Acronym-a word or name formed as an abbreviation from the initial components in a phrase or a word, usually

individual letters and sometimes syllables.

Allusion – involve extra-linguistic knowledge; the doule meaning may refer to a saying or quotations.

Amelioration- making sth better, bigger.

Anthroponomastics (or anthroponymy) is the study of the names of human beings. The study of anthroponyms is
a branch of onomastics.

Connotation- the emotional aspect of lexical meaning; the emotional associations a lexeme brings to mind, cf.:
train, city, test

Denotation – the objective relationship between a lexeme and the reality to which it refers to: laptop, white,
mobile phone, bag

Dialect refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers,
certain geographical territory.

Dictionary - a systematic collection of the words of a language or a text. First used as Dictionarius in the 13th
century by an English man John Garland. The word Dictionarium was used in the 14th century. The first book
published under the English title Dictionary was Latin-English Dictionary by Sir Thomas Elyot (1538).

Doublet- a pair of similar things, in particular two words of the same derivation but having different meanings,
for example fashion and faction, cloak and clock.

Eponym is a person, place, or thing after whom or after which something is named, or believed to be named. The
adjectives derived from eponym include eponymous and eponymic. For example, Elizabeth I of England is the
eponym of the Elizabethan era

Etymology-study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.
By extension, the term "the etymology (of a word)" means the origin of the particular word.

Etymon-the linguistic form from which another form is historically derived

Euphemism- a mild, indirect, or vague term for one that is considered harsh, blunt, or offensive.

Folk etymology-involves a change in the form or pronunciation of a word or phrase resulting from a mistaken
assumption about its composition or meaning. Wrong guesses about the origin of the word (cockroach).

Glossaries – collections of glosses, i.e. lists of words (lemmata), each with a brief explanation; glossae collectae,
alphabetical glossaries, class glossaries.

Glosses – words that explain other, normally more difficult, words (lemmas); interlinear glosses, marginal
glosses.

Graphological humour: deviation from the norms of speling (misprints, mis-spellings, graff

Jargon is a type of language that is used in a particular context and may not be well understood outside that
context. The context is usually a particular occupation (that is, a certain trade, profession, or academic field), but
any ingroup; or social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member, can have jargon.

Lexeme- a unit of lexical meaning that exists regardless of the number of inflectional endings it may have or the
number of words it may contain. It is a basic unit of meaning, and the headwords of a dictionary are all lexemes.

Loanblend- a compound word or expression consisting of both native and foreign elements also known as
hybrid.

English takes many of its words from different languages around the world. These words are broadly
known as borrowings,and are subdivided into two categories: loanwords and loan translations.A loan translation
(also known as a calque), on the other hand, is a word or phrase taken from another language buttranslated (eithe
r in part or in whole) to corresponding English words while still retaining the original meaning.
Loanword- a term taken from another language and used without translation; it has a specific meaning that (typic
ally)does not otherwise exist in a single English word. Sometimes the word’s spelling or pronunciation (or both)
is slightly alteredto accommodate English orthography, but, in most cases, it is preserved in its original language.

malapropism- ludicrous misuse of a word, especially by confusion with one of similar sound. Malapropism (<
Malaprop, a character in R. Sheridan’s play The Rivals) – inappropriate use of words (mis-speech)

Minced oath is a euphemistic expression formed by misspelling, mispronouncing, or replacing a part of

a profane, blasphemous, or taboo term to reduce the original term's objectionable characteristics.

Morpheme- the smallest grammatical unit in a language. In other words, it is the smallest meaningful unit of a
language.

Noah Webster-is the author of Dictionary of American English 1828. He simplified American spelling, his rule
'write as you speak'. He was a spelling reformer. There were 70 000 words and 12 000 there were new words.

Onomasiology-a branch of linguistics concerned with the question "how do you express X?" What is the name
for long, narrow pieces of potato that have been deep-dried? They are chips. It's a branch of lexicology.

Onomastics/onomatology is the study of the origin, history, and use of proper names.Onomastics- the study of
names, the origin, history, and use of proper names.

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is the main historical dictionary of the English language, published by the
Oxford University Press. It traces the historical development of the English language, providing a
comprehensive resource to scholars and academic researchers, as well as describing usage in its many variations
throughout the world. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, published in 1989.

pejoration-semantic change in a word to a lower, lessapproved, or less respectable meaning.

Phonological ambiguity: two possible interpretations of the same group of sounds (homophony),

Political correctness: a term used to describe language, policies, or measures that are intended to avoid offense or
disadvantage to members of particular groups in society.

polysemy-a diversity of meanings for a given word.

Samuel Johnson-the author of the first monolingual dictionary in English: A Dictionary of the English language
1755. It is a record of how people spoke that time, pronunciation, structure, grammar, etymology. Until the
completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 173 years later, Johnson's was viewed as the pre-eminent English
dictionary.

Semantics- study of possible meaning. Mad-angrym crazy, insane

Semasiology-a discipline of linguistics concerned with the question "what does the word X mean?” (What is the
meaning of the term chips? It is long, narrow piece of potato).It studies the meaning of words regardless how
they are pronounced.

Slang refers to words, phrases and uses that are regarded as very informal and often restricted to special context
or peculiar to a specified profession class and the like. Slang words are used in specific social groups, like
teenagers, which they use oftentimes in their conversations.

Spoonerism-the transposition of initial or other sounds of words, as in a blushing crow for a crushing blow.

Taboo: spells, obscenity, foul language, ethnic slurs. Certain topics which are not allowed in some communities
(death, f****). Embarrassing, offensive, harmful expressions, f-, s-words; often officially prohibited, cf.:
contempt of court, unparliamentary language;

Toponymy is the study of place names (toponyms), their origins, meanings, use, and typology. A set of place-
names is called toponymy, and their study is called toponomastics.
Yield (self-) correction: Pardon my French, Ladies present!, Wash you mouth out! God forgive me for swearing

Word is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with objective or practical meaning.

Ways to enrich a lexicon:

Borrowing – taking a word or phrase from one language into another

Loanwords (from GM Lehnwort) : EN coffee, yoghurt, alcohol, robot

Loanblends - a foreign loan + a native form (PL drewland)

Loan translations (calques): PL nastolatek <- EN teenager

Semantic loans: PL dieta, dokładnie, strona, konto, promocja, wchodzić

Three theories of humour:

Theory of incongruity (or inconsistency, or contradiction, or bisociation): based on the element of surprise, a
conflict between what is expected and what actually occurs in the joke. Theory of superiority (or disparagement,
or criticism, or hostility): humour is pointed against some person or group, typically on political, ethnic or
gender grounds.

Levels of structural ambiguity (Phonological Graphological Morphological Lexical Syntactic)

Variations of swearing

Sacred: prayers, attestations, charms, oaths

Profane: curses, profanity, malediction, perjury, blasphemy

Taboo: spells, obscenity, foul language, ethnic slurs