
1.28.10 Resisting Pulse Rate
Miller (1976) Measurement of heart rate when an organism is under
physical and mental rest can be termed as resting pulse rate.
“The time from the end of one contraction to the end of the next

contraction is a complete heart beat or pulse or cardiac cycle. The complete

cardiac cycle takes less than one second (about 0.08 sec) in a normal adult at rest

and is shortened by exercise”. (Eva Lurie Weinerb, 1984).

1.28.11 Anxiety
Anxiety is the sense of uneasiness that is experienced in the individual’s
relationships with other people and in his / her relationship to their own
conscience.

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1.28.12 Aggression
Karl (1991) points out that even something as clear-cut as killing another
man can have radically different interpretations. A man is accused of a
"cowardly attack" if he kills another during a robbery, but is praised for a
"courageous deed" if he kills a guard while escaping from a prisoner of war
camp.

61