Translating Training into

Leadership
Translating Training into
Leadership
The Reasons Psychologists Make
Effective Leaders

Andrea Piotrowski

MOMENTUM PRESS, LLC, NEW YORK

Translating Training into Leadership: The Reasons Psychologists Make
­Effective Leaders

Copyright © Momentum Press, LLC, 2018.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
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First published in 2018 by

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 To my parents, who have modeled leadership in resilience, love, support,
and faith.

To the rest of my family—Mark, Christine, Landen, Adelaide, Steven,

Kim, Luke, and Ciocia Christine—and friends—Yvonne, Irene, Barb,
Ellen, and Rhonda—who encouraged me during this venture and given me
much needed laughter throughout the process.

To David, who provided me inspiration, reassurance, and

unyielding support.
 Abstract
This book highlights the training in professional psychology programs that
prepares students and psychologists to be effective leaders. The s­ cientist–
practitioner model promotes proficiency in both clinical and analytical
skills that are important in leadership positions, though the translation of
these skills into leadership roles is often neglected by ­psychologists. The
first part of the book briefly reviews basic concepts related to manage-
ment and demonstrates that the foundational and functional competen-
cies acquired in professional psychology programs are readily transferable
into these positions. Specific examples of psychological concepts that
benefit leadership roles are also discussed. The latter part of the book
examines the gaps and limitations of skills in training programs that are
important in leadership positions and how concepts related to industrial/
organizational psychology could fill these gaps. Two psychologists in lead-
ership roles are profiled to illustrate the benefits of psychology training
to leadership positions and ways in which limitations can be successfully
addressed. A resource list related to leadership and management skills
development is also provided to supplement the competencies already
acquired in training.
This book is directed at psychology graduate students, early-career
psychologists, and more senior psychologists currently involved in, or
interested in leadership, management, or administrative roles. It will also
be of interest to faculty and supervisors when considering ways to better
prepare students for a range of leadership roles commonly held by profes-
sional psychologists. A central thesis of this book is that by recognizing
how psychological concepts can easily be transferred to leadership skills
graduate students and psychologists can reach their leadership potential.

Keywords
administration, leader, leadership, management, psychologist, training
 Contents
Acknowledgments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi

Chapter 1 Leadership, Management, and Psychologists in the

Workplace������������������������������������������������������������������������1
Chapter 2 Conceptualization�����������������������������������������������������������21
Chapter 3 Training��������������������������������������������������������������������������65
Chapter 4 Profiles of Psychologist Leaders and Future Directions����83
Chapter 5 Evaluation and Resources����������������������������������������������105

Appendix: Resources for Additional Information and Training in

Management and Leadership�����������������������������������������������109
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������115
About the Author��������������������������������������������������������������������������������123
Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125
 Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Momentum Publishing and my editor, Dr. Julie
Gosselin, for her patience, support, guidance, and vision for this series.
Thank you to Dr Lesley Graff and Dr Patrick Smith for taking time
out of their busy schedules to provide a glimpse into their experiences as
psychologist leaders.
I am also sincerely grateful to Dr David Dozois (Professor and ­Director,
Clinical Psychology Graduate Program, Department of P ­sychology,
­University of Western Ontario), Dr John Meyer (­Professor and Chair,
Industrial/Organizational Psychology, Department of P ­sychology,
­University of Western Ontario), Dr Jorge Wong (Trustee and Adjunct
Faculty, Pacific Graduate School of Psychology, Palo Alto University), and
Dr Judi Malone (CEO, Psychologists’ Association of Alberta) for review-
ing the manuscript from the lens of their unique areas of expertise in
leadership.
 CHAPTER 1

Leadership, Management,
and Psychologists in the
Workplace
Professional psychologists1 are well-positioned to take on a range of
­leadership roles in public and private organizations, yet graduate students
and psychologists often only see themselves in careers focused on the
­provision of direct service to patients and possibly conducting research.
Most ­professional psychologists are trained in a scientist-­practitioner
model giving them competency not only in the knowledge and the
­provision of care (i.e., assessment, diagnosis, treatment) for m
­ ental health
and behavioral difficulties, but also in areas that are important within
­systems and management, such as developing, implementing, and eval-
uating ­programs; designing research studies; writing proposals for grant
­funding; supervision; navigating and mediating conflict; and collabo-
rating with various disciplines and organizations. The specialized level
of training in understanding cognition and behavior places professional
psychologists in a powerful and influential position to lead and make
impactful changes.
The development of analytical, training, and clinical skills in profes-
sional psychology graduate programs provides a foundation for psychol-
ogists to be well prepared to take on leadership roles in public mental

1
 The term professional psychology includes clinical, counseling, school psy-
chology, and other developed practice areas as defined in the APA Accreditation
Standards. Although Industrial-Organizational Psychology is also considered a
professional psychology program, for clarity in this book, this branch of psychol-
ogy will not be included in the term professional psychology, and will be referred
to separately by name.
2 TRANSLATING TRAINING INTO LEADERSHIP

health (Chu et al., 2012a, 2012b), as well as other healthcare facilities

or programs (Mayberg, 1997), not-for-profit organizations (Kelly &
­Finkelman, 2013), government departments (e.g., Mental Health Chief
with the Department of Veterans Affairs; Azar, 2011), and even businesses
(Kelly & Finkelman, 2013). Despite this level of training, psychologists
are often overly cautious about what falls within their scope of practice
and might hesitate to apply for management or leadership positions due
to a belief that they are underqualified.
It has been reported that professional psychologists are spending
increasingly more time in administrative or management activities,
rather than only providing direct service to patients (Kelly & ­Finkelman,
2013). In a 2015 survey of 77,881 members (i.e., associates, members,
fellows) of the American Psychological Association (APA), 40.6% of
members reported being involved in management/administration activ-
ities and 9.4% of members identified management/administration tasks
as their primary work activity (APA’s Center for Workforce Studies,
March, 2016). In comparison, data from 2009 (APA Center for Work-
force Studies, February 2010) found that 31.5% of ­members reported
being involved in management/administration activities and 7.7% of
members identified management/administration tasks as their primary
work activity. Data about psychologists involved in management/admin-
istration tasks were also highlighted in a survey by the Canadian Psycho-
logical Association (CPA; Votta-Bleeker, Tiessen, & Murdoch, 2016).
Survey results of 4,441 psychology graduates found that, on average,
respondents reported that 10.4% of their total time at work is accounted
for by management/administration tasks, in addition to 3.5, 3.0, and
2.0% in development or design, program evaluation, and public pol-
icy, respectively. Despite this trend, psychologists either involved in, or
transitioning into, management roles are often “learning on the job”
and graduate students have little e­ xposure to direct training in leader-
ship within their curricula, practica, or r­esidency unless opportunities
are sought out.
The purpose of this book is to highlight the training and compe-
tencies of professional psychology graduate programs and how these
developed skills prepare psychologists for a range of leadership roles in
management and administration. The gaps and limitations of essential
 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGISTS 3

training in leadership within programs are also discussed. Although the

primary focus of this book is on leadership roles within the healthcare
system (e.g., participant on a task force focused on health, leader of a new
departmental initiative, program manager of a health clinic), the con-
tent is applicable to positions on psychology or nonpsychology boards, in
business, in government, and in consultation.
This book is organized into five chapters: Leadership, Management,
and Psychologists in the Workplace; Conceptualization; Training; P ­ rofiles
of Psychologist Leaders and Future Directions; and Evaluation and
Resources. In Chapter 1, a brief overview of concepts related to manage-
ment and leadership is presented to show how many of the basic skills
required to work in these areas are transferable from the skills acquired
in professional psychology graduate programs. With additional training,
these skills can be further developed and customized to a specific role in
the workplace. Examples of leadership concepts, including general lead-
ership models, effective leader behaviors and attributes are described and
compared to professional psychology skills. This chapter concludes with
a description of various activities and leadership positions that are well
suited to psychologists within the workplace.
Chapter 2 further elucidates the idea that the training in professional
psychology programs prepares graduates to be leaders within organiza-
tions. This chapter begins with a review of the accreditation requirements
for professional psychology graduate programs developed by the Canadian
Psychological Association (CPA, 2011) and the American Psychological
Association (APA, 2015) that provide psychologists with the foundation
of skills needed for leadership roles. Building upon these standards, exam-
ples of basic theories and concepts learned through coursework, practica,
and residency programs are discussed to demonstrate how each concept or
developed skill is easily transferable to the skills that would be of benefit
in a management or leadership role. To provide more specific information
of these concepts and skills, foundational and functional competencies
for effective leadership by professional psychologists are outlined. These
competencies are derived from those proposed for community psychol-
ogists (Chu et al., 2012a, 2012b) since the breadth of roles in this area
of specialization can be easily generalizable to leadership roles in other
settings. Competencies in healthcare leadership models are presented as
4 TRANSLATING TRAINING INTO LEADERSHIP

comparisons to the competencies related to professional psychologists as

well as benchmarks to evaluate leadership performance.
Throughout this book, the argument is made that professional psy-
chologists have the basic training for leadership roles, yet there remain
gaps in skill development in most current training models. Chapter 3
focuses on training and discusses the gaps and limitations in skills that are
important to management roles and leadership positions. The challenges
faced by psychologists who strictly try to apply skills learned in graduate
school to a management framework are also discussed. A description of
a training model and other learning opportunities for students interested
in management roles are provided. As an example, the guidelines and
topics taught in industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology are described
given the focus of I/O psychology on psychological concepts to address
specific issues (e.g., conflict management, absenteeism, leadership devel-
opment) related to the workplace. Further training recommendations
that go beyond formal schooling are provided for students and practicing
psychologists.
To illustrate the leadership roles that can be held by professional psy-
chologists, Chapter 4 profiles two psychologists—one psychologist who
holds a number of leadership roles because of her position as the head of
a Clinical Health Psychology Program, and another psychologist who is
the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the Canadian Mental Health Asso-
ciation and whose role is not psychology-specific. After highlighting these
profiles, the future direction of professional psychologists and the need
for advocacy are discussed. Every psychologist is an advocate in a formal
or informal capacity and recognizing the importance of being an advocate
demonstrates good leadership.
Chapter 5 briefly describes certain assessments that are used to eval-
uate general leadership effectiveness. Given that the content of this book
provides only a glimpse of the skills developed in graduate school that are
transferable to management and leadership roles, the Appendix outlines a
list of resources focused specifically on management, administration, and
leadership development to supplement the foundational training already
acquired in professional psychology graduate programs. Throughout each
chapter, examples are provided to illustrate how graduate school training
is applicable to leadership concepts.
 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGISTS 5

Leadership
Attributes and Behaviors of Effective Leaders

Considerable discussion has emerged in the research literature about

whether leadership qualities are innate or can be learned. In an inves-
tigation of genetic factors and personality on leadership roles in male
twins, Arvey, Rotundo, Johnson, Zhang, and McGue (2006) suggested
that 70% of leadership qualities can be learned and only 30% seem to be
associated with an innate quality. Other research focusing on transforma-
tional leadership skills (subsequently discussed) found that some of these
skills can be acquired through training (Barling, Weber, & K ­ elloway,
1996). More specifically, these authors found that subordinates rated the
managers who completed transformational leadership training as being
higher on measures of intellectual stimulation, charisma, and individu-
alized consideration (e.g., the supervisor provides individualized s­ upport
to an employee) compared to a control group whose managers did not
complete the training. In the group whose managers were trained in
transformational leadership, there was also evidence showing an increase
in subordinates’ commitment to the organization, and some support for
positive changes in financial performance of the organizations, based on
results comparing data between the training group and controls on p ­ re-
and post-test measures. These findings support the value of good leader-
ship training programs, even for individuals who might not be considered
“born leaders.”
A brief review of the relevant research pertaining to attributes of effec-
tive leaders, and general leadership models will be presented to further
explicate the skills associated with effective leadership. The discussion of
these topics is illustrative rather than exhaustive, as new research contin-
ues to clarify and sharpen our understanding of effective leadership.

Emotional Intelligence

The concept of emotional intelligence (EI) has been gaining in popu-

larity for more than 20 years. There have been various definitions of EI
but, for the purposes of this chapter, EI is comprised of competencies in
self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social skills that
6 TRANSLATING TRAINING INTO LEADERSHIP

are utilized appropriately and sufficiently to be effective in a given sit-

uation (Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 2000). In a literature review of EI
and leadership development, there is still debate about the actual impact
of EI in leadership development, though many critics of EI recognize its
potential if more rigorous research was conducted (Sadri, 2012). Cherniss
(2010) discusses the similarities and differences between the models of EI
and further distinguishes EI and emotional and social competence (ESC),
the latter of which would include the ability to influence others.
Although several conceptual models of EI have been proposed (e.g.,
Bar-On, 1997; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002a; Mayer, Salovey,
& Caruso, 2004), the model proposed by Goleman et al. is emphasized
because it is prominent in the literature. This group developed an emo-
tional competence inventory through their research and found that highly
effective leaders show a number of strengths that fall under the rubric of
personal and social competence:

Personal Competence

1. Self-awareness
a. Emotional self-awareness: having the ability to read one’s own
emotions and understanding the impact of emotions
b. Accurate self-awareness: being aware of one’s strengths and
limitations
c. Self-confidence: possessing an accurate sense of self-worth and
abilities
2. Self-management
a. Emotional self-control: managing disruptive emotions and
impulses
b. Transparency: showing honesty, integrity, and trustworthiness
c. Adaptability: showing flexibility to adapt to changing situations
and overcoming obstacles
d. Achievement orientation: having the desire to improve perfor-
mance to meet one’s standards
e. Initiative: being ready to act and take opportunities
f. Optimism: having the ability to see the positive aspects of situations
 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGISTS 7

Social Competence

1. Social awareness
a. Empathy: having the ability to sense other people’s emotions,
understand their perspective, and show interest in their concerns
b. Organizational awareness: being aware of the current informa-
tion, decision networks, and politics of the organization
c. Service: recognizing and following the needs of the client
2. Relationship management
a. Inspirational leadership: guiding and motivating others with a
vision
b. Influence: utilizing persuasion tactics
c. Developing others: building on others’ abilities through feedback
and support
d. Change catalyst: having the ability to initiate, manage, and lead
in a new direction
e.  Conflict management: having the ability to resolve disagreements
f. Building bonds: having the ability to cultivate and maintain a net-
work of relationships
g. Teamwork and collaboration: engaging in team building and
cooperation
Goleman et al. (2002a) contend that these competencies can be
learned and that highly effective leaders typically show strengths in at
least one competency within each domain. Possessing strength on every
competency, however, is unlikely and, in many cases, individuals can still
be effective leaders without being strong in each identified area. Many
of these competencies are comparable to skills developed in professional
­psychology programs. As illustrated in the following chapter, p­ sychologists
likely show strengths in many aspects of EI.
Under the domain of self-awareness, psychologists are trained to be
cognizant of transference and countertransference during therapy (emo-
tional self-awareness). Psychologists must also consider whether conduct-
ing an assessment or providing treatment for the referral problem falls
within their scope of practice or whether they should refer the patient
elsewhere (accurate self-awareness, self-confidence).
8 TRANSLATING TRAINING INTO LEADERSHIP

Graduate training programs also aim to teach skills in the domain

of self-management. In therapy, a patient diagnosed with borderline
personality disorder might be impulsive and emotionally dysregulated
and the psychologist demonstrates and teaches emotional self-control.
Building rapport and trust with patients is paramount to the therapeutic
relationship (transparency). The unpredictability of life requires that the
psychologist be agile in responding to changes in the patient’s situation
(adaptability), prepared to take opportunities to address certain issues
with examples from the patient’s own experience (initiative), and able to
engage the patient in cognitive restructuring to decrease negative thinking
and to think about events more realistically (optimism). The ethical stan-
dards related to the Responsible Caring (II.9) outlined in the Canadian
Code of Ethics for Psychologists-Fourth Edition (CPA, in press) requires
that psychologists be knowledgeable of the current literature related to
their area of practice, teaching, and research to ensure that their activities
will benefit and not harm others. This requirement of continuing edu-
cation and professional development supports Goleman et al.’s (2002a)
self-management concept of achievement orientation in psychologists.
In the domain of social awareness, it is critical for psychologists to
show empathy, to complete a thorough case formulation in order to iden-
tify factors contributing to the current problem (‘organizational’ aware-
ness), and to recognize the needs of the patient (service).
The EI competencies within Goleman et al.’s (2002a) fourth domain of
relationship management are also developed in professional p ­ sychology
programs. Similar to the other competencies related to relationship build-
ing within a therapeutic relationship (building bonds), the psychologist
guides the patient based on the patient’s level of motivation (inspira-
tional leadership), uses strategies to engage the patient in the t­herapeutic
­process (influence), and identifies the patient’s strengths and builds on
those strengths (developing others) by working with the patient (teamwork
and collaboration) in identifying and adjusting ineffective behaviors and
cognitive distortions (change catalyst). Throughout therapy the psycholo-
gist ensures that the patient agrees with the treatment protocol and any
disagreements are addressed (conflict resolution).
As illustrated, psychologists acquire training and experience in all areas
of EI. Despite this training, there are likely some personal competencies
 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGISTS 9

that are more fully developed than others, and working to strengthen
areas of weakness or deficiency could be considered when necessary
(Judge et al., 2002).

Attributes and Traits of Effective Leaders

The importance of leaders showing strengths in EI or interpersonal skills is

further supported by studies examining the attributes of effective l­eaders.
The five-factor model of personality (Big Five Traits) has often been used
to measure traits in leadership research, including job performance (e.g.,
Barrick & Mount, 1991). The dimensions of this model include Neurot-
icism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Con-
scientiousness (see McCrae & Costa, 1987). In a meta-analysis focused
on the Big Five Traits, Judge, Bono, Ilies, and Gerhardt (2002) found
that, overall, Extraversion was most strongly correlated with both effec-
tive leadership (i.e., an individual’s performance in ­influencing others and
to achieve goals) and leader emergence (i.e., whether, or to what extent,
a person is perceived as a leader by others). Following Extroversion,
­Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience were traits that showed
the next strongest correlations with leadership. In a qualitative review
of other traits related to leadership effectiveness and leader emergence,
self-confidence was identified in the majority of reviews and adjustment,
sociability, and integrity were also important correlates of leadership.
When considering the desired attributes of a leader, it is important
to be aware of cultural similarities and differences because of an increase
in globalization of businesses and organizations and higher rates of inter-
national migration over the past 15 years (United Nations, 2016). The
GLOBE study (House, Hanges, Javidson, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004)
investigated practices and values within organizations and industries
across 62 societies. Some of the findings indicated that there are several
leader attributes that are universally desirable cross-culturally. The follow-
ing attributes are presented with the corresponding primary leadership
dimensions in parentheses:

• Trustworthy, Just, Honest (Integrity)

• Foresight, Plans ahead (Charismatic-Visionary)
10 TRANSLATING TRAINING INTO LEADERSHIP

• Encouraging, Positive, Dynamic, Motive arouser, Confidence

builder, Motivational (Charismatic-Inspirational)
• Dependable, Intelligent (Malevolent-reverse score)
• Decisive (Decisiveness)
• Effective bargainer, Win-win problem solver (Diplomatic)
• Administratively skilled (Administratively Competent)
• Communicative, Informed, Coordinator, Team builder (Team
Integrator)
• Excellence oriented (Performance Oriented)

The research findings also identified leader attributes that were

­considered universally negative:

• Loner, Asocial (Self-protective)

• Noncooperative, Irritable (Malevolent)
• Nonexplicit (Face Saver)
• Dictatorial (Autocratic)
• Egocentric (did not load on any factor)
• Ruthless (did not load on any factor)

Many of these attributes are directly related to interpersonal relation-

ships (e.g., trustworthy, just, honest, encouraging, motive arouser, con-
fidence builder, team builder, positive), which is a required competency
of professional psychology graduate programs (APA, 2015; CPA, 2011).
Establishing good rapport and a positive therapeutic relationship are
both critical components to working well with patients toward symptom
improvement, a competency in interpersonal relationships that is also
consistent with positive leader attributes.

Leadership Models
Considerable research has focused on different styles of leadership, includ-
ing transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire (nonleadership)
leadership. Transformational and transactional leadership approaches
­
were first proposed by Burns (1978) and later developed and elaborated
upon by others (e.g., Bass, 1985).
 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGISTS 11

Transformational leaders motivate others to do more than they had

originally intended or thought possible (Bass & Avolio, 1994). It is not
surprising then that Extraversion (of the Big Five) was the most consistent
correlate of transformational leadership (Bono & Judge, 2004). Bass and
Avolio proposed four transformational leadership styles (i.e., Four Is):

1. Idealized influence: Leaders serve as a role model for others by demon-

strating a high ethical standard and being trustworthy.
2. Inspirational motivation: Leaders inspire others by generating enthu-
siasm and optimism, demonstrating a shared commitment to the
goals, and clearly communicating expectations.
3. Intellectual stimulation: Leaders demonstrate innovation by
approaching old situations in innovative ways and by encouraging
others to present new ideas and approaches, without the fear of
being ­criticized.
4. Individualized consideration: Leaders act as a mentor or coach by
attending to others and helping team members develop skills so that
they can achieve their potential.

Transformational leadership continues to predominate as an effective

model of leadership however, newer theories are gaining in popularity.
­Authentic leadership is described as a generic root construct that incor-
porates other types of positive leadership, such as transformational, char-
ismatic, ­servant, or spiritual leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). More
detailed information on authentic leadership development has been pub-
lished in a special issue of The Leadership Quarterly (2005; Vol. 16 [5]).
Transactional leadership is rooted in operant conditioning, as the leader
provides rewards or discipline based on the team member’s performance
(Bass & Avolio, 1994). The three transactional leadership styles include:

1. Contingent reward: Leaders assign or agree upon a task to be com-

pleted by others, and a reward is given for satisfactory completion
of the task.
2. Management-by-exception (active): Leaders actively monitor team
members and take corrective action on any deviations or errors from
the standards.
12 TRANSLATING TRAINING INTO LEADERSHIP

3. Management-by-exception (passive): Leaders do not actively monitor

team members, but do take corrective action if errors are made or if
there are deviations from the standard.

A laissez-faire (nonleadership) style is the most inactive style charac-

terized by the absence or avoidance of leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1994).
This style is characterized by an avoidance to make decisions, hesitancy
in acting, and being absent. This leadership style is seen to be ineffective
(Bass & Avolio, 1994).
Research has shown that a leader does not have to adopt only one
type of leadership style and that there are factors that result in greater
effectiveness of one style over another. Contingent reward (associated
with transactional leadership) is more appropriately categorized under
transformational leadership because the resulting behaviors are positive
and discretionary (Barling, Slater, & Kelloway, 2000). This description
differs from that of management-by-exception (active and passive) and
laissez-faire leadership styles. Barling et al. also found that EI was associ-
ated with these effective leadership styles—contingent reward and three
styles of transformational leadership (i.e., idealized influence, inspira-
tional motivation, and individualized consideration)—whereas manage-
ment-by-exception (active and passive) and laissez-faire styles were not
associated with EI.
A transformational leadership style is seen to be the most effective
style across most circumstances, and it demonstrates a good comparison
to the skills developed in professional psychology programs. The training
of ­psychologists in the process of psychotherapy is directly transferable
to the skills necessary for transformational leadership. To illustrate, the
therapist must develop a good rapport with the patient (i.e., idealized
influence), provide hope for improvement by presenting evidence sup-
porting treatment effectiveness (i.e., inspirational motivation), encourage
the patient to engage in restructuring cognitive distortions (i.e., intellec-
tual stimulation), and show commitment to the patient by individual-
izing a treatment plan with the intent for the patient to reach set goals
(i.e., individualized consideration). This example provides further support
that psychologists have the foundational training to be effective leaders by
showing competence in a transformational leadership style.
 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGISTS 13

Management and Leadership Roles of Psychologists

Psychologists interested in leadership roles will likely have to supplement
their current knowledge base (i.e., “people leadership”) with learning
about certain aspects of business and organizations (e.g., “strategic lead-
ership;” “change leadership”). To resource psychologists with information
on the “Fundamentals of Business,” the APA prepared an article on this
topic that focuses on strategy and planning, organization and people,
operations, marketing and branding, as well as finance and accounting
because these areas are relevant in leadership roles (APA Member Services,
2017).
In a leadership role, it is important to know the organizational struc-
ture of the workplace (e.g., hospital), the way the roles interact within an
organization, and the decision-making process. Organizational structure
and process is familiar to I/O psychologists, but less so for other profes-
sional psychologists. Graduate students and psychologists often do not
learn about organizations until they begin practica, residency, or employ-
ment in a healthcare setting. The very basic organizational structure of
a hospital might be comprised of the following: Board of D ­ irectors,
Administration (President or CEO, Vice Presidents), and ­ Programs/
Departments (see Figure 1.1). Moreover, in most jurisdictions, the
­hospital system is one part of a larger system comprised of other hospitals
and community clinics within a health region, and all health regions are
ultimately overseen by government health departments (e.g., Ministry of

Board of Directors

CEO and/or President

Vice-President 1 Vice-President 2 Vice-President 3

Program/ Program/ Program/ Program/ Program/ Program/

Department 1 Department 2 Department 3 Department 4 Department 5 Department 6

Figure 1.1  General organizational structure of a hospital system

14 TRANSLATING TRAINING INTO LEADERSHIP

Health in Canadian jurisdictions). Being aware of these organizational

structures and decision-making processes is important in knowing how,
where, and to whom funding or programmatic requests are made.
The following section provides a sample of management/administra-
tion or leadership roles that are well-suited to psychologists.

Participant on a Task Force, Steering Committee or

Working Group
Healthcare organizations are often putting committees together to solve a
problem, develop a policy, or initiate a new program. Psychologists might
find themselves being a part of a team with other disciplines, either as a
participant or as a chair of the committee (e.g., representing the Depart-
ment of Psychology on a hospital accreditation committee). This expe-
rience provides a good opportunity to learn about the structure of the
organization, the process of decision-making, and the scopes of practice
of other disciplines. Experience on committees, task forces or working
groups also affords an opportunity for collaboration with others. An
added benefit to participating in these committees is that it is an excellent
way to network, which can lead to considering and being considered for
future collaborations with others.
If the psychologist is representing the department, extra responsibili-
ties might include gathering information from the department to provide
to the committee, reporting back to the department members regarding
the goals and decisions of the committee, or taking on a specific task
assigned by the committee. When the psychologist assumes the role of
Chair of the committee or a subcommittee, the theories, models, and
concepts learned in graduate training can be utilized to facilitate com-
mittee work. Specific examples of some of these concepts are presented
in Chapter 2.

Supervisor or Consultant
According to CPA and APA Accreditation Standards, professional psy-
chologists are trained to be competent in supervision (APA, 2015;
CPA, 2011). The role of supervisor might include supervising students,
 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGISTS 15

residents, early career psychologists, or other mental health providers

(e.g., counselors, nurse therapists, social workers). In addition to direct
supervision for the provision of care with patients, psychologists can also
build capacity in other healthcare providers by presenting workshops on
evidence-based strategies for certain conditions or providing consultation
on specific patients.
Other health professionals might consult with the psychologist to
review past psychological assessment reports to explain the results to the
healthcare team within the context of providing better care to the patient.
For example, the psychologist might review the results of a cognitive
assessment administered to a patient who sustained a traumatic brain
injury and explain the applicability of the results for better patient care.
In this case, the psychologist might provide recommendations, based on
the findings of the cognitive assessment, to the staff about how to com-
municate effectively with the patient that will facilitate understanding.
Consultation is not restricted to practice issues. With a training back-
ground that includes research, statistics, and program evaluation, the psy-
chologist can also provide consultation to other professionals regarding
research. This role could include explaining the results of a research article
in layperson terms, being a member of a research team, analyzing out-
come data, or interpreting the results from a research project. Depending
on the level of specialized training in these areas, psychologists might also
provide organizational consultation regarding the needs of a particular
population.

Psychologists in Primary Management Positions

Increasingly, psychologists are assuming positions in management and
leadership either directly within the healthcare system or the govern-
ment (at the municipal, provincial, territorial, state, or federal level).
Examples of these positions could include the head of a Department of
Psychology, a hospital administrator, Director of Public Health for the
City and County, Deputy Minister of Health with the provincial gov-
ernment, or Secretary of Health and Human Services in the U.S. Federal
Government. As the position becomes increasingly more complex with a
broad range of responsibilities, the degree to which the development of
16 TRANSLATING TRAINING INTO LEADERSHIP

specialized skills is required varies across roles and settings. For example,
if the position requires a greater understanding of financial matters, the
psychologist must consider whether to become an expert in the area (e.g.,
obtain an MBA), to become familiar with the area (e.g., complete an
intensive workshop on not-for-profit budging, complete an online course
on understanding budgets), or to rely on expert members (e.g., Chief
Financial Officer [CFO]) of the organization to carry out the task (e.g.,
developing a budget).
To measure the effectiveness of leadership behaviors, categories
should be concise, observable, measurable, relevant, and comprehensive
(Yukl, 2012). Yukl proposed a hierarchical taxonomy of leadership behav-
iors comprised by four meta-categories (i.e., task-oriented, relations-­
oriented, change-oriented, external) with specific behaviors linked to
each category. The goal of task-oriented behaviors is to complete specific
tasks in reliable and efficient ways. Component behaviors in this cate-
gory include: planning (i.e., scheduling, assigning work, identifying pri-
orities, organizing, distributing resources); clarifying (i.e., ensuring that
people understand their task and expectations); monitoring (i.e., ensur-
ing that people are completing tasks appropriately and that the work is
progressing as expected); and problem solving (i.e., addressing problems
that arise regarding the work or people’s behavior). The second category,
­relations-oriented ­behaviors, refers to improving human resources and rela-
tions. The component behaviors include the following: supporting (i.e.,
showing positive regard, engaging in cooperation, and helping others
cope); developing (i.e., assisting others in developing skills and increasing
confidence to advance in their careers); recognizing (i.e., recognizing the
good work of others and ways in which they contribute to the organiza-
tion); and empowering (i.e., providing individuals with more autonomy
and decision-making capacity within the organization). The third cate-
gory is change-oriented behaviors and it is described as increasing innova-
tion, adapting to changes in the environment and learning together with
others. The components in this category includes: advocating change
(i.e., explaining clearly the reasons for change); envisioning change (i.e.,
articulating a vision for the organization based on the proposed changes);
encouraging innovation (i.e., encourage others to discuss new, innova-
tive ideas for the organization); and facilitating collective learning (i.e.,
 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGISTS 17

providing learning opportunities for new knowledge to improve the

organization). The fourth category, external leadership behaviors, refers to
obtaining necessary external resources and information and promoting
the organization. The behaviors within this category include: networking
(i.e., build positive relationships with others who can provide informa-
tion, resources, or support for the organization); external monitoring (i.e.,
assessing external threats and opportunities for the organization); and
representing (i.e., representing the organization with colleagues, superi-
ors, and external contacts). The responsibilities of a leader are diverse. To
illustrate this diversity, the profiles of two psychologists in leadership roles
are presented in Chapter 4.

Public Policy, Program Development, and Evaluation

As a result of their training as scientist-practitioners or clinical scientists,
psychologists are well versed in statistical analysis and research. Because
of their research training in graduate programs, psychologists are well-­
positioned to design, implement, and evaluate prevention and interven-
tion programs at the individual, system, and community level (Levant
et al., 2001). Psychologists can also be more formally involved in public
policy that focuses on topics related to education, social issues, health, or
violence prevention because these areas might be within their scope of
practice. This assertion suggests that the work of psychologists does not
have to be restricted to psychology-related fields. In fact, taking opportu-
nities to become involved in public policy in nonpsychology community
agencies achieves several positive outcomes: (a) psychologists are involved
in discussions that might involve the profession directly (e.g., including
psychology positions in a newly developed community health center); (b)
communicating psychological knowledge can help to inform discussions
that could potentially result in better programs and policies; (c) the input
of a psychologist educates the members of the committee and the public
about the role of psychology; (d) psychologist involvement can strengthen
a referral network (Levant et al., 2001); and (e) psychologists can explain
complex data in a simplified way to media, the public, and policy makers.
Similarly, psychologists are proficient in the behavioral and social sci-
ences, making the profession well suited to write public health policy
18 TRANSLATING TRAINING INTO LEADERSHIP

(Holtgrave, Doll, & Harrison, 1997), which could lead to a more for-
mal role with the government (e.g., legislator, Chief Mental Health and
Addictions Officer). Holtgrave et al. described four different approaches or
situations that might be used to develop public health policy. First, “one-
time decision-making” is described as deciding whether and what type of
action would be taken to address a situation (e.g., whether to fund a new
program to provide individual and group treatment for patients newly
diagnosed with a psychotic illness). Second, “iterative decision-making” is
done over an extended period and adjustments and refinements are made
incrementally based on the changes on various measures of interest. For
example, in an effort to decrease no-shows for appointments, reminder
letters are sent to the patient two weeks before the appointment. If the
no-shows are not decreasing at an expected rate, the method of reminders
might change to telephone reminders and/or adjusting the timing of the
reminders. Third, “following mandates” might be directed by a higher
public health authority and the decisions are narrowly constrained. In
this case, a government mandate might allocate funds for developing and
implementing programs focused on early detection of autism spectrum
disorder in toddlers. Fourth, “emergency response” requires an immediate
decision-making process (e.g., communicating safety precautions to the
public after an E. coli outbreak occurred in the water supply).
Behavioral and social scientists can provide technical assistance in the
decision-making process by helping committees identify options for their
program, identify decision-making rules, and determine how a decision
will be reached (Holtgrave et al., 1997). Psychologists, or members of the
psychologist’s research group, could also complete a comprehensive litera-
ture review that would help to inform the decision-making process and to
present the summary in a way that would be easily understood by nonpsy-
chologists. These authors recommend that behavioral scientists be aware of
the needs, priorities, and preferences of the decision makers to help inform
the development and communication of messages at key opportunities.

Other Areas
Although the focus of this book is primarily on management in health-
care, the professional psychologist has the basic training to consider
 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND PSYCHOLOGISTS 19

positions outside of healthcare (e.g., program manager in a business,

an executive director of a not-for-profit organization, the CEO of a
national psychology association, State Legislator in the United States,
Member of ­Parliament in Canada). Despite developing a foundation of
skills applicable to these types of positions, many psychologists do not
consider employment in business-related disciplines because they might
not believe that their skills are transferable to this area or they might
have a negative perception that businesses have lower ethical standards
and the academic training of management is less rigorous (Finkelman,
2014). Sacrificing good science for entrepreneurship is not an absolute
(DeMuth, Yates, & Coates, 1984). Many organizations are developing
practices and policies that reflect the values of the business, which might
include increasing diversity, finding meaning at work, and engaging in
altruistic goals (Finkelman, 2014).
This chapter serves as an introduction to basic information related to
leadership and how graduate training in professional psychology ­programs
provides training for a broad range of leadership roles. I­llustrations of
these leadership opportunities are highlighted, as is e­ vidence supporting
the qualifications of psychologists to take on these varied roles. The next
chapter will present more examples showing ­specific concepts learned in
graduate school that prepare a professional psychologist for management
and leadership roles.
 Index
academic, community, and county/
state/federal partnerships,
DCMH, 69
Academy of Management, 111
accurate self-awareness, 6
achievement orientation, 6, 8
adaptability, 6, 8
administration, 2, 62, 74–78
advocacy, 62–63, 99–104
Alliance for Organizational
Psychology (AOP), 110
altruism, committee member, 38
American Associations of Physician
Leadership, 111
American Management Association,
111
American Psychological Association
(APA), 2, 109
supervision, 44, 45
anchoring diagnosis, 32
nomothetic disorder formulation
of, 32–33
APA Leadership Institute for Women
in Psychology (LIWP), 110
APA Practice Organization (APAPO),
103–104
APA Standards of Accreditation,
22–23, 66
application, professional psychology,
61
assessment/evaluation/feedback,
domain, 46
Association for Business Psychology,
110
behaviors
attributes and, 5
change-oriented, 16–17
component, 16
external leadership, 17
relations-oriented, 16
task-oriented, 16
building bonds, 7
business/research proposals, 72–73
business skills and knowledge, 54
Canadian College of Health Leaders,
110
Canadian Mental Health Association
(CMHA), 90
Canadian Psychological Association
(CPA), supervision, 44
Canadian Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology
(CSIOP), 110
Canadian Society of Physician
Leaders, 111
careful observation, 30
case formulation, professional
psychology, 24–28
CBT. See cognitive behavior therapy
change catalyst, 7
change-oriented behaviors, 16–17
clinical interview, 29–30
Clinical Psychology Leadership
Development Framework, 63
cognitive assessment, 15
cognitive behavior therapy (CBT),
40–42
cohesive, committee member, 38
committee members, 37
communication and relationship
management, 53
communication skills, 72, 76–77, 101
competency, 49–52
in Healthcare Leadership Alliance
Model, 53–54
National Center for Healthcare
Leadership, 55, 58–60
NHS Leadership Academy, 55–57
component behaviors, 16
comprehensive problem list,
professional psychology,
28–29
126 Index
conflict management, 7
connecting our service, 57
consultation, 14–15
consumer behavior and human
factors, 72–74
contingent reward, 11, 12
Corporate Family Model, 36
CPA Accreditation Standards, 22, 23
cultural competency, 50
decision-making process, 18
develop discrepancy, motivational
interviewing, 43
developing capability, 57
developing others, 7
diagnosis
anchoring, 32
DSM, 31–32
differentiation of self, 36
Diversity and Community Mental
Health Area (DCMH), 68–69
academic, community, and county/
state/federal partnerships, 69
group case-method learning, 69–70
public psychology competencies, 69
diversity, domain, 46
DSM diagnosis, 31–32
education, professional psychology, 61
effective consulting, 73
emergency response, 18
emotional intelligence (EI), 5–6
components of, 38
emotionally cutoff, 36
emotional self-awareness, 6
emotional self-control, 6, 8
empathy, 7, 8
engaging the team, 57
ethical, legal, and regulatory
considerations, domain, 47
evaluating information, 56
evidence-based practice (EBP), 40, 51
CBT, 40–42
express empathy, motivational
interviewing, 43
external leadership behaviors, 17
family projection, 36
family systems theory, 36–37
financial factors, 29
financial knowledge, 79
following mandates, 18
general knowledge and skills, 71
graduate training programs, 8
Graff, Lesley
challenges, 88
health system, 89–90
limitations, 86–88
psychology training, 85–86
role, 83–84
typical week, 84–85
group case-method learning, DCMH,
69–70
groups and teams, 73
group therapy, 37–39
healthcare, 18–19
Healthcare Leadership Alliance
Model, 52–55, 56–57
healthcare organizations, 14
HEXACO model, evaluation and
research, 106
holding to account, 56
housing factors, 29
idealized influence, transformational
leadership, 11
identify disability, 31–32
imitate behavior, committee member,
38
individualized consideration,
transformational leadership,
11
influence, 7
influencing for results, 57
initiative, 6, 8
inspirational leadership, 7
inspirational motivation,
transformational leadership,
11
inspiring shared purpose, 56
integrity in relationships, supervision,
45
intellectual stimulation,
transformational leadership, 11
interdisciplinary systems, 62
interpersonal factors, 28–29
 Index 127
interpersonal learning, committee
member, 38
interpersonal relationships, 102
I/O psychology programs, 70–71,
73–74
iterative decision-making, 18
knowledge of healthcare environment,
54
laissez-faire (nonleadership) style, 12
leaders. See also leadership
attributes and behaviors, 5
attributes and traits, 9–10
leadership, 53
attributes and behaviors, 5
attributes and traits, 9–10
EI, 5–6
evaluation of, 105–107
functional and foundational
competencies for, 49–52
models, 10–12
personal competence, 6
resources, 107–108
role, 13–14
social competence, 7–9
leadership and management, 73
leading with care, 56
legal factors, 29
leisure factors, 29
management, 13–14
and administration, 74–78
primary, 15–17
psychologist working, 67–68
management-administration, 62
management-by-exception (active), 11
management-by-exception (passive),
12
Massachusetts Psychological
Association (MPA), 77
medical factors, 29
mental health/medical treatment,
problems, 26
motivational interviewing, 42–43
principles to, 43–44
motivation and behavior change
CBT, 40–42
motivational interviewing, 42–44
multigenerational transmission
process, 36
Myers-Briggs, evaluation and research,
105–106
National Association of State Mental
Health Program Directors,
111
National Center for Healthcare
Leadership (NCHL), 55,
58–60, 110
National Council of Schools and
Programs of Professional
Psychology (NCSPP), 101
national psychology associations, 112
NEO Personality Inventory-3,
evaluation and research, 106
NHS Leadership Academy, 55–57
nonpsychology organizations,
110–111
occupational/school factors, 29
one-time decision-making, 18
optimism, 6, 8
organizational awareness, 7
organizational consultation, 51
organizational structure, 13–14
organizational theory, 73
origins of the problem, 33
paper-and-pencil tests, 30
participants, 14
personal competence, 6
Persons’ case formulation model,
25–28
postdoctoral internship, 76
predoctoral internship, 76
primary leadership, 9–10
problem list
comprehensive, 28–29
methods for identifying, 29–31
problems
and mechanisms, 33–34
of professional competence, 46
professional advocacy, 100
professional competence, domain, 46
professionalism, 54
domain, 46
professional psychology, 61
128 Index
professional psychologists, 1–2
functional and foundational
competencies, 49–52
professional psychology
accreditation standards, 22–24
advocacy, 99–104
clusters and core competencies,
61–62
professional psychology program
anchoring diagnosis, 32
case formulation, 24–28
comprehensive problem list, 28–29
DSM diagnosis, 31–32
methods to problem list, 29–31
nomothetic disorder formulation,
32–33
origins of the problem, 33
problem and mechanisms, 33–34
template, individualizing, 33
treatment plan and outcome
measures, 34–35
professional skills, 72–73
program development, 17–18
project management, 73
psychological/psychiatric symptoms,
25, 28
psychologists
management and leadership roles,
13–14
participant, 14
in primary management, 15–17
professional, 1–2
in public policy, 17
research, 47–49
psychology organizations, 109–110
psychosocial and environmental
factors, 31
psychosocial problems, 25–26
public policy, 17–18
public policy advocacy, 100
public psychology, competency, 52
DCMH, 69
Public Service Sections, 109
relational, professional psychology, 61
relationship management, 7, 8
relations-oriented behaviors, 16
Request for Proposals (RFP), 70
research skills, 47–49
respect for the dignity of person,
supervision, 45
responsibility to society, supervision,
45
responsible caring principle,
supervision, 45
roll with resistance, motivational
interviewing, 43
science, professional psychology, 61
self-awareness, 6, 8
self-confidence, 6
self-management, 6, 8
service, 7
sharing the vision, 56
skills building, 42
Smith, Patrick
challenges, 95
healthcare system, 96
limitations, 94–95
psychology training, 92–93
role, 90
typical days, 90–92
social awareness, 7
social competence, 7–9
social justice advocacy, 100
Society for Industrial and
Organization Psychology
(SIOP), 71, 72, 109
Society of Behavioral Medicine, 111
Society of Psychologists in
Management (SPIM), 109
supervisor, 14–15
supervisor competence, domain, 46
supervisory relationship, 44
domain, 46–47
principles, 45
supervisory relationship, domain, 46
support self-efficacy, motivational
interviewing, 43–44
systems, professional psychology, 62
task-oriented behaviors, 16
teamwork, 39
teamwork and collaboration, 7
 Index 129
template, individualizing, 33
360-degree assessment, leadership,
106
training, psychology
consumer behavior and human
factors, 72–74
core content, 71–72
general knowledge and skills, 71
and leadership, 78–81
limitations, 65–68
management and administration,
74–78
models of, 68–71
transactional leadership, 11–12
transformational leadership, 11, 12
transparency, 6, 8
treatment history, 30–31
treatment plan and outcome
measures, 34–35
triangle, family systems theory, 36