Risk Assessment for Trichloroethylene

Lori Gorczynski, Steven Hoffman, Tina Gupta, Danielle Watt

ENVL 4446 Remediation and Biotechnology

Professor Tait Chirenje

Stockton University

1/26/2018

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 Table of Contents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………..3

Hazard Identification…………………………………………………………………………..4

Hazard Characterization……………………………………………………………………...5-8

Exposure Assessment………………………………………………………………………..8-11

Risk Characterization……………………………………………………………………….11-12

Risk Management…………………………………………………………………………..13-14

Reference………………………………………………………………………………….15-16

Abstract

A risk assessment is defined by the EPA as “to characterize the nature and magnitude of health

risks to humans and ecological receptors from chemical contaminants and other stressors, that

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may be present in the environment” (About Risk Assessment). Risk assessment tells us how

much of a chemical is present (hazard identification), how much exposure a person or ecological

receptor has been exposed too (dose response assessment), and the inherent toxicity of the

chemical (exposure assessment). The end result of all three allows us to avoid or minimize

impact of contaminant (risk management). For this risk assessment we analyzed

trichloroethylene (TCE) by hazard identification and characterization, exposure assessment, risk

characterization as well as risk management. TCE is a volatile organic compound, a known

carcinogen, and is clear, colorless liquid that also has a sweet odor and evaporates quickly (Risk

Management TCE). The majority of TCE is used in closed system as a intermediate chemical for

manufacturing refrigerant chemicals while a smaller portion is used as a solvent for metals

degreasing, spotting agent in dry cleaning and in consumer products (Risk Management TCE).

TCE is a concern because it has numerous acute and chronic effects on human health. The

general population can be exposed to TCE through the air, drinking water, or contaminated

foods. It has been classified as a group 1 Carcinogen as of 2014, which have been proven by

numerous studies. Exposure to TCE can include inhalation and ingestion, with the contaminant

being the most frequent found in groundwater. TCE’s physical and chemical properties are

responsible for behavior, transport and fate of the chemical in the subsurface environment,

making air and soil venting a more favorable remediation.

Hazard Identification

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a volatile organic compound that is toxic to humans. TCE is a clear

and colorless liquid that has a small odor and evaporates very quickly. TCE is a class one

carcinogen.

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Endpoints of concern

Once you are exposed to Trichloroethylene, it enters your bloodstream and is filtered through

your liver where it gets broken down and stored in fat in small amounts for a very brief time.You

will actually quickly breathe out much of the trichloroethylene that reaches your bloodstream.

Effects of TCE include headaches, dizziness, and sleepiness at low doses. If you are exposed to a

high dose of TCE, it can lead to coma and even death. Since TCE is a carcinogen, long-term

exposure can lead to kidney cancer, liver cancer, and malignant lymphoma.

Susceptible populations

People living near waste facilities where TCE may be released can be highly exposed. Residents

of urban and industrialized areas can be exposed to higher levels of TCE. Infants can also be

exposed to high levels of TCE due to the amount of TCE found in breast milk and even the soil

where they play. Occupational exposure is also an area of concern, the five primary industries

using TCE degreasing are furniture and fixtures; electronic and electric equipment; transport

equipment; fabricated metal products; and miscellaneous manufacturing industries. TCE is also

used in the manufacture of plastics, appliances, jewelry, plumbing fixtures, automobile, textiles,

paper, and glass. TCE is also found in common products that consumers can buy, such as wood

stains, varnishes, lubricants, paint removers, and cleaners. Although TCE can be found in these

product, it has been removed in others. These products include fumigants and an extractant for

decaffeinating coffee.

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Food and other sources of concern

TCE has been detected in table-ready foods at concentrations generally in the range of 2-100

ppb. TCE can also be found in small amounts in the air and water.

Incidence

Seasonality does have some influence on TCE exposure in the environment based on the

recharge of the water table and leaching of dense non-aqueous-phase liquids. This can cause the

TCE to be trapped in unsaturated zones above the water table. Incidences and outbreaks are

determined by how much TCE is released and if the surrounding population can be exposed,

which occurs near waste facilities.

Hazard Characterization

Trichloroethylene is a colorless, volatile liquid that evaporates quickly into the air.

Trichloroethylene is released into the environment during the course of its manufacture,

formulation, and use, and can be frequently detected in the atmosphere and water. In 2011 the

EPA Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) program reported that releases of TCE were greater than

2.6 million pounds in air emissions, 452 pounds in surface water discharges, 18,364 pounds into

the soil, and 9,578 pounds via underground injection.

Several factors affect susceptibility including gender, pre-existing health status, race/ethnicity,

lifestyle, and lifestage. Most of the general population in a residential area would be exposed to

TCE through inhalation of ambient air, ingestion of drinking water, and ingestion of

contaminated foods. The levels of exposure in most cases are far below the exposure level to

cause adverse health effects, but residents of urban or industrialized areas or those living near

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waste facilities may be exposed at elevated levels. Children are also exposed to TCE through

ambient air, drinking water, and contaminated foods. The behavior of a child also influences

exposure as they may ingest dirt and items that contain TCE. TCE has also been detected in

breast milk and can be a source of exposure for infants.

There are numerous studies on the human health effects of TCE which have both cancer and

noncancerous endpoints. The chart below shows a portion of the 50 epidemiologic studies on

cancer and TCE exposure in humans. The National Toxicology Program lists TCE as a known

human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence from human studies.

Table 1.

Source: USEPA (2018).

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Human studies have also been conducted to examine the effects of TCE on trigeminal nerve

function. Many of the studies reported that humans exposed to TCE suffer abnormalities

measured by blink reflex and masseter reflex test measurements. The chart below shows a

portion of the studies and the effect on the human nervous system.

Table 2.

Source: USEPA (2018).

The ATSDR conducted a study in 2002 on 116 children under 10 years of age, who all resided

near six superfund sites and were exposed to TCE and other solvents in groundwater supplies.

Clinical tests for oral motor, speech, and hearing functions were performed and showed that 20%

of children possibly exposed to TCE exhibited an abnormal acoustic reflex, while only 5-7% of

the control group exhibited the same reflex. Epidemiological studies (ATSDR, 2002; Burg and

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Gist, 1999; Burg et al., 1995; Rasmussen et al., 1993d) suggest that auditory impairments result

from inhalation and oral TCE exposure.

Dose response analyses is broken into assessments for cancerous and noncancerous endpoints.

The analyses shows the critical effects for the inhalation reference concentration (RfC) and oral

reference dose(RfD). In dose-response curves adjustments need to be made between species,

between methods of exposure, and sensitivity levels of individuals. Uncertainty factors are used

to account for the difference in study conditions of laboratory animals to conditions of human

environmental exposure. When a point of departure (POD) is derived from animal data it is

divided by an uncertainty factor (UF) of 10 for oral exposures to reflect pharmacokinetic and

pharmacodynamic differences in humans and laboratory animals. For inhalation exposures, the

interspecies UF is 3. There is also a UF for intraspecies variability to address the sensitive

humans in a general population who will be adversely affected at lower exposures. The standard

UF for human variability is 10.

Exposure Assessment

Trichloroethylene used in the United States is, mostly, released into the atmosphere from

industrial degreasing operations. Both acute and chronic inhalation exposure can affect the

human central nervous system, showing symptoms such as dizziness, headaches, confusion,

euphoria, facial numbness, and weakness (TCE, p.1). Epidemiological studies have reported

TCE exposure to be associated with numerous types of cancers including kidney, liver, cervix

and lymphatic system (Id.). Sources and exposure to TCE include inhalation, ingestion,

biological and products that contain the chemical.

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Inhalation

TCE has been detected in ambient air at levels less than 1 ppb (Id.). The ATSDR has reported

that an average daily air intake of TCE for the general population is about 11-33 μg/day

(Toxicological Review TCE, p.2-17).

Table 3 1999 annual exposure concentration (μg/m3 ) for TCE

Source: Toxicological Review TCE, p.2-16

Table 3 shows that TCE inhalation exposures in urban areas are usually about twice as high as

rural areas. This table only shows outdoor air exposure and not indoor, which is where people

spend the majority of their time.

Ingestion

TCE has a moderate water solubility, meaning it has the potential to migrate into groundwater

(TCE, p.1) and is the most frequent reported organic contaminant found in groundwater

(Toxicological Review TCE, p.2-17). ATSDR reports estimate that between 9-34% of drinking

water supply sources have some TCE contamination, most municipal water supplies are within

compliance of the maximum contaminant level of 5 µg/L (TCE, p.1). Table 4 shows an

preliminary estimate of TCE intake from food. It is based on an average adult food ingestion

rates and suggest a total ingest intake of about 5 µg/d (Toxicological Review TCE, p.2-18). It is

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considered preliminary because the data arise from applying data from very limited food samples

to broads classes of food (Id.).

Table 4: Preliminary estimate of TCE intake from food ingestion

Source: Toxicological Review TCE, p.2-18

Biological

Biological monitoring studies have shown TCE in human blood and urine in the United States as

well as other countries such as Croatia, China, Switzerland, and Germany (Toxicological Review

TCE, p.2-15). Concentrations of TCE in persons exposed by occupational degreasing operations

were likely to have the most detectable levels (Toxicological Review TCE, p.2-15). The Third

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey examined TCE concentrations in blood in 677

nonoccupational exposed individuals (Toxicological Review TCE, p.2-15). These individuals

were drawn from general U.S. population and selected on basis of age, race, gender and region of

residence (Toxicological Review TCE, p.2-15). Samples were collected between 1988-94

showing that TCE levels in whole blood were below detection limit of 0.01 μg/L for about 90%

of people sampled (Toxicological Review TCE, p.2-15).

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Risk Characterization

TCE is associated with adverse effects on cardiac development based on developmental studies

on rats, humans and chickens. These effects are deemed important for acute and chronic risk

estimation. TCE can enter the body through air, water, soil or food. People are most likely to be

exposed to TCE by drinking contaminated water and inhalation (ATSDR, 2016). Once it is in the

blood, your liver changes the TCE into other chemicals. If the body absorbs more

trichlorethylene than it can break down, it will be stored in body fat until the absorption ceases.

The health effects solely depend on the amount of exposure and length of that exposure. For

humans, contaminated water usually contains the highest levels of TCE. People who are

overexposed to moderate amounts of trichloroethylene through inhalation may experience acute

health effects such as headaches, dizziness, sleepiness (EPA, 2016). Effects on the liver, lungs,

kidney and nervous system have also been noted. Other effects seen in people exposed to high

levels of trichloroethylene through drinking water contamination include effects to the liver,

kidney, immune and endocrine systems for humans.which can be chronic. Exposure to

trichloroethylene in the workplace may cause scleroderma in some people. Some men

occupationally-exposed to trichloroethylene showed decreases in sex drive, sperm quality, and

reproductive hormone levels (EPA, 2016). Lifetime exposure to trichloroethylene resulted in

increased liver cancer in mice and increased kidney cancer in rats at relatively high exposure

levels. TCE has been classified as a group 1 carcinogen by the international agency for research

on cancer which would make it carcinogenic to humans. ATSDR has calculated an an

intermediate duration inhalation minimal risk level of 0.1 parts per million for TCE based on

neurological effects in rats. The California Environmental Protection Agency has calculated a

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chronic inhalation reference exposure level of 0.6 mg/m^3 based on neurological effects in

humans. Tables 5 and 6 calculate the cancer and non cancerous risk of human exposure to TCE.

Increasing animal and human studies are reducing the variability and uncertainty of the effects of

TCE.

(Tables calculating risk)

Table 5. Equation to Calculate Non- Cancer Acute or Chronic Risks Using Margin of Exposures.

Source: EPA, (2014).

Table 6. Equation to Calculate Cancer Risks.

Source: EPA, (2014).

What if Scenario

TCE is not easily transformed to environmentally safe compounds due to its chemical structure.

TCE is heavier than water, and when it enters the soil and groundwater it continues to move

down through the aquifer and form a pool of dense nonaqueous liquid (DNAPL). When the

DNAPL reaches impermeable zones it can move laterally with the natural groundwater flow. In

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the vadose zone, TCE can enter soil pore water or the gas zone and can move up or down

increasing the extent of the original spill. A popular remediation strategy for TCE is soil venting

due to the high potential for interphase transfer to the gaseous state. Other remediation strategies

include air stripping, in-well aeration, in situ bioremediation, as well as bioremediation of

extracted ground waters/subsurface air streams (Hugh). TCE is a highly oxidized chemical and is

therefore resistant to further oxidation (Hugh). Compounds of TCE are susceptible to reduction..

It is possible by any organic compound that has a very low oxidation potential for efficient

hydrogen transfer under ambient conditions (Hugh).

A vapor intrusion mitigation system is designed to prevent vapors below your home from

entering the indoor air within your home. It is done by creating a negative pressure vacuum

below your home. Piping is installed below a liner placed in the crawlspace. This piping is

connected to a fan that discharges the vapors above the roofline of the home. One extraction

point will usually be sufficient enough to create the required negative pressure across the entire

foundation of the home. In certain cases it may be more practical to use more extraction points.

Groundwater remediation will reduce the TCE concentrations in the soil vapor beneath your

home. When the vapor levels of TCE are below the USEPA criteria for mitigation, the operation

of mitigation system will no longer be necessary (Kalve, 2014).

Conclusion
According to our risk assessment, Trichloroethylene is a toxic substance that can cause harmful

long term effects to the human body which is why it is important to remediate it. TCE is a

volatile organic compound that can be found in some household items and even in the

environment that can be easily accessible to children. It is important to target the main sources of

TCE, such as waste facilities, because the public who live near these facilities are more likely to

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get exposed by TCE. People can be exposed to TCE through air, water, soil, food, and other

products. Mitigating can be done several different ways depending on the situation.

References

ATDSR. (2016, November). Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene. Retrieved from

https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp19-c1-b.pdf

EPA. (June, 2014). Trichloroethylene Degreasing, Spot Cleaning and Arts and Crafts Uses.

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Retrived from https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-

11/documents/tce_opptworkplanchemra_final_062414.pdf

EPA. (September, 2011). Toxicological Review of Trichloroethylene.Retrieved from

https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/iris_documents/documents/toxreviews/0199tr/0199tr.pdf

EPA. (nd.). Risk Management for TCE. Retrived from https://www.epa.gov/assessing-andmanaging-

chemicals-under-tsca/risk-management-trichloroethylene-tce

EPA. (Nd.) About Risk Assessment. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/risk/about-

riskassessment#whatisrisk

EPA. (September 2011). Toxicological Review of TCE. Retrieved from

https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/iris_documents/documents/toxreviews/0199tr/0199tr.pdf

EPA. (January 2000). Trichloroethylene. Retrieved from

https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/trichloroethylene.pdf IARC.

(2014). List of Classifications by cancer sites with sufficient or limited evidence in humans,

Volume 1 to 120. Retrieved from http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/Table4.pdf

Kalve, Erica. (2014, April). Vapor Intrusion Mitigation Fact Sheet. EPA. Retrieved from

https://yosemite.epa.gov/r9/sfund/r9sfdocw.nsf/3dc283e6c5d6056f88257426007417a2/4d2056eb

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ba28605488257cf4007a229b/$FILE/40314456.pdf/Mitigation%20Fact%20Sheet%20April%202

014.pdf

Russell Hugh, John Matthews, Guy Sewell. (1992, January).EPA Ground Water Issue. TCE

Removal from Contaminated Soil and Groundwater. Retrieved from

https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/tce.pdf

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