Module 5 (B1.B2) Digital Techniques Systems

CY.147.
001
Part 66 Module 5
Digital Techniques Systems
for B1/B2
Module 5: Digital Techniques Systems for B1/B2
Contents
1. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS ......................................................... 1-5

1.1 REQUIREMENTS ..................................................................... 1-7
1.2 INSTRUMENT PANELS ............................................................. 1-8
1.2.1 Flight Instruments .................................................. 1-10
2. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS .................................... 2-12
2.1 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (EFIS) ............... 2-12
2.1.1 Electronic Attitude Director Indicator ...................... 2-12
2.1.2 Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator ................ 2-13
2.2 ENGINE INDICATING & CREW ALERTING .................................... 2-15
2.3 DISPLAY PRODUCTION ............................................................ 2-15
2.3.1 Symbol Generators ................................................ 2-15
2.3.2 Comparator Systems ............................................. 2-15
2.3.3 Presentation ........................................................... 2-16
2.3.4 COMPOSITE DISPLAY ON EADI OR EHSI .......... 2-16
3. NUMBERING SYSTEMS .............................................................. 3-17
3.1 DECIMAL SYSTEM OF NUMERATION .......................................... 3-19
3.2 BINARY SYSTEM OF NUMERATION............................................ 3-20
3.3 CONVERSION FROM DECIMAL TO BINARY .................................. 3-21
3.3.1 Numbers Greater than 1 ........................................ 3-21
3.3.2 Number less than 1 ................................................ 3-22
3.4 CONVERSION FROM BINARY TO DECIMAL .................................. 3-23
3.4.1 Numbers greater and less than 1 ........................... 3-23
3.4.2 Binary Addition ....................................................... 3-23
3.4.3 Binary SUBTRACTION .............................................. 3-24
3.5 OCTAL SYSTEM OF NUMERATION ............................................. 3-26
3.5.1 conversion from decimal to octal............................ 3-27
3.5.2 conversion from octal to decimal............................ 3-28
3.5.3 conversion from octal to binary .............................. 3-28
3.6 HEXADECIMAL ARITHMETIC ..................................................... 3-29
3.6.1 conversion from hexadecimal to decimal ............... 3-30
3.6.2 conversion from binary to hexadecimal .................. 3-30
3.6.3 conversion from hexadecimal to binary .................. 3-32
3.6.4 conversion - decimal to hexadecimal fractions....... 3-33
3.7 NUMBERING CODES ............................................................... 3-35
4. LOGIC GATES ............................................................................. 4-37

4.1 TERMINOLOGY ....................................................................... 4-37
4.2 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LOGIC .............................................. 4-37
4.3 COMBINATIONAL LOGIC GATES .......................................... 4-38
4.3.1 OR Gate ................................................................. 4-38
4.3.2 AND Gate............................................................... 4-40
4.3.3 NOT Gate............................................................... 4-41
4.3.4 NAND Gate ............................................................ 4-41
4.3.5 NOR Gate .............................................................. 4-42
4.3.6 Exclusive OR Gate ................................................. 4-42
Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 1-1

4.4 ADDERS ............................................................................... 4-43

4.4.1 half adder circuit..................................................... 4-43
4.4.2 full adder ................................................................ 4-44
4.5 AIRCRAFT LOGIC CIRCUITS ...................................................... 4-45
4.5.1 flight director gyro flag ............................................ 4-45
4.5.2 compass coupler flag ............................................. 4-46
4.5.3 rad alt latching indicator logic ................................. 4-47
4.6 DYNAMIC LOGIC SIGNALS ............................................... 4-48
5. D TO A TO D ................................................................................ 5-53
5.1 ANALOGUE ............................................................................ 5-53
5.2 DIGITAL ................................................................................ 5-53
5.3 ANALOGUE VERSUS DIGITAL ................................................... 5-53
5.4 CONVERSION BETWEEN ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL ....................... 5-54
5.4.1 analogue to digital conversion................................ 5-55
5.4.2 digital to analogUE conversion............................... 5-58
6. SEQUENTIAL LOGIC ................................................................... 6-61
6.1 INTRODUCTION AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT ................. 6-61
6.2 FLIP FLOPS ........................................................................... 6-61
6.2.1 MULTIVIBRATORS ............................................... 6-61
6.2.2 astable ................................................................... 6-62
6.2.3 monostable ............................................................ 6-64
6.2.4 bistable .................................................................. 6-65
6.2.5 counters ................................................................. 6-89
7. COMPUTERS..................................................................................7-93
7.1 DATA HANDLING..............................................................7-93
7.2 BASIC STRUCTURE & OPERATION............................................7-95
7.3 THE UNITS OF A COMPUTER....................................................7-96
7.3.1 The microprocessor..........................................................7-96
7.3.2 Memory............................................................................7-97
7.4 DATA BUS & THE COMPUTER HIGHWAY.....................................7-102
7.5 COMPUTER TERMINOLOGY.....................................................7-106
8. MULTIPLEXING...........................................................................8-108
8.1 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING......................................8-108
8.2 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING.................................................8-108
9. DATA BUSES - ARINC ............................................................. ………9-1

9.1 ARINC SPECIFICATIONS .......................................................... 9-1
9.2 ARINC 429 ............................................................................ 9-1
9.2.1 System overview…………………………………………….9-2
9.2.2 Cabling ................................................................... ……..9-2
9.2.3 Wiring topology ...................................................... 9-3
9.2.4 transmission characteristics ................................... 9-4
9.2.5 Arinc 429 words ..................................................... 9-4
9.3 ARINC 629 ............................................................................ 9-10
9.3.1 General description ................................................ 9-10
9.3.2 Cabling ................................................................... 9-11
9.3.3 LRU operation ........................................................ 9-13

9.3.4 Bus protocol ........................................................... 9-13

9.3.5 ARINC 629 messages ........................................... 9-14
10. FIBRE OPTICS.............................................................................10-16
10.1 LIGHT...................................................................................10-16
10.1.1 ElectromagnetIC Spectrum...............................................10-17
10.1.2 Velocity of light..................................................................10-17
10.1.3 Straight light PROPAGATION...........................................10-17
10.1.4 Reflection...........................................................................10-17
10.1.5 Refraction...........................................................................10-19
10.1.6 Total internal reflection......................................................10-21
10.1.7 Dispersion.........................................................................10-21
10.2 ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC SYSTEMS..................................10-23
10.3DISADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC SYSTEMS.....................................10-23
10.4 OPTICAL FIBRES.....................................................................10-24
10.5 LIGHT PROPAGATION..............................................................10-26
10.6 FIBRE TYPES..........................................................................10-25
10.6.1 Step index fibre.......................................................10-26
10.6.2 Graded index fibre..................................................10-27
10.7 ACCEPTANCE ZONE................................................................10-27
10.8 NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA)...................................................10-28
10.9 PULSE SPREADING.................................................................10-29
10.9.1 Cause of pulse spreading.......................................10-29
10.9.2 Consequences of pulse spreading.........................10-30
10.10 ATTENUATION........................................................................10-31
10.10.1 Causes of attenuation.............................................10-32
10.11 CHOICE OF FIBRES.................................................................10-33
10.12 JOINING OPTICAL FIBRES........................................................10-34
10.12.1 Possible alignment errors during splicing..............10-34
10.12.2 Fusion splicing........................................................10-35
10.12.3 Mechanical splicing...................................................10-35
10.12.04 Terminations…………………………………………....10-38
10.13 AIRCRAFT FIBRE OPTIC NETWORKS.........................................10-37
10.13.1 Boeing 777 fibre optic networks.............................10-37
11. CATHODE RAY TUBE DISPLAYS...............................................11-42
11.1 ELECTRON GUNS...................................................................11-42
11.1.1 Operation of the gun...............................................11-43
11.1.2 Electromagnetic Deflection.....................................11-44
11.1.3 Electrostatic deflection............................................11-44
11.2 TUBE CHARACTERISTICS.........................................................11-45
11.3 COLOUR PICTURES.................................................................11-46
11.3.1 Delta gun tubes......................................................11-46
12. LED DISPLAYS.............................................................................12-48
13. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS......................................................13-50
13.1 LIGHT SOURCES & VIEWING MODES.........................................13-50
13.2 THE STRUCTURE OF AN LCD....................................................13-50
13.3 PASSIVE VERSUS ACTIVE.........................................................13-52

14. ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE SENSITIVE DEVICES..............14-54

14.1 STATIC ELECTRICITY & ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE...............14-54
14.2 ESDS - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES............................................14-57
15. SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL....................................15-65
16. ELECTROMAGNETIC PHENOMENA..........................................16-68
16.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY.........................................16-68
16.2 LIGHTNING AND HIRF VERSUS STATIC DISCHARGE..................16-68
16.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (HIRF).............................16-69
16.3.1 Effects of hirf..........................................................16-70
16.4 LIGHTNING STRIKES................................................................16-70
16.5 PROTECTION.........................................................................16-70
16.6 MAINTENANCE........................................................................16-70
16.7 STATIC..................................................................................16-71
16.8 STATIC DISCHARGERS............................................................16-72
16.8.1 Types of static dischargers.....................................16-72
16.8.2 Siting of static discharges.......................................16-74
16.8.3 maintenance of static dischargers..........................16-74
17. ELECTRONIC / DIGITAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS.........................17-75
17.1 INTRODUCTION TO EFIS, EICAS & ECAM............................17-76
17.2 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS (ENGINE & AIRFRAME
SYSTEMS......................................................................................17-85
17.2.1 ENGINE INDICATING & CREW ALERTING SYSTEM
(EICAS)...............................................................................17-85
17.2.2 ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT MONITORING
(ECAM).....................................................17-95
17.3 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RADIO BEACON SYSTEM
(ATCRBS)....................................................................................17-103
17.3.1 TRANSPONDERS................................................17-103
17.3.2 MODE S TRANSPONDERS................................17-106
17.4 TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM
(TCAS).........................................................................................17-108
17.5 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)..........................17-118
17.6 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS).........................17-132
GPS Position Fixing..........................................................17-135
17.7 FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)........................17-138
17.8 ARINC COMMUNICATIONS ADDRESSING AND REPORTING SYSTEM
(ACARS)......................................................................17-150
17.9 FLY BY WIRE...................................................................17-152

1. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
Instrumentation is basically the science of measurement. Speed, distance, altitude,
direction, attitude, pressure and temperature, to list but a few items, are measured
and displayed on dials, counters and CRT displays.
Safe, economic and reliable operation of aircraft is dependent upon the use of
accurate, reliable instrumentation. When aircraft first took to the air, little was known
of the instrument requirements; the only instruments fitted were a crude form of
airspeed indicator and an engine rpm gauge. It is likely that the pilot also carried a
stopwatch. Developments in aviation during World War I saw additions and
improvements to the basic instrumentation, and a simple form of instrument panel
emerged. By the end of the war an aircraft was likely to be fitted with:
 Air Speed Indicator (ASI)
 Inclinometer. To give some form of attitude information.
 Fuel and oil pressure gauges.
 Altimeter
 Engine rpm gauge
 Clock
 Magnetic compass

Although an improvement on the initial equipment, it was still a far cry from the
instrumentation required for ‘blind flight’. It had been discovered that when visual
contact with the horizon was lost, a pilot had great difficulty in controlling the aircraft.
This is a problem that remains today, resulting in pilots requiring special instrument
flying training. These ‘blind flight’ problems were overcome by the introduction of two
gyro based instruments, the ‘directional gyro’ for heading information and the ‘gyro
horizon’ for attitude information. At the same time more accurate, sensitive type
altimeters and ‘rate of climb’ indicators were introduced.
The increase in flight instrumentation coupled with the changes in aircraft and engine
design resulted in a large number and variety of instruments being randomly
distributed over the aircraft instrument panels. It was soon realised that the
instruments required for ‘blind flight’ needed to be located in such a manner as to
enable quick and easy scanning by the aircrew. This resulted in the introduction of
standard methods of grouping flight instruments on the main instrument panels.
New developments in electronic technology have led to the addition of light emitting
diode type displays and, more recently, to the replacement of conventional
instrumentation by cathode ray tube (CRT) display units. This has greatly reduced
the number and variety of instruments disposed on the instrument panels, and also
considerably reduced the pilot workload.

1.1 REQUIREMENTS
Both the CAA and the International Civil Aviation Organisation lay down the
requirements concerning aircraft instrumentation. The detail is far beyond the scope
or need of this module, however some general points are:
1. All instruments must be located in a position that enables them to be read by the
appropriate crewmember.
2. Illuminated instruments should be readable at night without the need for
additional lighting. Any lighting should not be directed at the person reading the
instruments.
3. Flight, navigation and engine instrumentation should be located so that the pilot
can see them without having to move his line of sight far from the normal ‘line of
flight’ position.
4. Flight instruments should be grouped symmetrically on panels about the vertical
plane of the pilot’s vision.
5. Engine instrumentation should be grouped together and positioned so that the
instruments can be seen by either crewmember.
6. In multi-engine aircraft, the instrumentation for each engine should be identical
and positioned so as relate to the actual engine position.
7. The vibration characteristics of instrument panels should be such that the
instruments are easily readable at all flight phases.
The instruments installed depend on the type and size of aircraft and the type of
engines fitted. It should be noted that if the aircraft is designed for two pilot
operation, then the flight instrumentation needs to be duplicated, and the information
displayed must be derived from independent sources.

1.2 INSTRUMENT PANELS

Instruments essential for the operation of an aircraft are located in panels. The
location and layouts of the panels vary dependent upon the type and size of aircraft
and the equipment fitted to the aircraft. Panels are non-magnetic and normally have
a matt finish to reduce glare and reflection.
Only one instrument panel is needed in a small aircraft fitted with basic instruments.
In larger, more complex aircraft, additional panels are required. This can be clearly
seen in the Vickers Viscount below. An old aircraft, but a good example.

Where more than two panels are fitted, the forward panel in front of the aircrew is
normally referred to as the ‘main instrument panel’ to distinguish it from the
additional panels located overhead and alongside the flight compartment. On some
aircraft the main instrument panel is split into two halves and referred to as the pilots
and co-pilots panels. As both pilot and co-pilot require the necessary
instrumentation to control the aircraft, many instruments on the two panels are
duplicated. It should be noted that the instrument sources would be different.
On early aircraft the only way of monitoring all of the aircraft systems was to have an
instrument for each item. On a large aircraft this often resulted in the need for a
flight engineer and an associated flight engineers instrument panel (see diagram
above). With this arrangement, any engine instrumentation necessary for safe flight
was duplicated on the main panels. In the picture, the instruments used on the main
panel differ in style from those on the flight engineers panel.
The modern trend is to continually reduce pilot workload. One of the easiest ways of
achieving this, is to display the bare minimum of instrumentation necessary for a
particular flight phase. This has only become possible with the introduction of CRT
type displays and the ‘glass cockpit’.

1.2.1 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
The instruments that aid in controlling the in-flight attitude of the aircraft and give a
picture of the aircraft’s flight condition are known as ‘flight instruments’. The basic
flight instruments are:
Airspeed indicator Artificial horizon Altimeter
Turn and bank (Slip) indicator Direction indicator Vertical speed indicator
As already mentioned, these instruments were originally randomly located over one
instrument panel, but it was soon realised that they needed to be positioned in such
a manner as to enable quick and easy scanning. The first attempt at this was the
‘blind flying panel’ or ‘basic six’ layout shown above.
With the development and introduction of new types of navigation and control
systems and more comprehensive display systems, a review of the flight instruments
resulted in the ‘basic six’ layout being replaced by the ‘basic T’ arrangement as
shown.
The ‘basic T’ arrangement has four key indicators; airspeed, altimeter, pitch and roll
attitude and horizontal situation indicator (HSI). One of the positions flanking the HSI
is generally occupied by a vertical speed indicator (VSI), the other may contain a
radio magnetic indicator (RMI), turn and bank indicator or a turn co-ordinator. In
aircraft fitted with a flight director system, the turn and bank indicator is no longer
used.

When cathode ray tube (CRT) displays or ‘glass cockpits’ were introduced, the ‘basic
T’ layout was initially retained, however, modern glass cockpit type aircraft have
moved away from this form of layout.

2. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

The term ‘electronic instruments’ is used to refer to the latest trend in aircraft
instruments. This involves the use of CRTs (cathode ray tubes or TV screens) to
display aircraft instrument information. Another common term for this system is the
‘glass cockpit’. The use of CRTs permits a greater use of integrated instruments,
which display numerous types of information on one screen. It also permits greater
flexibility because the information on each CRT can be changed in flight. It is also
claimed that reliability is increased because complex electro-mechanical instruments
are replaced by CRTs that have no moving parts. A special type of computer control
called a symbol generator operates these CRTs. The latest generation of air carrier
jets and business jets was designed to use glass cockpit displays. This group
include Boeing 757, 767 and 747-400, McDonnell Douglas MD-11 and Airbus aircraft
among others.
Other aircraft have been retrofitted with glass cockpit displays in their latest versions
or as an option from the factory.
Some aircraft have only one or two CRTs, whilst others, with a full glass cockpit
system, will use six or more CRTs. The electronic instruments that make up a full
glass cockpit come in three types:
 Electronic Attitude Director Indicators (EADIs), also sometimes called the Primary
Flight Displays (PFDs)
 Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicators (EHSIs), also sometimes called the
Navigation Displays (NDs)
 Engine Indication and Crew Alerting (EICAS) or Electronic Centralised Aircraft
Monitoring (ECAM).
2.1 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (EFIS)
Two primary displays in a glass cockpit are used to display information originally
shown on the flight instrument panel. These two displays are called, the Electronic
Attitude Director Indicator (EADI) and the Electronic Horizontal Situation
Indicator (EHSI). In essence these two displays replace the analogue versions, the
ADI and the HSI. The major difference is that the displays are more versatile, pilots
can select the types of information they wish to see and more information can be
presented on the electronic version of the instrument. Another very important
advantage of electronic displays is that irrelevant information can be removed from
the display until needed, reducing the ‘clutter’ and pilot workload. Both of these
advantages improve safety.
2.1.1 ELECTRONIC ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR

The main element of the EADI is the horizon sphere. As already mentioned, this
instrument replaced the analogue version, the ADI. The origin of the ADI is the
artificial horizon, which simply showed an aircraft in relation to a line representing
the horizon; later versions provided a better representation of the aircraft attitude and
were called Attitude Indicators (AIs). As navigation aids and computer aided flight
systems were developed, various pointers and symbols were added to the AI. Some
examples being, the flight director command bars, glide path pointer and localiser
deviation indicator. The addition of this flight information resulted in a change of
name to Attitude Director Indicator (ADI), because the instrument was now
directing the pilot where to fly the aircraft in relation to the navigation aids.
A modern EADI will display, or is capable of displaying:

 Pitch and roll information
 Slip
 Ground speed and speed error
 Flight director information
 Glide slope and localiser deviation
 Numerous warning and status messages, including pitch and roll mode,
navigation aid selected, radio altitude, altitude alert and decision height.
2.1.2 ELECTRONIC HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR
The roots of the EHSI lie way back with the earliest aircraft. The direct reading
magnetic compass was the original source of heading information, however,
problems with the use of magnetic compasses during manoeuvres resulted in the
introduction of the Directional Gyro. For a period of time, the gyro was used in
conjunction with the magnetic compass, the compass giving long-term accuracy, the
gyro accuracy during manoeuvres. Later the combining of these two devices
produced the remote reading compass system.
The addition of navigation and flight system information resulted in the indicator
being called a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI). The display now showed the
aircraft’s heading or position in relation to Navigation and Landing aids.
A modern Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator, EHSI for short, presents a
selectable, dynamic colour display of the aircraft’s position and heading in relation to
the navigation aids around it. Items displayed include:
 Magnetic heading
 Radio steering commands for VOR / INS
 Way points, airports and navigation aids

 Distance to go
 ILS steering information
The diagram below shows only one of the numerous types of presentation possible
on an EHSI. Others will be examined later within this module.

2.2 Engine indicating & crew alerting

In the first commercial jet aircraft built with glass cockpits there were two distinctively
different approaches to the displaying of engine and system parameters, and the
associated warnings.
Boeing adopted a system called the ‘Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System
(EICAS)’. As the name implies this system displays engine parameters, and
warnings in the event of a fault condition.
The system comprises two CRT displays, one above the other. During normal flight
the lower screen is generally blank and the upper displays the primary engine
parameters. When a fault occurs a message is displayed on the top display and the
faulty system parameters are shown on the lower screen.
Airbus adopted a system called the ‘Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor’
(ECAM). This system was based on a decision that engine parameters needed to
be displayed continuously, therefore conventional engine instruments were retained
on earlier Airbus aircraft.
The system comprised two CRT displays mounted side by side. The left display
shows system status messages, warnings and corrective actions in the form of a list.
The right display shows pictorial diagrams of systems.
2.2 DISPLAY PRODUCTION

Although several systems will be examined in more detail later in this module, it
makes sense at this stage to briefly mention how the information on the displays is
produced. In all cases computers are connected to numerous data sources. The
computers processing the information and producing the necessary video signals to
drive the displays are generally called symbol generators (SGs).
2.2.1 SYMBOL GENERATORS

These provide the analogue, discrete and digital signal interfaces between an
aircraft’s systems, the display units and the control panel, and they perform symbol
generation, system monitoring, power control and the main control functions of the
EFIS overall.
In large commercial aircraft there are generally three symbol generators. One to
drive each of the two sets of primary flight displays and a third which basically acts
as a backup. This is however not always the case, some modern systems employ
only two.
2.2.2 COMPARATOR SYSTEMS

In conventional instrument systems, instrument comparators are used to detect
differences in signals from two sources, and to illuminate corresponding warning
lights whenever a significant difference exists.
In modern EFIS systems, failure of data signals are displayed on each EADI and
EHSI in the form of yellow flags painted at specific locations on the screen or by
removal of elements of the display. In addition, fault messages may also be
displayed.

2.2.3 PRESENTATION
Each Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) display contains three electron guns, one each for
red, green and blue. By controlling the three guns, the symbol generators can
produce red, green or blue on the display, as well as combinations resulting in
yellow, cyan (light blue), magenta (pink) and white. If one or more guns fail, the
display automatically reverts to monochrome (black and white). The operation of
CRT displays will be examined in more detail later in these notes.
Aircraft display units employ two different methods for ‘painting’ the information onto
the screen, raster and stroke. The raster is used for fast display of large areas of
colour on the EADI to paint the attitude ball and on the EHSI for the weather radar
display. All other symbols requiring high definition use the point-to-point stroke type
of scan. The displays are made flicker-free by refreshing the stroke written symbols
at the rate 80 times per second and the raster at the rate of 40 times per second.
2.2.4 COMPOSITE DISPLAY ON EADI OR EHSI

In the event of a display unit failure, the OFF position of the respective dim knob on
the display controller is used to display a composite attitude and NAV format on the
remaining good display head. The following figure shows the location and form of the
composite elements of a typical display. As in normal EADI and EHSI presentations,
all elements are not displayed at the same time. The presence or absence of each
display element is determined by flight phase, NAV radio tuning, selected flight
director mode, absolute altitude, etc. The failure, caution, and warning annunciations
function is much the same as for the normal display mode.

3. NUMBERING SYSTEMS
In our notes to date, we have always expressed electrical voltages or currents in
‘Analogue Form’. These are signals which can vary smoothly from zero up to a wide
range of voltages or current amplitudes.
In contrast, Digital Signals can only assume one of only two (Binary) states - either a
logic ‘o’ or a logic ‘1’.
The logic’0’ level is usually associated with a low output voltage (usually Ov). The
logic ‘1’ state is usually a higher voltage (+ 5 volts). For these reasons, logic ‘0’ is
sometimes called, ‘LOW’ or ‘OFF’ or ‘FALSE’.
The logic ‘1’ state is sometimes called ‘HIGH’ or’ON’ or’TRUE’.
In its simplest form, a single Binary Signal or BIT (= Binary Digit) can be used to
represent the two ‘states’ of a device or function.
e.g. The ‘ON’ or ‘CLOSED’ state of a switch could be represented by a logic ‘1’ and
the ‘OFF’ or ‘OPEN’ state of the switch would produce a logic ‘o’ in this circuit:
These logic levels can be easily represented by transistors switching on and off
inside a logic chip. Alternatively, several of these ‘Bits’ can be grouped together into
what are called ‘words’ to represent a numerical quantity, perhaps representing the
magnitude of a voltage or current.
These binary words consist of a string of 1’s and 0’s that can be stored in an array of
two state devices to represent the numerical quantity. i.e:
A single bit digit can only represent 2 numbers, i.e. 0, and 1.
A 2 bit word can ‘represent’ 4 (22 numbers, i.e. 0, 1, 2, and 3).
‘0 0’ can represent the quantity ‘0’

• A 3 bit word can represent 8 numbers; i.e:

‘0 0 0’ can represent the quantity ‘0’
’1 0 0’ can represent the quantity ‘4’
‘1 1 1’ can represent the quantity 7’ etc.
The system of representing numbers as a series of 0’s and 1’s is called the ‘Binary
System’. Arithmetic and/or logical operations can be performed on these ‘bits’ or
‘words’ using digital computers.
Therefore, we must be able to:
a) Convert from our everyday decimal system into Binary form
b) Carry out all logical operations or arithmetic operations in a way which is compatible
with a digital computer
and then
c) Convert any Binary numbers produced back into decimal quantities.
We will therefore examine the basics of the Binary Numbering System (and its
derivatives, the Octal and Hexadecimal System) and contrast it with the well known
decimal system. We will also examine all the various logical operations like AND,
OR, NAND, NOR, and NOT using Combinational logic. Later in the course we will
look at the basics of sequential logic, e.g. Flip Flops, storage, and the basics of
transmitting digital signals between equipments.
The most widely used system of numbers is the decimal system, based on the Hindu
Arabic symbols 0, 1, 2, 3 etc; but roman symbols such as V, X, L and C are also well
known and understood. Today, the practice of engineering requires a measure of
competence in handling several different systems of numerals.
In general a system of numeration consists of a set of symbols, together with a rule
by which the symbols can be combined together.
Number is the property associated with a set or collection of things. It is independent
of the nature of the individual items in the set. The number fourteen may be written
as 14 or XIV In this case the number is the same but the system of numeration is
different.

3.1 DECIMAL SYSTEM OF NUMERATION

In this system the symbols are combined by arranging them in a horizontal line, the
contribution made by each digit being governed by its position. A decimal point
enables numbers less than one to be represented.
Example 1: Decimal 368 is really:
(3  102) + (6  101) + (8  100)

or, in column form:
102 101 100

(hundreds) (tens) (units)
3 6 8
Example 2: Decimal 452.64 is really:
(4  102) + (5  101) + (2  100) + (6  10-1) + (4  10-2)

or, in column form:
102 101 100 10-1 10-2
4 5 2 6 4
Ten is known as the base or radix of the decimal system.

The radix or base in use is indicated by means of a suffix to the number.
i.e. (6)10 (7)8 (3)5 (10)2
By convention a number with no radix is considered to be a decimal number.
e.g. 368 or 452.64 instead of the more correct 36810 or 452.6410.
The index indicates the power to which the base is raised.
The base and the particular index to which it is raised is called the weight.
e.g. least significant weight = 100 = 1
next most significant weight = 101 = 10
The numbers by which weight is multiplied are called digits. Note: 0 is counted as
a digit, so that there are ten digits in the decimal system, being 0 to 9 inclusive.

3.2 BINARY SYSTEM OF NUMERATION

All Digital Computers are made up from logic devices that function by use of one of
two states, logic high or logic low, representing a ‘1’ and a ‘0’ . The numbering
system that uses only two digits (0 and 1) is a base two system known as the Binary
System. The two digits 0 and 1 are referred to as bits, an abbreviation of binary
digits.
Example 1:
101101 is really:
(1  25) + (0  24) + (1  23) + (1  22) + (0  21) + (1  20)

or, in column form:
25 24 23 22 21 20
1 0 1 1 0 1
(= 45 in decimal)
Example 2
110.11 is really:
(1  22) + (1  21) + (0  20) + (1  2-1) + (1  2-2)

or in column form:
22 21 20 2-1 2-2
1 1 0 1 1
(= 6.75 in decimal)
Note: All digits to the right of the binary point refer to negative powers.
The binary system is very suitable for use with electrical switching circuits. A switch
is either off or on corresponding, for example, to 0 and 1 respectively. There is no
ambiguity.

3.3 CONVERSION FROM DECIMAL TO BINARY
3.3.1 NUMBERS GREATER THAN 1
Rule: Divide repeatedly by the new base. The remainder provides the digits of the
required equivalent. Read from bottom to top.
Example 1 Example 2
Convert (69)10 to binary Convert (315)10 to binary
2 69 2 315
2 34 1 2 157 1
2 17 0 2 78 1
2 8 1 2 39 0
2 4 0 2 19 1
2 2 0 2 9 1
2 1 0 2 4 1
0 1 2 2 0
2 1 0
(1000101)2 Answer
0 1
(100111011)2
Answer

3.3.2 NUMBER LESS THAN 1
Rule: Multiply repeatedly by the new base. Then carry past the decimal point, at
each step, gives the digits of the new representation. Read from top to bottom.
0.125 0.675
2 2
(0) . (1)
250 .350
2 2
(0) . (0)
500 .700
2 2
(1) . (1)
000 .400
(0.001)2 2
Answer
(0)
.800
2
(1)
.600
2
(1)
.200
(0.101011)2
Answer

3.4 CONVERSION FROM BINARY TO DECIMAL
3.4.1 NUMBERS GREATER AND LESS THAN 1

Only the basic method will be given here. Other methods are also used.
Table of Weights (Base 2)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 05 025 0125 00625 003125
Rules:
1. Refer to the table of weights above.
2. If a 1 digit, locate the weight and convert to decimal.
3. If a 0 digit, write 0.
4. Add to obtain the answer in decimal.
Example 1: Convert (1111.111)2 to decimal
This is equivalent to:

(1  23) + (1  22) + (1  21) + (1  20) + (1  2-1) + (1  2-2) + (1  2-3)
Converting gives: 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125
= (15.875)10
Example 2: Convert 110010.1101 to decimal
This is equivalent to:

(1  25) + (1  24) + (1  23) + (1  22) + (1  21) + (1  20) + (1  2-1) + (12-2) + (1 
2-3) + (1  2-4)
Converting gives: 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0 + 0.0625
= (50.8125)10
3.4.2 BINARY ADDITION
The rules for addition are:

0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 0 and carry 1
1 + 1 + carry 1 = 1 and carry 1
Remember we are using binary 0s and 1s, not decimal. The last two sums would be
2 and 3 respectively in decimal numbers.

Examples in both decimal and binary form:

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
4 100 18 10010
+3 +11 +12 +1100
7 111 30 11110
23 10111 10 1010
+4 +100 +10 +1010
+11 +1011 +20 +10100
38 100110 40 101000
3.4.3 BINARY SUBTRACTION
The rules for subtraction are:
0-0=0
1-1=0
1-0=1
0 - 1 = 1 with a borrow of 1 from a more significant column on the left.
Examples in both decimal and binary form:

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
15 1111 16 10000
-13 -1101 -11 -1011
2 10 5 101
16 10000 40 101000
-7 -111 -7 -111
9 1001 33 100001
Whilst the above subtractions are fairly simple to do, subtraction of a small number
from a very large one, or of a large number from a smaller one can be very
confusing. Try subtracting 111 from 11000011 (7 from 195) or 10000 from 1011 (16
from 11) for example.
To simplify subtraction the ‘two’s complement’ method is used. The complement of a
decimal number is that number subtracted from 99. The complement of a binary
number is much simpler to calculate, being that number subtracted from 1. It can be
seen that therefore the complement of a 1 is 0, and the complement of a 0 is 1.

3.4.2.1 Subtraction Using The Two’s Complement Method

Using complements, subtraction can be performed by a process of addition.
Rules:
1. Write down the complement of the number to be subtracted. This is obtained by
simply writing 0s for 1s and 1s for 0s.
2. Add 1 to the complement. (This gives what is known as the 2’s complement).
3. Add the complement plus 1 (i.e. the 2’s complement) to the original number which
is to be reduced by subtraction.
4. Ignore any carry over digit in the answer which is to the left of the most significant
column if present.
5. If there is no carry digit from the most significant column then the answer is a
negative value which must be two’s complemented to give a true answer.
Examples in decimal notation:
Example 1 16 The complement of 09 is 99 - 09 = 90
-9 Add 1 to the complement; 90 + 1 = 91
7 +16
ignore  1] 07
Example 2 53 53 53
-24 + (75 + 1) + 76
29 ignore  1] 29
Examples in binary notation:

Example 1: Evaluate 1110 minus 101; rewrite as 1110 minus 0101
= 1110 + (1010 + 1)
=1110 + 1011
ignore  1]1001 = 1001 answer
Example 2: Evaluate 10101 minus 1; rewrite as 10101 - 00001
= 10101 + (11110 + 1)
= 10101 + 11111
ignore  1]10100 = 10100 answer
The above is sometimes referred to as ‘the method of two’s complement’. It is used
in computer work where speed is important, since only the operations of
complementing (by an inverter) and one addition are needed.

3.5 OCTAL SYSTEM OF NUMERATION

The Octal System is a shorthand method of representing 3 bit binary words. Hindu-
Arabic symbols are again used but without the digits 8 and 9. Numbers greater than
7 must be represented by a combination of two or more digits. The base is 8 and
may be indicated by a subscript. The lowest number, 0 8, represents binary 000;
whereas the highest number, 78, is shorthand for binary 111.
Example 1: (3573)8 is really: (3  83) + (5  82) + (7  81) + (3  80)
or in column form
83 82 81 80
[= (1915)10]
3 5 7 3
Example 2: (25.76)8 is really: (2  81) + (5  80) + (7  8-1) + (6  8-2)

or in column form
81 80 8-1 8-2
[= (21.96875)10]
2 5 7 6
Note: The digit 8 does not exist in the octal system.
Equivalents:-
Decimal Binary Octal
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 10 2
3 11 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
6 110 6
7 111 7
8 1000 10
9 1001 11
10 1010 12

3.5.1 CONVERSION FROM DECIMAL TO OCTAL

Numbers greater than 1
Rule: Divide repeatedly by the new base (8). The remainder provides the digits of
the required equivalent. Read from bottom to top.
Numbers less than 1
Rule: Multiply repeatedly by the new base. The carry to the left of the decimal
point, at each step, gives the digits of the new representation. Read from top to
bottom.
Example 1
Whole Number Fractional Part
8 428  2 5
8 53 4 8
8 6 5 2 0 0
0 6
(654)8 (0.2)8 (654.2)8
Example 2
8 734 0186
8 91 6 8
8 11 3 (1)488
8 1 3 8
0 1 (3)904
8 (1372)8
(7)232
8
(1)856
8
(6)848
(13361372)8

3.5.2 CONVERSION FROM OCTAL TO DECIMAL

= (3  82) + (6  81) + (5  80) + (2  8-1) + (2  8-2)
= 192 + 48 + 5 + 0.25 + 0.03125
= (245.28125)10
= (1  83) + (3  82) + (7  81) + (5  80) + (3  8-1) + (2  8-2) + (68-3)
= 512 + 192 + 56 + 5 + 0.375 + 0.01171875
= (765.41796875)10
3.5.3 CONVERSION FROM OCTAL TO BINARY
If a number is available in octal form, then its natural binary equivalent may be
written down directly.
Rule:
 Convert each octal digit into its equivalent 3 digit binary.
 Group digits together and insert binary point, if applicable, to obtain answer.
Example 1: By inspection, convert (42.2)8 to binary.
42.28
100 010 010 = 100010.0102
Check 42.28  34.2510 = 100010.010
Example 2: By inspection, convert (654.36)8 to binary

654.368
110 101 100 011 110 = 10101100.0111102
Check 654.368  428.4687510  10101100.011110

3.6 HEXADECIMAL ARITHMETIC

The hexadecimal system of numeration has a radix of 16. It differs from other
systems in using a combination of both numbers and letters. Applications of the
hexadecimal system include input / output coding for the instruction sets used in
microprocessors. Like Octal it is a shorthand method of writing long binary numbers.
A Hexadecimal number represents a 4 bit binary number. The rules for manipulation
of the arithmetic are similar to those for decimal.
Sixteen different digits or symbols are now required. This is achieved by using the
digits 0 to 9 in the normal way and then employing the first six letters of the alphabet
for the additional six as follows.
Decimal Letter
10 A
11 B
12 C
13 D
14 E
15 F
Example 1: Hexadecimal 183 is really:

(1  16 ) + (8  16 ) + (3  160)
2 1
or in column form:
162 161 160
(256S) (16S) (1S)
[ = 38710]
1 8 3
Example 2 (424.35)16 is really:

4  16 + 2  16 + 4  160 + 3  16-1 + 5  16-2
2 1
or in column form:
162 161 160 16-1 16-2
[ = 1060.20703110]
4 2 4 3 5

TABLE OF COMPARISON
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
3.6.1 CONVERSION FROM HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL

Rule: Refer to conversion table and follow standard procedure.
Example 1 Convert 2 A 9 D16 to decimal
(2  163) + (10  162) + (9  161) + (13  160)
8192 + 2560 + 144 + 13
= (10909)10 Answer
Example 2 Convert 7A5.E51E16 to decimal. (Correct to 3 places to the

right of the hexadecimal point)
(7  162) + (10  161) + (5  160) + (14  16-1) + (5  16-2) + (1  16-3) + (14  16-4)
1792+160+5+0.875 + 0.01953125 + 0.00024414062+ 0.00021362304
= 1957.89510 Answer
3.6.2 CONVERSION FROM BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
The procedure is basically similar to that for binary-to-octal conversion.

Rules:

5. Divide the binary number into groups of four bits starting from LSB.
6. Convert each group into its equivalent decimal number.
7. Convert any number greater than 9 into its equivalent hexadecimal symbol.
8. Group all digits and symbols together to provide the answer.
Example 1 Convert 0110110110011110 to hexadecimal
Binary 0110 1101 1001 1110
Decimal 6 13 9 14
Hexadecimal 6 D 9 E
= 6D9E16 Answer
Example 2 Convert 1011011000101111 to hexadecimal
Binary 1011 0110 0010 1111
Decimal 11 6 2 15
Hexadecimal B 6 2 F
= B62F16 Answer

3.6.3 CONVERSION FROM HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
3.6.3.1 Whole numbers
The previous procedure is reversed.

Example 1 Convert D 39 A16 to binary
Hexadecimal D 3 9 A
Decimal 13 3 9 10
Binary 1101 0011 1001 010
= 1101001110011010 Answer
Example 2 Convert F 81 C16 to binary
Hexadecimal F 8 1 C
Decimal 15 8 1 12
Binary 1111 1000 0001 1100
= 1111100000011100 Answer
3.6.3.2 Fractional numbers
Example 1 Convert 03AC16 to binary

0.3 A C
0011 1010 1100
= 0.001110101100
Answer
Example 2 Convert D3FB.1EA to binary

D 3 F B  1 E A

1101 0011 1111 1011  0001 1110 1010
= 1101001111111011.000111101010
3.6.4 CONVERSION - DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL FRACTIONS
The same rules apply as for other bases, viz, multiply repeatedly by the new base
16, remove the integers and convert from decimal to hexadecimal.
Note:- To convert from decimal to binary you may find it easier to first convert to
octal, as successive division by 8 is less tedious than successive division (or
multiplication for fractions) by 2, then converting the octal number to binary.
Likewise, conversion to and from hexadecimal and decimal may be found to be
easier by first converting to binary.
As stated earlier, octal and hexadecimal are the shorthand ways of writing large
binary numbers, as the following example demonstrates: -
Take the binary line and compare it’s length to the Octal and Hexadecimal lines:
111100001111101100011• 00010011012
7417543 • 04648
1E1F63 • 13416

REVISION QUESTIONS:-
Convert the following decimal numbers to binary:
15 39 170 117 127 256 298 1029
Convert the following binary numbers to decimal:
0 1 11 10 111 1011 0110 10111
11001 1001111 111001010 100000001
Convert the following binary numbers to decimal:

0.01 0.110 0.1011 0.11101 0.1001
1.1 11.1 101.101 111.111 1001.0011
Convert the following decimal numbers into binary to 6 binary places:

0.86 0.932 0.785 0.842 0.196
2.5 1.75 19.625 4.125 26.062
Convert the following octal numbers to decimal:

7 71 43 217 100
Convert the following octal numbers to binary:
4 77 236 721
Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to decimal:
A AA 23 5F 3CB9
Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to binary:
16 A4 80C F5F AECB

3.7 NUMBERING CODES

Up until now we have examined different numbering systems, there are however
also different numbering codes based on the binary system, i.e. codes that only use
the digits 0 and 1 to represent information, one such system is Binary Coded
Decimal (BCD). BCD is generally used where the decimal number is too long to be
converted into Binary. In BCD each decimal digit is represented by a 4 digit binary
word.
6 4 7 5 6
0110 0100 0111 0101 0110
This technique is commonly used for frequency selection. Another system used for
frequency selection is the 2 from 5 code.
Decimal Code
0 01001 As can be seen only two bits are

ever set to ‘1’.
1 11000
2 10100
3 01100
4 01010
5 00110
6 00101
7 00011
8 10010
9 10001

In binary and other codes looked at so far, the number of digits that change on each
count varies. Another form of code called, a ‘one bit change code’, a ‘one bit code’
or a ‘slip code’ employs a sequence where only one bit changes with each
successive count.
Decimal Code
0 000
1 001
2 011
3 010
4 110
5 111
6 101
7 100
This type of code is used for altitude reporting and weather radar signal encoding.
There are a variety of codes of this form, identified by names such as Grey Code /
Datex Code, ICAO code. By using this form of code large errors are avoided,
because if more than 1 bit changes on each successive count the system knows
something is wrong.
Errors may also be detected if a redundant code is used, that is a code containing
more bits than is necessary for the information.
A 2 from 5 code is a redundant code, 5 bits are used giving a possible 32
combination, however, only 10 of these combinations are used. If one of the
redundant (unused) combinations appears, an error has occurred.
Another simple form of error detecting involves adding an extra ‘bit’ to a word. This
extra bit being called a ‘parity bit’.
If even parity is used, the bit will be set to a ‘0’ or ‘1’ such that the total of ‘1’s in the
word is even.
Ex. (0) 0011 (0) 1010 (1) 1101
If odd parity is used, the bit will be set to ‘0’ or ‘1’ such that the total of 1’s in the word
is odd.
Ex. (1) 0011 (1) 1010 (0) 1101
Simple forms of error detection such as parity bit only tells the system that a fault has
occurred, they do not tell it where the fault arose. More sophisticated codes are
available that can identify the error, some systems can even automatically correct an
error.

4. LOGIC GATES
In aircraft a large amount of information is handled in electrical form, the signals
being analogue or digital. The processing may be simple, for example fuel level
being displayed on a suitable indicator. In other cases the processing may be very
complex. Systems may be required to perform calculations or make decisions, they
may be designed to detect faults and perform the appropriate action.
A system which performs calculations or makes decisions is a logic system. A
computer is a logic system that contains memory. Computers and logic systems
may handle either analogue or digital information.
4.1 TERMINOLOGY
Logic systems consist essentially of electrical switches connected together in various
combinations. A basic switch has two positions; open-shut, off-on.
In one position there is an output current and in the other position there is no output
current. These two states are defined as 1 and 0 in logic systems and known as
binary digits, abbreviated to bits.
A combination of bits is called a word. 1011 is a 4 bit word
101110 is a 6 bit word
Words with 8 bits are commonly called a byte, that is, a byte has 8 bits, e.g.
10110110.
4.2 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LOGIC
In electronics, logic refers to the representation and logical manipulation of
information. The information is usually is some form of code using binary digits. The
two binary states may be represented in a variety of ways, two different frequencies,
two phase angles, but the most common is usually high and low voltage levels.
There are two possibilities:
Positive Logic A low voltage is used to represent 0
A high voltage is used to represent 1
Negative Logic A high voltage is used to represent 0
A low voltage is used to represent 1
Positive logic is more common, with +5 volts representing a logic ‘1’ and 0 volts a
logic ‘0’ respectively, measured with respect to the ‘common’, ‘0v’ or ‘ground’ signal
in an electronic circuit.

4.3 COMBINATIONAL LOGIC GATES

A logic gate is a device with a number of input terminals and one output terminal.
The output will depend on the input voltages or currents. Many symbols are used,
but the ATA 100 specification symbols are the ones used in these notes and the
majority of maintenance manuals.
There are three basic logic gates:-

- the OR gate
- the AND gaye
- the NOT (or invertor) gate.
4.3.1 OR GATE
Consider the circuit shown below.
If one or more of the switches is closed, the lamp will light. This circuit action is a
form of OR gate. A or B or C will illuminated the lamp.
This symbol is used to represent an OR gate:
The operation of the gate is expressed as: X = A + B + C

The + sign is read as OR, which easily causes confusion.
If A or B or C are 1, the output X equals logic 1.

The operation of the gate is defined by a ‘Truth Table’. A truth table shows the output
logic levels against a series of static (fixed) logic level signal inputs of a logic gate or
system. i.e. It lists all the possible input signal combinations that can be applied to a
logic gate or a logic system and the output logic signal for each of these unique input
conditions. The truth table for a 3 input OR gate is:
A B C X
0 0 0 0 not A, not B, not C produces 0

0 0 1 1 not A, not B, C produces 1
0 1 0 1 not A, B, not C produces 1
0 1 1 1 not A, B, C produces 1
1 0 0 1 A, not B, not C produces 1
1 0 1 1 A, not B, C produces 1
1 1 0 1 A, B, not C produces 1
1 1 1 1 A, B, C produces 1
A way of representing the device using electronic components is shown below.

4.3.2 AND GATE
Consider the circuit above, in order to get the lamp to illuminate both switch A and B
require closing. If only one switch is closed the lamp will remain off.
The symbol used to represent the AND gate is:
The operation of the gate is expressed as : X = A.B
the . sign is read as AND.

If A AND B are logic 1, then X is logic 1.
The truth table for a 2 input AND gate is:
A B X
0 0 0 not A, not B, produces 0
0 1 0 not A, B, produces 0
1 0 0 A, not B, produces 0
1 1 1 A and B produce 1
A way of representing the device using electronic components is:

4.3.3 NOT GATE
A NOT gate has only 1 input, and its output is always the opposite of the input. It is
often referred to as an inverter.
The symbol used to represent a NOT gate is:
Operation of the gate is expressed as: X = A,¯

X = NOT A the bar above the A indicates the inverse (or NOT) of A.
The truth table for an inverter is:
A X
0 1
1 0
Operation & Manufacture

Combinations of OR, AND gates and inverters can be used to perform any logic
function, however, due to manufacturing techniques it is easier to produce NAND
(not AND) and NOR (not OR) gates.
4.3.4 NAND GATE
The symbol for a NAND gate is:
The small circle (or NOT bubble) at the output basically inverts the output of the AND
gate, making it a NAND gate.
Operation of the gate is expressed as X = A.B,¯¯¯ , NOT A and B.
The truth table for a NAND gate is
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
The outputs are the inverse of the AND gate.

4.3.5 NOR GATE
The symbol for a NOR gate is
Operation of the gate is expressed as X = A + B,¯¯¯¯¯ and the truth table is
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
The outputs are the inverse of the OR gate.
4.3.6 EXCLUSIVE OR GATE
The exclusive OR gate is a special gate obtained by combining some basic gates.
The symbol for an exclusive OR gate is
Operation of the gate is expressed as: X = A .B,¯ + A,¯ .B

or AB The  sign is called the exclusive or (EXOR) sign.
The truth table is:

A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

4.4 ADDERS
In binary addition there can only be four possible alternatives as shown in the table:
A B SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
The carry may be called the carry out.

This can be expressed as:
SUM = AB
CARRY = A.B
4.4.1 HALF ADDER CIRCUIT
A combination of an exclusive OR and an AND gate can be used to obtain the truth
table for binary addition.
A B SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
This circuit is called a ‘half adder’, because it has only two inputs and cannot handle
a ‘carry in’ from a previous addition.

4.4.2 FULL ADDER
A full adder has three inputs and can deal with a ‘carry in’ from a previous addition.
A full adder is derived from two half adders and an OR gate.
Cascading Full Adders enables the addition of large binary numbers. The diagram
below shows a full adder that can add two 3 bit numbers. A2 A1 A0 and B2 B1 B0, with
the sum appearing at S3 S2 S1 S0. The operation can be checked by suitable
examples.
A 0 0 1 A 1 0 1
B 0 1 1 B 1 1 0
SUM 1 0 0 SUM 1 0 1 1

4.5 AIRCRAFT LOGIC CIRCUITS

The following are simple examples of typical aircraft logic circuits.
4.5.1 FLIGHT DIRECTOR GYRO FLAG
The gyro flag earth return is connected via a switch which is closed by the vertical
gyro monitoring when the gyro is serviceable.
The ‘hot’ end of the flag coil is connected to the output of the AND gate.
When current flows from the AND gate, the flag coil is energised and the flag is
pulled from view. This will occur under the following conditions.
A,¯ . B . C . D,¯ = vertical gyro valid

4.5.2 COMPASS COUPLER FLAG
The diagram below shows details of the logic which provides a so called ‘super flag’.
The superflag signal is 28V d.c. under normal operation and falls to zero in the event
of a fault condition.
Using conventional notation,
SUPERFLAG = Hdg VALID. SCN. SCT. FAST SYNCH. SET HDG. (DS+
FV POWER. FV NULL)
You may care to confirm this.

4.5.3 RAD ALT LATCHING INDICATOR LOGIC
The three indicators shown at the bottom of the above diagram are latched, once
activated they remain in that state even when the fault disappears. The reset button
allows the maintenance engineer to clear the latched indicators. Under what
conditions will the indicators show a fault condition?

4.6 DYNAMIC LOGIC SIGNALS

A binary signal on a wire can be either a ‘1’ or a ‘0’ - usually this means +5 volts or 0
volts, respectively, with respect to the ‘common’ or ‘ground’ or ‘0v’ of the electronic
system. The signal can also vary from logic’0’ to logic’1’ (and vice versa) with time.
Example: this is the signal from a 1 KHz square wave oscillator generating 0 to 5 volt
logic signals:





5. DATA CONVERSIONS - DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL
5.1 ANALOGUE
Many real world systems are analogue. Transducers generally convert a physical
phenomenon into an analogue voltage:
Temperature
Pressure
Altitude Analogue Voltage
Light Level
Speed
An analogue signal varies continuously with time and has many different values.
5.2 DIGITAL
A digital signal is limited to a number of separate ‘discrete’ values. The signal varies
between these discrete values and cannot adopt any value in between. Two
examples are shown below.
The most common form of digital signal is that on the right, it is a binary signal and
has two states ‘0’ and ‘1’.
Digital signals can be represented by using a series of integers, but analogue signals
require real numbers.
5.3 ANALOGUE VERSUS DIGITAL
Unlike analogue signals, with digital signals it is possible to:

 Store values in computers or on disks.
 Manipulate signals on a computer.
 Compute new signals from digital values using a microprocessor.
 Remove or reduce noise from signals.

5.4 CONVERSION BETWEEN ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL

When a numerical quantity has a continuous range of values, it is an analogue
quantity. Temperature, voltage, resistance and rotation are examples of an analogue
quantity. When there is a discrete condition, such as on or off, high or low, yes or no,
the quantity is called a digital quantity. The only thing that can be determined by a
digital measurement of an analogue quantity, such as a voltage, would be if the
voltage was there or not by using a test lamp. The amount or quantity of the voltage
present could not be determined.
To measure this analogue quantity on a digital device, a circuit called an analogue-
to-digital converter is required. This device will change the analogue quantity into an
equivalent digital code or representation. The analogue-to-digital converter is usually
abbreviated to A/D converter or ADC.
In cases where it is necessary for the system to change a quantity from a digital
value to an analogue representation, then a digital-to-analogue converter (D/A
converter or DAC) is required.
As an example, consider how a computer (microprocessor) could control a
generator.
The A/D converter would monitor the generator output and convert this analogue
signal into the digital signals required by the computer. The computer would
compare these input signals with a set of standard levels programmed into it. If the
signals were equal, the computer would output signals to the D/A converter. The D/A
converter would convert the digital signals into an analogue quantity that, in this
case, would maintain the same generator output. If the generator output decreased
(due to loading increasing or engine speed decreasing) the A/D converter would
convert to a digital quantity less than normal. The computer would compare this
signal, determine that the input is less than standard and output a digital signal that
is greater than standard. This output signal is converted to a larger analogue signal
by the D/A converter, which will increase the generator field to bring the generator
output back up to normal.
To recap: interfacing digital and analogue systems requires conversion of analogue
signals to digital signals and vice versa:
 Digital to analogue converter, converts digital signals to analogue signals, one
would be used to convert the digital data stored on a CD ROM to audio signals to
drive the speakers.
 Analogue to digital converters, changes analogue signals into digital signals,
one would be used to convert the output from a microphone into digital signals for
storage on a minidisc or CD.

5.4.1 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

Throughput is the time or speed a process requires from start to finish. The
throughput rate for an A/D converter is the number of complete digital words
encoded (i.e. changed from an analogue representation to a digital representation) in
a specified unit of time. For the D/A converter it is the number of complete digital
words that can be decoded in a specified unit of time. The throughput time is the
time required for the A/D converter to encode a complete digital word. For the D/A
converter it is the time to decode this word. There is a need for a device that can
convert physical data such as temperature, flow, pressure etc. into an equivalent
digital form. A transducer is used first, to convert the physical parameter to an
analogue electrical signal. It is then converted into digital form in an analogue to
digital (A to D) converter.
Resolution, Accuracy and Sampling rates are other important features of A to D
converters.
Resolution is a measure of the ability to respond to small changes in the input. A
resolution of 100mV means it is not possible to distinguish between voltages less
than 0.1 volts apart, a voltage of 10.6V and one of 10.65 volts would appear as the
same digital word.
The resolution of A/D and D/A converters is the number of discrete values that can
be represented by the digital word. With A/D and D/A converters, the larger the
number of bits in the digital word, the smaller the increments into which the analogue
quantity can be broken down. For example, with an analogue value of 25 volts and a
4-bit word, the least significant bit (LSB) would represent 1/15 th of the total voltage
(i.e. 1.67 volts). This is because with a 4-bit word, there are fifteen possible non-zero
states. With an 8-bit word, there are 255 non-zero states. In this case, the least
significant bit would represent 1 /255th of the maximum voltage (0.098 volts).
From this it can be seen that the larger the number of bits, the higher will be the
resolution of the converter and the greater the accuracy of the measurement.
Accuracy indicates how close the measured value is to the true value. An accuracy
of 1% means an indicated value of 100V might be between 99 and 101 volts. Finer
distinction is not possible.
For instance, with the 4-bit word, the accuracy would only be ±1.67 volts of the
measured value. This accuracy is stated in terms of percent of resolution. To
calculate the percent of resolution the formula is:
Percent resolution = 1 x 100
2n - 1
where n is the number of bits in the word. With the 4-bit word we get 6.67%, this
means we could have an error of ±6.67% of the full scale value we were trying to
convert. With the 8-bit word we get 0.392%, this means of course we will get an error
of only ±0.392% of full scale value.
In summary: the higher the number of bits in the digital word, the greater the
resolution, the greater the accuracy of reproducing or representing the original
quantity, and the lower the percentage of resolution.
Sampling is how often an analogue signal needs to be sampled in order for it to be
reproduced correctly. A general rule is that the signal needs to be sampled at a
frequency of at least twice the signals bandwidth. i.e. a signal with a 10KH z
bandwidth would have to be sampled at 20KHz or 20,000 times every second.

There are several types of A to D converter, but only two will be examined in these
notes:
 Counting
 Successive Approximation
5.4.1.1 Counting a to d converter

Operation
A clear pulse is used to reset the counter to zero. An Op-amp is used as a

comparator. Clock pulses are applied to one input of an AND gate. As long as the
analogue input to the comparator (Vin) is greater than the output of the D to A
converter (Vd), then the output of the comparator will be high.
This high enables the AND gate and permits the next clock pulse to pass through to
the counter, which increments its output by one bit. This output from the counter is
the digital representation of the analogue voltage.
The output of the counter is applied to a ‘digital to analogue converter’ that produced
an increasing staircase type voltage Vd at its output.
When the Vd input to the comparator is greater than the analogue input (V in), the
output of the comparator goes ‘low’. The ‘low’ output from the comparator disables
the ‘AND’ gate, preventing the clock pulses from passing to the counter.
The loss of clock pulses stops the counter, the digital word representing the
analogue input voltage is now available on the counter output lines.
A disadvantage of this system is that continuous conversion of analogue data is not
possible. It can therefore only be used to digitise static analogue signals. A static
condition occurs when a value for a given parameter must be assigned when
requested and the last or next values are unimportant. The parameter itself may or
may not be changing, and only a single instantaneous value is used.
Dynamic conditions occur when several values over a period of time are necessary
for computation, such as determining the rate of change of speed. Such conversion
requires a different type of A to D converter, one that samples at intervals so that the
digital representation is updated.

An improved A to D converter would employ an ‘up-down’ counter as opposed to a

simple binary counter.
If Vd  Vin the counter counts up.

If Vd  Vin the counter counts down, but only by 1 count. Control now changes to
count up and the count increases by one.
Process continues with the digital count bouncing back and forth by 1 around the
correct value.
The conversion time is small for small changes in the analogue input, and can be
calculated simply from nT seconds,
Where n = No. of pulses representing the max value of the analogue voltage.
T = Clock period in seconds.
5.4.1.2 Successive approximation converter

The successive approximation type A to D converter is similar to the tracking type
described previously; the counter however is replaced by a programmer.
Operation
The programmer sets the MSB to ‘1’, with all the other bits set to ‘0’.
The comparator compares the output of the D to A converter with the analogue input.
If the converter output is greater than the analogue input, the ‘1’ is removed from the
MSB and the next lower digit is set to logic ‘1’.
The comparator again compares the output of the D to A converter with the analogue
input.
If the analogue input is larger the ‘1’ remains set, and a ‘1’ is applied to the next
smaller bit.
If the output of the D to A converter is greater than the analogue input, the ‘1’ is
removed and the next lower digit is now set to logic ‘1’.
This process is repeated until the binary output of the programmer is equivalent to
the analogue input signal.
For an N bit system, the conversion time is N clock periods.
Assume that the voltage steps are 8 / 4 / 2 / 1V and that Vin = 5V.
Code
8V step us tried and rejected 0 (MSB)
4V step is tried and held 1
2V step is tried and rejected 0
1V step is tried and held 1 (LSB)
The output string is 0101.

If 8 bits are used, there are 256 possible counts, for a dc signal with a maximum
value of 28V this would give a resolution of Error! = 109mV.
5.4.2 DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERSION

A practical system could be:
A Digital to Analogue Converter using an Operational Amplifier.

The circuit uses an Op-amp as a summing amplifier with a feedback resistor Rf. S1,
S2, S3 and S4 are digitally controlled electronic SPDT (single pole double throw)
switches. Each switch connects the resistor in series with it to a fixed reference
voltage, Vref, when the input Bit controlling it is at logic ‘1’; and to earth, (0v), when it
is at logic ‘0’.

The input voltages V1, V2, V3 and V4 applied to the Op-amp by the four-Bit input, (via
the resistors), therefore have one of two values, either Vref or 0v. Using the summing
amplifier formula, the analogue output voltage Vout from the Op-amp is:
e.g. If Vref = -8v then an input of 0001 will give an output of +1v, an input of 1000
gives an output of +8v and an input of 0110 an output of +6 v.
A disadvantage of this type of D to A converter is that for an ‘n’ Bit converter n +1
close tolerance resistors are required. This problem is overcome by using a Ladder
Type converter.
5.4.2.1 Ladder type D to A converter
A commonly employed d.a.c. is the R/2R circuit shown above. The circuit uses
resistors of only two different values, one of which is twice the other. The wanted
analogue voltage is obtained by switching resistors either to earth or to the op-amp.
The total current that is switched is passed through the feedback resistor of the op-
amp to generate the output voltage. The switching of the resistors is controlled by a
shift register to which the input digital word is applied.
The operation of the R/2R resistor network to generate the wanted analogue voltage
is illustrated below:

In (a) the input current I splits into two equal parts of I/2. If the right-hand resistor 2R
is provided by three separate resistors, as in (b), currents of I/2 and I/4 are obtained.
In (c) and (d) the process is still further repeated to allow the generation of currents
I/8 and I/16 as shown.
The advantage offered by the R/2R circuit is that only two precise values of
resistance are necessary and this is reasonably easy to achieve, particularly in
integrated circuitry.

6. SEQUENTIAL LOGIC
6.1 INTRODUCTION AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT

To date we have discussed basic combinational logic using AND/OR/NAND/NOR
and inverter elements.
We have seen that the outputs are determined only by the current state of the inputs
to the logic circuits.
Sequential logic circuits depend not only on the current inputs to the logic
circuit but also on the sequence of inputs that has been applied in the past. In
other words, sequential circuits contain ‘memories’.
6.2 FLIP FLOPS

The basic building blocks of sequential logic are flip flops, these are gates with
feedback, that is the output is fed back to the input.
6.2.1 MULTIVIBRATORS
Flip Flops are a type of multivibrator. Multivibrators are two stage transistor switching
circuits in which the output of each stage is fed back to the input of the other by
coupling resistors or capacitors. As a result the transistors are driven alternatively
into saturation and cut-off and whilst the output from one is ‘high’, the other is ‘low’.
We say their outputs are complementary.
The switch-over in each transistor from one level or state to the other is so rapid that
the collector voltage waveforms are almost ‘square’. The term ‘multivibrator’ refers
to this since a square wave can be analysed into a large number of sine waves with
frequencies that are multiples (harmonics) of the fundamental.
Multivibrators are of three types:
 The Astable or free running multivibrator. This has no stable states. It switches
from one state to the other automatically at a rate determined by the circuit
components. Consequently it generates a continuous stream of almost square
wave pulses. It is a square wave oscillator and belongs to the family of
relaxation oscillators. One of the most important of its many uses is to produce
timing pulses for keeping the different parts of a digital system, such as a
computer, in step - it is then known as a ‘clock’.
 The Monostable. This has one stable state and one unstable state. Normally it
rests in its stable state but can be switched to the other state by applying an
external trigger pulse. It stays in the unstable state for a certain time before
returning to its stable state. It coverts a pulse of unpredictable length (time) from
a switch into a ‘square’ pulse of predictable length and amplitude (voltage) which
may be used to cause a ‘delay’ in a circuit or to act as a ‘gate’ for another circuit,
allowing a number of timing pulses to pass for a certain time.
 The Bistable or ‘Flip Flop’. This has two stable states. In one state the output
of the first transistor is ‘high’ and the second ‘low’. In the other state, the opposite
is the case. It will remain in either state until a suitable external trigger or clock
pulse makes it switch. Bistables are memory-type circuits that are used to store
binary digits. A simple circuit representation will be examined in this section, they
will be studied in more detail in the next section of this module.

6.2.2 ASTABLE
Astables will switch between unstable states with no external trigger, they act as
oscillators, producing a square or rectangular waveform. The time spent in each
state is determined by one or two CR circuits.
ith reference to the above circuit. If the output of NAND gate B has just switched
high, this sudden rise to VCC is passed by the capacitor to the input of NAND gate A.
The output of A and input of B are both at a logic ‘low’, which is logically sound.
As the capacitor charges, the input to NAND gate A decreases. When the input
reaches the ‘0’ threshold, the output of NAND gate A switches to a logic ‘high’ or ‘1’.
The logic ‘1’ on the inputs of NAND gate B cause the output to switch to a logic ‘0’.
This falls to a ‘low’, level is also passed via the capacitor to the inputs of NAND gate
A making the input even lower.
The capacitor now starts to charge with the opposite polarity and the input to A starts
to rise. When the inputs to the NAND gate A reach the ‘1’ threshold, the output
switches to a logic ‘0’.
This action will continue with the device producing a symmetrical waveform that
could be used as a clock pulse.
Output from B
Output from A
Input to A

If a different mark to space ratio is required, two CR circuits must be used. One form
is shown below. Resistors R1 and R2 are called ‘pull-up’ resistors.
Assuming the output of B is initially ‘high’ (Q,¯ = 1) and the output of A is low (Q
= 0). C2 will start to charge through R2 and the input to B will slowly rise.
When NAND gate B’s switch on threshold is reached, B will switch, its output goings
‘low’ (Q,¯ = 0).
The low on the right plate of capacitor C1 causes the left plate to go negative, rapidly
changing the input state of A, the output of which now switches ‘high’ (Q = 1).
The ‘high’ output from A is applied to the input of B re-enforcing the ‘low’ output.
Capacitor C1 now charges from VCC through R1, the input to NAND gate A slowly
increasing.
When the switch on threshold of A is reached, the output switches to a logic ‘low’ (Q
= 0) and the process is repeated.
If C1 = C2 and R1 = R2, the mark: space ratio will be 1:1 and the device will produce
an output similar to the previous example. The mark: space ratio’s can be altered by
using different value components.

6.2.3 MONOSTABLE
Monostables will maintain their outputs in a fixed, stable state until a trigger is
received, the positive or negative edge of the trigger causing the output to change
state.
The monostable then remains in this triggered state for a period determined by a CR
circuit. At the end of the unstable state, the monostable reverts to its stable state
awaiting the next trigger pulse.
Prior to the arrival of the trigger pulse the output of B is ‘low’, both inputs of A are
‘low’ and the output of A is ‘high’. The capacitor is discharged and the inputs to B
are ‘high’. This is a stable state.
At the leading edge of the trigger pulse, there is a ‘1’ input to A, making its output fall
to ‘0’ (low).
This fall passes through the capacitor, causing the inputs to B to go ‘low’, the output
of B rises to ‘1’ (high).
The capacitor charges, the right plate rising to VCC. Eventually the inputs to B reach
the logic ‘1’ threshold and the B gate output now switches to logic ‘0’ (low).
Providing the trigger pulse has ended, the input to A will be two zero’s and therefore
its output will rise to a logic ‘1’, taking the inputs of B above VCC.
This will not change the logic state of the circuit, but will create the conditions
necessary for the capacitor C to discharge.
When discharged, the monostable is back to its stable state ready for the next trigger
pulse. In this circuit it is essential that the trigger pulse is of shorter duration than the
output pulse.
Trigger
O/P from A
I/P to B
O/P from B

6.2.4 BISTABLE
6.2.4.1 Basic latch
A latch is the basic digital memory circuit. Consider the circuit below.
If Q were a 1, then the input to N2 would be a 1

and Q,¯ would be 0, this is a stable state.
If Q were a 0, then the input to N1 would be a 0
and Q,¯ would be 1, this is also a stable state.
This device is often called a bistable or, more
commonly a Flip Flop, because it has two stable
states.
The basic component in any sequential logic circuit is the Flip Flop (FF) or bistable
element. The FF is a logic element that can assume two logic states, a logic’0’ or a
logic’1’.
The outputs of a FF are designated ‘Q’, i.e. Q = 0 or 1

and most commercial FFs have an inverted output Q
such that when Q = 0, Q,¯ = 1 and if Q = 1 then Q,¯ =
0, as in the basic latch above. The symbol for a basic flip
flop is shown here on the right.
When power is initially applied to these devices
they can arbitrarily assume either state and will remain
in that state until set externally into the opposite
state.
i.e. a FF is a 1 bit memory which can assume a logic’1’ or a logic’0’ state. We will
discuss the characteristics of 3 of the most common Flip Flops:
• The Set - Reset Flip Flop
• The D Flip Flop
• The JK Flip Flop
In any sequential logic circuit which contains FFs the outputs will be dependent not
only on the logic status of the input but on the sequence of inputs that led to the
current state. Sequential logic is used to make:
Counters which can count up or down starting from any number in any sequence
and according to any standard code e.g. the Binary Code or Binary Coded Decimal
etc., or Modulo-N counters dividing by any number N.
Registers which can store or latch data present on a set of digital lines at a
particular instant in time.
Converters which convert parallel words of digital data on many discrete lines into
serial data which can be transmitted on one line. Also serial to parallel converters
which can convert serial digital data into parallel words or bytes

(a ‘word’ = 16 bits wide, a ‘byte’ = 8 bits wide).

For the purposes of these notes we will assume that all logic is powered by +5 volts
and that a logic ‘1 ‘ or ‘high’ is represented by +5 volts. A logic ‘0’ or ‘low’ level will be
represented by 0 volts.
In real practice, depending on the logic family chosen, logic can be powered by a
variety of different power supply voltages from about 2 to 18 volts. The actual logic
‘0’ and logic ‘1’ voltage levels also will vary over a small voltage range.
e.g. for TTL logic ‘0’ is recognised as any voltage between 0 and 0.8v and logic ‘1’ is
any voltage in the range 2v to 5.5v.
The choice of logic family used depends mostly on the speed of logic operations
required and power consumption constraints. Details can be found in the Radio
Spares Handout on the 74 Series Logic Families. However, all logic families
contain the same basic combinational and sequential logic elements that we are
discussing.

6.2.4.2 THE S-R FLIP FLOP
The simplest FF is called the Set - Reset (S-R)

FF and can be represented by this diagram:When
initially powered the Q output will arbitrarily come
up in either a logic ‘0’ or ‘1’ condition and it’s Q,¯
output will give the inverted output.
If we assume initially that Q = 0 then if a logic ‘1’
is applied to the SET (‘S) input the Q,¯ output will
change to a logic ‘1’ _
The FF is said to be ‘set’ i.e. Q =’1’ and the
inverted output Q,¯ = 0.
Even if the logic ‘1’ input is removed, the Q output will still remain at a logic ‘1’. i.e.
the FF has ‘remembered’ and ‘stored’ the fact that a logic ‘1’ pulse has occurred on
the ‘SET’ input.
Similarly, if a pulse is applied to the RESET (‘R) input of the FF the Q output will go
to logic ‘0’ (and the inverted output Q,¯ to logic 1’). The FF will remain ‘reset’ until
the next pulse is applied to the ‘SET’ input. In summary the S-R FF is an edge
triggered device. The output of the FF changes at the instant that a logic ‘0’ to a logic
‘1’ transition occurs at either the ‘set’ or the ‘reset’ input.

TUTORIAL 1 : S-R FLIP FLOPS

Sketch the Q and Q,¯ outputs of the above S-R FF if the following sequence of
pulses is applied to the S and R inputs. Assume initially that the Q output of the FF is
a logic ‘0’. (Use the dotted lines as a guide for drawing the waveforms).
The Simplest S-R Flip Flop using 2 NOR gates:
In its simplest form a S-R FF can be made up from 2

NOR gates:
If we assume initially no input signal (i.e. a logic ‘0’) is
applied to both inputs then we can see that the Q
output will go to a logic ‘1’ or a logic ‘0’ when the
circuit is first powered up.
Either state will be quite stable and will remain so while the S-R inputs remain at
logic ‘0’.
However if say Q=0 initially and a logic ‘1’ pulse were applied to the SET input, this
would cause the Q,¯ output to go to logic ‘0’ , this then causing the Q output to go to
a logic ‘1’.

The FF will remain in this state even if the SET input goes back to a logic ‘0’, i.e. the
FF has stored the fact that a logic ‘1’ pulse has been applied to the SET input.
Similarly if a pulse is subsequently applied to the RESET input then the FF will be
reset at Q =’0’. These input signals are termed ‘Active High’ since it is the logic ‘0’ to
logic ‘1’ transition which changes the FF state.
Note the limitation of this FF – if a logic ‘1’ is applied to both S and R inputs then
both Q and Q,¯ outputs will be ‘0’.
The SR FF operation can be represented by a truth table or Transition table as
follows:
where Qn represents the state of the FF output in the nth time interval and Q n-1
represents the FF state in the n-1th time interval.
The nth time interval can be taken to represent ‘now’ and the n-1th time interval
represents the ‘time in the immediate past’.
Similar SR FFs can be made up using NAND gates as follows:
In this case S and R inputs are normally a logic ‘1’ and the FF will change if the
applicable S and R input goes to a logic ‘0’; i.e. it stores a logic ‘1’ to logic ‘0’ pulse
rather than the logic ‘0’ to logic ‘1’ transition we saw when using the NOR gate FF.
This is known as an ‘Active Low’ input.

Symbols for SR Flip Flops

The symbols used for SR latches are shown below:
Circuits which have Active low inputs can be represented in two ways; either by
labeling the inputs as S and R or by showing ‘inverting circles’ at the inputs as
follows:
Either way it means that it is the logic ‘0’ level that initiates the ‘SET’ or ‘RESET’
function rather than the logic ‘1’ level for ‘Active High’ inputs.
This is a common way of showing the function of any input ( or indeed of any output)
on any logic circuit or symbolic diagram.
An Application for an SR Flip Flop

The most common application for an S-R Flip Flop is for switch de-bouncing.
All mechanical switches suffer from contact bounce as the switch wiper moves from
one mechanical position to another.
If we examined the output of this circuit with a scope when the switch is operated we
would see this:
The inverter circuit shown will produce 3 pulses even though a single switch closure
is applied. If this was applied to a circuit designed to count the number of switch
closures then the result would be incorrect.

If the change over switch were connected to an S-R latch using NAND gates as
follows then only one output will be produced for each switch operation:
If you look back at the NAND S-R truth/transition table you will see that the FF output
responds to an ‘Active Low’ signal on either the S or R input.
When the switch contacts position A there will be a series of logic ‘0’ signals on the A
terminal as the contact bounces.
The Q output will be set on the first bounce and ignore any subsequent bounce
pulses on ‘A’. Similarly, when the contact moves to position B, there will be a series
of pulses to logic ‘0’ as the contact bounces. This will reset the Q output on only the
first bounce pulse.
The circuit thus removes the effects of any contact bounce provided that the moving
contact cannot bounce between the A and B connections. This is assured by the
mechanical design of the switch.

6.2.4.3 THE MOST COMMON FLIP FLOPS - The ‘D’ and ‘JK’ FFs
The most common commercially available FFs are a little more complex than the
basic SR types we have considered so far.
This is because they contain ‘clocking’ functions rather than the ‘edge triggered’
operation of the SR Flip Flop.
i.e. the FFs only change state on either the positive or negative edge of the clock
pulse and their next output state depends on the logic levels on the ‘D’ or ‘JK’ inputs.
Note that the D FF can be used as a SR FF if you wire the ‘D’ and ‘CK’ inputs to a
logic ‘0’.
The ‘clear’ or ‘pre-set’ inputs are Active Low, i.e. a logic ‘0’ on the clear input will
clear the Q output to logic ‘0’, a logic ‘0’ on the ‘pre-set’ input will pre-set the Q output
to a logic’1’.
It is available in the 74 series of TTUCMOS families (see Radiospares handout) as
the 7474 and also in the CMOS 4000B series of devices as the 4013B. (There are 2
D FFs in one pack).
The JK FF is available in the 7476 or in the 4000B series as 4027B (again with 2
FFs in one pack). The Q output of this FF can also be ‘set’ or ‘cleared’ with ‘Active
Low’ inputs on the SET and CLEAR inputs.
D and JK Flip Flop Applications

These devices or combinations of them are used as the basic building blocks to
produce many of the more complex logic functions in the various logic families.
• Latches for instance, simply use 4 or 8 FFs in one pack to store 4 or 8 bit words
when strobed (i.e. commanded to ‘store’ digital data)
• Counters use D or JK FFs as the basic method of storing a digital number and,
together with other logic functions, cause this number to increase or decrease to
form a counter function.

• Shift registers use FFs as a method of storing or latching parallel digital data
usually in byte (8 bits) or word (16 bits) form.
The clocking function causes the data to be shifted from left to right (or right to left) in
the register so that the data word can be presented as a series of ‘1s’ or ‘0s’ on one
Q output from the shift register.
This is a parallel to serial data conversion.
- Shift registers can also be fed with serial digital data at one end. After being
clocked by the required number of clock pulses, the outputs from each of the FFs
are presented as parallel output data.
It is therefore very important to learn the basics of the D and JK FFs since
knowledge of these will help you to understand the more complex logic
elements included in all logic families.
6.2.4.4 D FLIP FLOP BASIC OPERATION
Let us ignore for a moment the ‘edge triggered’ CLEAR and PRESET inputs to the
FF since we already know how these work - Active low inputs on the ‘Clear’ or
‘Preset’ inputs will clear or preset the Q output regardless of the D or CK inputs.
Let us look at the D and CK inputs.

This particular D Flip Flop can only change on the positive going or ‘rising’ edge (i.e.
logic ‘0’ to logic ‘1’ transition) of the clock pulses on the CK terminal.
You can determine this convention by looking at the diagram above.
If the CK terminal was shown

as at right:
then the FF would only be able to change on the ‘falling’ or negative going edge of
the clock.
When the valid clock pulse occurs, the D FF Q output takes up the value of whatever
logic level was on the D input terminal immediately before the rising edge of the
clock.

D Flip Flop Example
Note that before the first clock pulse edge the FF may have started up on in either a
logic ‘0’ or a logic ‘1’ state - or it may have been set to ‘1’ or ‘0’ using the PRESET or
CLEAR inputs.
The operation of this Flip Flop is known as ‘synchronous’ since the changes occur at
a fixed edge of the clock pulse.
The truth table for a D FF is as follows:

TUTORIAL 2 - D FLIP FLOPS
1. Plot the Q and Q outputs of this D FF when the following clock and D inputs are
applied. Assume the Q state of the FF (before the first clock pulse is applied) is a
logic '0'. Use the dotted lines as a guide to drawing the waveforms)
2. Plot the Q and Q outputs of this circuit when the following clock and D inputs
are applied.
Tip: Start off by assuming that the FF is reset i.e. Q = 0 and Q = 1 and then look at
each clock pulse in turn and examine the state of the D input. Decide what the Q and
Q outputs will change to after the clock edge.

This is a divide by 2 counter circuit.

If two of these circuits are put in series you can make a 'divide by 4' counter and so
on.
This counter is called a 'Ripple Counter' where the divided down output of the first
stage is used to clock the second stage and so on.
The disadvantage of this type of counter over the 'synchronous' counters we will
cover later is that there will be delays on the edges of the outputs compared to the
waveform clock edges e.g.
This can cause problems if you use combinational logic to detect certain counter
'states' since 'glitches' or 'spikes" may be detected due to overlapping delayed
waveforms.

6.2.4.5 JK FLIP FLOP - BASIC OPERATION
Again we will ignore for the moment the edge triggered 'SET' and 'CLEAR' inputs to
the JK FF and consider only the J, K and CLK inputs.
This particular FF can only change the output on the negative or 'falling' edge of the
clock - i.e. the logic '1' to '0' transition.
You can determine this convention by looking at the diagram above. If the clock
terminal was shown as follows:
then the FF would only be able to change state on the 'rising' or 'positive going' edge
of the clock signal.
The JK is similar in operation to the D Flip Flop in that the Q output only changes
state on one clock pulse edge. However it is different from the D FF in these
aspects:
a) It has 2 inputs, J and K, which determine what the next state of the Q output will
be when the clock pulse occurs.
b) The 'Active clock pulse edge is usually, (but not invariably) the falling edge. i.e.
the clock transition from logic '1' to logic '0'.
JK operation can be explained in words as follows:
• If J = 1 and K = 0 then, at the next falling edge of the clock the Q output will
change to Q = 1. (or the output will remain at Q = 1 if it was already in that condition)
• If J = 0 and K = 1 then, at the next falling edge of the clock the Q output will change
to Q = 0. (or the output will remain at Q = 0 if it was already in that condition)
• If J = 0 and K = 0 then the Q output of the FF will remain unchanged at the next
falling edge of the clock.
• If J = 1 and K = 1 then the FF will 'toggle' or 'change state'. (either from a logic
'0' to a logic '1' or from a '1' to a '0' depending upon its condition before the clock
pulse edge occurred.)
The truth /transition table for the JK FF is as follows:

JK FF Example:
TUTORIAL 3 - JK FLIP FLOPS

1. Plot the Q and Q outputs of a JK FF when the following clock, J, and K

waveforms are applied. Assume initial conditions of Q ='0' before the first clock pulse
occurs:

2. Plot the Q, and Q, outputs of this FF circuit using JKs.

Tip: Start off by assuming that Q0 and Q1 are both '0' and then, looking at each clock
pulse as it occurs.
- examine the J0 and K0 inputs and then determine what Q0 will be after the valid
clock pulse edge.
- examine J1 and K1 inputs and draw the Q1 waveform as each valid clock pulse
edge occurs.
The first stage is just a 'divide by 2' counter.
You should have a counter which counts in binary code 00, 01, 10, 11, 00, 01, 10,
11, 00, etc. - In decimal this is 0,1,2,3,0,1,2,3,0,...... _
i.e. This is a 'Divide by 4' counter and is called a Synchronous Counter since all the
FFs change at the same time on the falling edge of the clock.
This counter is sometimes called a Modulo - 4 counter since it has 4 distinct count
states

APPLICATIONS OF D FLIP FLOPS

-'LATCHES' OR 'MEMORY' REGISTERS
These make use of the ability of D FFs to clock or latch the data at the D input at the
instant when the clock rising edge occurs. For example - a 4 bit register or latch:
- COUNTERS
We have already examined the Ripple counter in Tutorial 2.
-SHIFT REGISTERS
Shift registers are used to convert parallel words of data (i.e. 1 bit of data on each
separate line) into a serial stream of bits on a single line. For example:
Shift registers can also be used the other way around to convert a serial bit stream
back to a parallel word. For example:

Example - Parallel to Serial Conversion

In this example 4 D FFs are connected in series and clocked with a common clock.
The 4 FFs are pre-loaded in parallel with a 4 bit binary word using the 'Set' and
'Preset inputs and the D3 input is connected to logic '0'.
The serial bit stream will be present on the last FF output as the data is clocked
though the register. i.e. the data present on Q0 output, as time increases, is 1011 -
this is the serial version of the parallel 1101 data word initially loaded.
- The technique used to plot these waveforms is to:
• Note the logic levels of Q3 to Q0 outputs just before the first rising edge of the clock
occurs
• At the instant of the first clock rising edge look at each registers 'D input'. It is this
logic level that will be transferred to the FF Q output after the clock pulse has
occurred.
• Now move on to the next clock pulse and examine all the D inputs and transfer
these values to the applicable Q outputs until all the 4 bits loaded have been shifted
to the right as follows:

SERIAL DATA TRANSMISSION

This enables us to transmit large amounts of data on a single channel - usually
consisting of a wire twisted pair driven by a line driver chip. A line receiver chip is
used at the other end of the line as shown below:
A typical application for a serial data link is the remote controller for your N set -
although the link is done by infra red light pulsing 'on and off rather than 'logic 0 and
1 levels' being transmitted on wires. However serial data is transmitted when each
button is pressed to send numbers/modes/commands etc. to your TV
Parallel Data Transmission
Parallel data is sent on '1 line per bit' as follows:
Clearly this parallel interface is much faster than the serial link to transfer data but
more logic circuits and wire are needed. A typical example of this parallel interface is
the data communication between a PC and its printer. This is generally a parallel
transfer of data for speed of operation.

TUTORIAL 4 - D FLIP FLOP PARALLEL TO SERIAL CONVERTER

If the 4 bit binary word loaded '1011' is loaded into this shift register as follows plot
the Q3 to Q0 outputs as each clock pulse occurs:
The pattern on Qo ( i.e. the serial output) just before each clock pulse should be
'1101' as each clock occurs (from left to right across the page).

6.2.4.6 APPLICATIONS OF JK FLIP FLOPS
The JK FF is the most versatile of all the FF elements since, at each clock pulse, it
can be 'set', 'reset', remain unchanged, or 'toggled' depending upon whether JK =
10, 01, 00, or 11 respectively.
The JK can be connected as a Binary 'Ripple' Counter as follows:
Since J0 = K0 = 1 then the first FF simply toggles at each clock edge. The Q 0 output
of the first FF feeds the clock of the second FF.
6.2.4.7 Modulo - N Counters
A Modulo-N counter, for example, can be made from up to 4 JK FFs - N. can be any
number from 2 to 16.
A Modulo-5 counter has 5 states and can be made to count 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
0, etc. with 3 JKs.
After the straightforward binary counters Modulo-2, Modulo-4, 8 and 16, the most
common counter is the Modulo-10 or decade counter. Decade Counters that output
numbers in the range 0 to 9 (0000 to 1001) are often called Binary Coded Decimal
(BCD) Counters.
The circuit is as follows:
For a Decade Counter the technique is to ensure that the counter is set to zero on
the next clock pulse after a count of 9 is achieved.
The circuit is similar to a ripple counter but has an extra reset to clear all the FFs to 0
when they reach a count of ten.
Since ten is binary 1010 then a simple 2 input Nand Gate can be used to detect the
first occasion when bits 1 and 3 go to ‘1'. (don't forget bit 0 is the LSB)
The output from this Nand Gate is applied to the CLEAR input of the JK to
asynchronously clear the registers.
A Modulo-N counter can be made using n JK FFs (where 2 n > N) by simply adding a
reset circuit which detects a count of 'N'.

6.2.4.8 Synchronous Counters
In our examples to date we have seen the straightforward ripple counters and the
Modulo-N counters. It should be obvious that a series of JK FFs can be made to
count up or down in any code or sequence of numbers that we wish.
It is simply a matter of looking at the output of each FF and, with combinational logic,
set up the required logic levels on the FF JK inputs in order that, on the next clock
edge, the FFs will change to the next required count state.
These are known as Synchronous Counters.
The Circuit in Tutorial 5 is an example of a synchronous counter since the FFs
change on one edge of the clock.
TUTORIAL 5 - JK FLIP FLOP SYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS
Analyse the following circuit and plot the waveforms at the Q outputs of each JK FF:
(Tip: Assume that all the FFs start off at Q0 = Q1 = Q2 = logic '0' and work your way
from left to right across the page examining the state of the JK inputs to each FF in
turn as each clock pulse occurs and determining the next state of each FF.
Work on FF Q0 first, then Q1, then Q2..


You can see that the Least Significant Bit (LSB) of the counter is the first FF, Q 0,
since that is the output that changes on each clock pulse.
Q1 is the next most significant bit and Q 2 is the most significant bit (MSB).
If you examine the decimal code in each clock interval you will see that the above
counter counts from 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, -- etc. and is therefore a Modulo-8
counter.
Note that it is a Synchronous Modulo-8 Counter since the FFs change state on the
falling edge of the clock.
Although the gating is more complex than the ripple counter we have seen
previously, the time delays between edges are small and the counter can therefore
be used at much higher clock frequencies.
6.2.4.9 T type flip flop
By connecting the J and K inputs of a J-K flip flop together a device called a T type
flip flop or latch is created, the ‘T’ standing for toggle.
If T is a level 1, the output state of the latch changes on the trailing edge of every
clock pulse.
Clock
Q Output
The output at Q and Q,¯ is half frequency of the clock.

6.2.5 COUNTERS
6.2.5.1 Ring counter
A divide by three ring counter uses three D FFs with the Q 0 output fed back to the
input.
Initially all of the flip flops are cleared by placing a logic ‘1’ on the clear inputs. The
‘D’ type flip flop is then preset by applying a logic ‘1’ to the preset input. The output
states are now, Q2 = 1, Q1 = 0 and Q0 = 0.
On the falling edge of the first clock pulse, the logic ‘1’ is transferred to the output Q 1
and the logic 0 at the input of the ‘D’ type flip flop is transferred to the output Q 2. Q0
remains at logic ‘0’.
On the falling edge of the first clock pulse after Q 1 changed state, the ‘1’ at the input
of the right J-K flip flop will be clocked through to the output.
On the falling edge of the first clock pulse after Q 0 changed state, the ‘1’ at the input
of the ‘D’ type latch will be clocked through to the Q2 output.
Clock
Q2 1 1 1
Q1 2 2
Q0 3 3
To make a divide by 5 counter requires 5 flip flops, one ‘D’ type and four J-K. To
make a divide by ‘N’ counter requires N flip flops.
Such a device could be used for:
 Frequency division
 Producing a single pulse out for every ‘N’ pulses applied.

 In the case of N = 3, a drive for a 3 pulse stepper motor because of the phase
relationship of the outputs.
6.2.5.2 Ripple counter
Ripple counters have already been seen made from D FFs in tutorial 2. They can
also be constructed using ‘T’ type flip flops, which are basically J-K flip flops with the
J and K inputs connected together.
The output of a ‘T’ type flip flop changes state (toggles) on the trailing edge of each
successive clock pulse.
In a ripple counter the Q output of each flip flop is connected to the clock input of the
next flip flop.
Connected in this way the chain of flip flops count in binary.

I/P
Q0 0 1 0
Q1 0 0 1
Q2 0 0 0
Q3 0 0 0

6.2.5.3 Divide by N counter
A divide by ‘N’ counter is constructed in a similar manner to the ripple counter. To

divide by ‘N’ the counter is set to reset at ‘N’ counts. (See tutorial 5).
To count in decimal the counter is set to reset on the tenth clock pulse. This is
achieved by connecting the Q1 and Q3 output to a NAND gate. The output of the
NAND gate is then connected to the clear inputs of all the flip flops.
The counter can be made to count in any base by altering the clear conditions. An
extension of this idea is the divide by ‘N’ ripple counter. ‘N’ being selected by means
of a parallel fed word, this being input to several gates, each connected to the preset
and clear inputs of the flip flops. Such circuits are used in frequency synthesizers.

6.2.5.4 Up / Down counter
A counter which can be made to count in either forward or reverse direction is called:
an Up / Down Counter
a Reversible Counter
a Forward / Backward Counter
J-K flip flops are connected as ‘T’ types, where J=K=1. In between each flip flop is a
logic switch used to change the direction of the count.
For counting up a logic ‘1’ is placed on the Up / Down enable line. This enables the
top AND gates in the logic switches. The counter then operates like an ordinary
ripple counter.
To count down, the Up / Down enable line is put at Logic ‘0’. This enables the lower
AND gates in the logic switches and disables the upper gates. Flip flop (1) changes
state at each input pulse, but now it is the Q,¯ output of each stage which is used to
trigger the following bistable.
Assuming the count had reached Q1 = 1, Q2 = 1, Q3 = 0 and Q4 = 0. When the next
clock pulse applied to flip flop (1) goes from ‘1’ to ‘0’ the Q 1 output drops from a logic
‘1’ to logic ‘0’.
Q2 output will remain unchanged because its clock input is now taken from Q1,¯
which has gone from a logic ‘0’ to logic ‘1’.
Q3 output will not change because Q2 does not change and therefore it will not be
clocked.
Q4 output will not change, because it also will not be clocked.
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
1 1 0 0
up 0 0 1 0
or down 0 1 0 0

7. COMPUTERS
Basically, all digital computers operate in the same way, which to a large extent is
independent of the specific application to which they are being put. A computer –
large or small – is a flexible general purpose machine or device that can be arranged
to solve or implement a particular task after it has been produced by the
manufacturer. A task is implemented by deciding the sequence of operations
needed to perform it. A basic electronic calculator offers the user a variety of
operations, add, subtract, multiply, etc. It is then up to the user to select the
particular sequence of these operations necessary to solve a specific problem.
Similarly a digital computer can perform a number of basic operations called
machine instructions, which the user selects, and orders in a way that solves a
particular problem. This sequential list of operations is referred to as a program.
An electronic calculator executes each of its basic operations in typically a few
milliseconds. The time taken to solve a problem with a calculator is determined by
the rate at which the user keys in the individual operations. The intrinsically high
speed of execution of each operation is therefore lost. A digital computer, utilises
the very high speed of execution of each machine instruction, usually a few
microseconds, by having the sequence of instructions, or program, stored within the
computer itself. This is known as the stored program concept and is the
fundamental difference between a basic calculator and a computer system.
7.1 DATA HANDLING
The information or data that is fed into and subsequently output by the computer
varies considerably with the wide variety of applications. In a mathematical
application, the input and subsequent output information will perhaps be numerical
and the computer simply perform some arithmetic operations on the input values.
An application typical of those to which microprocessor based computers are put is a
temperature-control system. Here the input data might be an indication of the
controlled temperature and the output a signal to turn a heating element either on or
off.
Irrespective of the application, however, within the computer itself the same means
of storing and coding information is employed. In order to achieve high levels of
accuracy this coding is based on the binary (two-symbol) system. Information
stored using this system in an electronic circuit is capable of being precise. This is
because the information is not dependent on the exact values of voltages and
current in the circuit provided these parameters can be unambiguously interpreted as
representing one or other of the two binary symbols. All input data fed into a
computer must first be translated into a binary coded form, and similarly the
subsequent binary coded output must also be translated into the required form.
All information within a digital computer is represented in a binary form, both the
input data to be manipulated and the coded instructions that control the various
machine operations. The number of binary digits or bits used to make up the basic
unit of information in a computer varies from one machine to another; for example, 4,
8, 16, 24 and 32 bits have all been used in different machines.
Microprocessor systems often use 8, 16 or 32 bits for the basic unit of information or
word. An 8-bit group is referred to as a byte. So a 16-bit word is equivalent to two
bytes.

When examining the operation of a microprocessor system, therefore, binary

patterns are always being considered. This can be very tedious for the programmer
who is, when communicating this information, prone to make errors. It is for these
reasons that alternative methods are often used to convey information between
humans.
The method used is to group a number of bits together and then represent that group
with an equivalent coded number or character. The most commonly used method is
hexadecimal (base 16) coding that is based on a 4-bit group.

7.2 BASIC STRUCTURE & OPERATION

A digital computer executes a list of basic machine instructions (a program) which
have been selected and ordered by the user to solve a particular task. In order to
exploit the intrinsic high speed of execution of each machine instruction, the program
is stored within the computer. In addition, all information stored within the computer
– both machine instructions and data – is represented in a binary coded form. Thus
a basic digital computer is comprised of a memory which is primarily used to hold or
store the program, a microprocessor (often referred to as the central processor unit
or CPU) which executes the individual machine instructions which make up the
program, and some input and output (I/O) ports. These ports form the interface
between the computer and the source of the input data and the subsequent output
data. The complete combination of microprocessor, memory and input and output
ports is collectively referred to as a microcomputer and is illustrated below.
Input / Output Outputs

Memory
Microprocessor Ports
(CPU) Inputs
Computer
Highway
Once the program has been evolved for the task, the complete program is loaded
into memory and is then executed. During program execution, each machine
instruction is accessed sequentially from the memory and then executed by the
microprocessor. The microprocessor therefore operates in a two phase mode,
during the first phase, the fetch cycle, the next instruction is fetched from memory,
then, in the second phase or execution cycle, the microprocessor executes (or
performs) the action specified by the instructions.

In order to remember which program instruction is to be executed next, the

microprocessor contains a register (or temporary information storage location) called
the program counter (PC), the contents of which points to the next sequential
instruction to be fetched and executed. Thus, during a typical instruction cycle, the
next instruction to be executed is read from the memory location indicated by the
contents of the program counter. While this instruction is being executed, the
contents of the program counter are incremented to point to the next instruction.
This is summarised in the diagrams below.
Microprocessor instructions often require more than one byte of information, usually
1, 2 or 3 bytes are required. Thus an instruction fetch cycle may consist of up to 3
memory read operations performed on successive memory locations. During the
execution phase of this instruction however, the program counter still points to the
address of the first byte of the instruction that would normally be fetched next.
7.3 THE UNITS OF A COMPUTER
The basic functional units of a microcomputer comprises the microprocessor itself
(the CPU), the memory which is used primarily to hold the stored program, and some
input and output ports which are used to interface the microcomputer to the various
input and output devices controlled by it.
7.3.1 THE MICROPROCESSOR
The microprocessor can execute a number of basic machine instructions. Examples
are individual data byte manipulation instructions (add, subtract, etc.) and memory
transfer instructions (read data byte from memory, write data byte to memory, etc.).
Information is transferred between external devices and the computer system via the
input and output ports, and consequently the microprocessor has machine
instructions to both read (input) data from a specified port and to write (output) data
to a port.

Basically, as far as a user is concerned, a

microprocessor is comprised of the three sections
shown in the diagram.
The register section contains a number of
registers or temporary storage elements which
can each hold or store a single byte or word.
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs the
actual data manipulation operations
The timing and control section co-ordinates the
internal operation of the microprocessor and
controls operation of the ALU and registers so that
the desired action specified by an instruction is
performed.
The microprocessor communicates with the
memory, both to obtain the individual instructions
which make up the program and to access and
store data, and to transfer to and from input and
output ports using a highway or bus.
7.3.2 MEMORY
Since flip-flops and shift registers are devices capable of storing binary data, they
may be considered as basic forms of memory device. This memory capability,
however, is only of a temporary nature, and furthermore, it is limited to single bits of
binary data. In many digital systems, computers in particular, it is essential to
provide also for long-term and mass storage of information or programs made up of
a much greater number of bits. Devices must therefore be built into computers, and
by virtue of having these capabilities can, in their own right, by classified as
memories.
A memory consists of a large number of locations in each of which a small quantity
of data can be stored, and these locations make it possible to write information into
the memory or read information out of it. Each location has a unique address so that
it can be accessed from outside the memory. The time that is needed to write one
word into a memory or to read one out is referred to as the access time of the
memory and is measured in nanoseconds (1ns = 10-9s).
Accessing may be of two kinds, serial, in which the stored information is available for
reading in a certain order, usually the same order in which it was put in, or random –
access in which information can be taken out in any order.
Capacity & Addressable Locations

The capacity of a memory relates to ‘bit storage’ and is quoted in kilobits (K); the
prefix kilo does not stand for 1000 as usual, but for 210 or 1024.
Thus 8K = 8 × 1024 = 8192 bits capacity.
The number of addressable locations in a memory is dependent on its number of
input / output data lines, and is derived from the bit – storage capacity divided by the
number of data lines. This is because each address location generally contains as
many bits as it can pass through the data bus. If, for example, a 1K memory has
only one data line, it will have 1024 separate addressable locations, but with four
data lines it can only be addressed at 256 locations. The number of lines are
decided by design and specified in the appropriate manufacturer’s data sheets.
7.3.2.1 Volatile & Non-Volatile Memory
A volatile memory is one that will lose its stored data when the power supply is
switched off, while in a non-volatile memory data is retained even through power is
off.
Random Access Memory
In a random-access memory (RAM) stored data at any location can be changed by

‘writing’ in new data at that location. It can therefore also be called a read / write
memory. RAM’s are either dynamic or static.
In a dynamic RAM, data are represented by the presence or absence of electric
charges that have to be ‘refreshed’ many times a second to prevent them (and the
data) from leaking away.
A static RAM has storage elements which act like bistable switches (e.g. flip flops,
diodes) so the data stored in them does not have to be refreshed; all that is required
to keep the ‘switches’ on or off is a constant flow of current.
Information is stored in ‘cells’ that are arranged in an array or matrix of rows and
columns, the number of which is governed by the storage capacity or ‘organisation’
of the memory.

The diagram below illustrates the organisation of an 8 × 8 bit matrix dynamic RAM.
Each storage cell in this example consists of an individual MOS transistor and
capacitor circuit as shown, and has a unique row and column address so that a
particular cell can be selected by appropriate binary signals from row and column
decoders.
The purpose of the read / write control at the column decoder is to tell the decoder
whether data are to be ‘red out’ or ‘written in’. Cell locations start with 0 at the upper
left of the matrix and end with 7 at the lower right; thus, in the example shown there
are 64 bit locations.
To specify a particular memory cell location, three digits are needed to indicate the
row address and another three to indicate the column. Assume, for example, that
row address 3 (binary 011) and column address 5 (101) are selected; then all the cell
transistors in the row selection line will be turned on. But only the charge (binary 1)
on the capacitor of the selected cell will be connected to the data line which is to
transfer one bit of information, i.e. column 5. Because a cell capacitor loses charge
by being ‘read’, or by leakage, there is a possibility of data being lost. This is
prevented by a threshold amplifier in the data lines, the supply from which
periodically (e.g. once every 2 ms.) regenerates or refreshes the charge.

7.3.2.2 Read-Only Memory
The main feature of a read-only memory (ROM) is that the binary information it
contains is permanently stored in it. The data, which can be accessed in random
fashion, are written in at the time of manufacturer, and so the specific program
contents cannot usually be charged afterwards. Although a ROM has only one
decoder the general organisation is basically the same as a RAM and in the
organisation of digital systems the two types of memory are used together. The
operation of a ROM constructed with a ‘one of eight’ decoder and a diode matrix is
shown below.
The decoder accepts a 3-bit address input word, and is so called because in
recognising the word it will enable only one of the eight outputs. For example, if the
word is 011 (i.e. 310) the number 3 output line will go logic 0, while all the other
output lines will go logic 1. The cathode ends of the diodes connected to line 3 will
also go logic 0, causing the diodes to conduct through their associated pull-up
resistors, and forcing lines X and Z to be logic 0. Since all other decoder outputs are
logic 1 and the other diodes in the matrix are cut off, and so lines W and Y are logic
1. Thus, at address location 010 the word 0101 is stored and would be read out
from the memory.

The contents of a ROM cannot usually be changed after manufacturer, and this is
due to the special masking technique adopted in programming the chip. However, to
meet the needs of a user who may wish to do his own full programming, or alter an
existing program, other techniques are adopted to produce programmable ROM’s or
PROM’s for short. In one version of a PROM, the chip is supplied ready-made, but
with every one of its memory elements linked to read logic 1, as shown in diagram
on the following page.

Each of the elements incorporates a microscopic fuse (typically polysilicon) which

can be ‘blown’ by applying an appropriate voltage to it and so setting the particular
element to read logic 0. Thus, a program can be written into the memory by blowing
fuses on appropriate elements. A special PROM programmer operating under
computer control is normally used for this purpose.
In another version of a PROM, a whole program can be ‘wiped clean’ and the
memory used again for another program; this is called an erasable PROM or
EPROM. Each of its array of memory elements is designed to accept and retain a
charge of electrons, and hence assume either of the two logic states needed for
programming. Elements that are to be read logic 1 are given a charge and those,
which are to be read logic 0, are left unchanged. A programmer is also used for this
purpose. To erase a program the memory elements are exposed to ultraviolet light
radiated through a ‘window’ in the cover of the IC pack causing the electron charge
to leak away.
A third version of a PROM is one that can be electrically programmed and erased,
known as an electrically alterable ROM or EAROM. In contrast to an EPROM it
provides control over erasure. With an EPROM the contents of particular memory
elements cannot be rewritten without first erasing the whole memory, but with an
EAROM the contents of individual elements can be erased and changed without
disturbing the data in the other elements.
7.4 THE COMPUTER HIGHWAY

The computer highway consists of three separate buses; the data bus, the address
bus and the control bus. This is shown in the diagram below.
The Address Bus of a modern computer can consist of up to 64 parallel lines and is
unidirectional: i.e. information flows in only one direction. This is used to transmit an
address from the microprocessor to the memory, input or output unit. Consider the
typical address bus of an older computer. This consisted of 16 lines on which a
binary coded address could be presented to a memory or input / output port. The
range of possible addresses was therefore from 0000 (hex) to FFFF (hex), i.e.
65,536 (decimal) separate addresses. This microprocessor could address up to
65,536 (decimal) memory locations each containing 8 bits (or one byte) of
information.
The size of a computer memory is often measured in units of 1024 (decimal)

locations. This unit is designated 1K. Hence a microprocessor system using 16
address lines would have a maximum of 64K memory locations
(64 × 1024 = 65,536).
Address Decoding
Since there are a number of devices connected to the computer highway – ROM and
RAM chips, input / output devices, etc. – it is necessary to ensure that only the
device intended for the data transfer responds when a request is made by the
microprocessor. This is accomplished by each device connected to the highway
having a chip-select (CS) control input, and only when this input is activated does a
device respond to the various requests issued on the control bus.
The memory map, as previously described, is used to define the address range of
each device connected to the bus. Each device, therefore, has an additional logic
circuit associated with it, which detects when an address intended for that device is
present on the bus. This is known as an address decoder and its output is used to
activate the chip-select input of the device.
In practice only the most significant address bits need be decoded since the least
significant address bits are used by the device itself to determine, for example, the
specific location within the selected memory device. This is shown in the diagram
below.

The Data Bus normally consists of 32 parallel lines and is bi-directional: i.e.
information can flow in either direction on these lines. This bus is used to carry data
and instructions from one unit to another. The processor can write data on the bus
lines to be read by, for example, a memory device, or it can read data from the bus
presented by such a device. Hence data can be transferred from the processor to a
device or from a device to the processor over a single set of data lines. This is a
particularly desirable mechanism in a microprocessor system since it is not
necessary for the microprocessor to have both data input and output pins. A
practical limit to the number of available pins on a microprocessor integrated circuit
makes it important for the manufacturer to use those available efficiently.
It becomes possible to make a single pin a logic input and output by incorporating,
within the microprocessor logic output gates, a third output state in addition to the
normal 0 and 1 signals. This third state is a high impedance condition where the
output is effectively switched off. A select input to the gate is used to force the
output to this off state. This device is known as a tristate device, and is illustrated in
the diagram below.
Devices of this type can be used to form a bi-directional bus by connecting them in
the arrangement shown in the diagram below. This is for a single line of a bus.
The microprocessor end of the bus can be either an input or an output (but not both
simultaneously) depending on the direction selection control. The same applies to
the memory or input / output end of the bus. Control signals ensure that the direction
of data flow at each end of the bus is synchronised.

The Control Bus: No standard format exists for these lines, their function and
number varying considerably between different types of processors. Some of the
lines are bi-directional and others uni-directional. This bus is a set of lines over which
signals travel to maintain timing and status information.
The control bus incorporates the timing signals which are generated by the
microprocessor to synchronise information transfer between the microprocessor and
a memory or input / output port. Consider the timing diagram shown below.
The figure illustrates the two control signals – read (RD) and write (WR) – generated
by the microprocessor during two successive instruction cycles. The example
assumes both are single byte instructions: the first is a memory (or input port) read
and the second is a memory (or output port) write. The type of transfer – memory or
input / output – will be determined by the memory map and the specific address
output by the microprocessor during each execute cycle.

7.5 COMPUTER TERMINOLOGY

Having examined computers, it is now easier to provide definitions for some of the
other words commonly associated with them.
 Hardware. The electronic and mechanical devices that make up the computer
are referred to as hardware. Typical hardware elements are the microprocessor,
RAM, ROM, motherboard, power supply unit and computer case.
 Software. This comprises the programs that enable a computer to function and
carry out the operations we ask of it. The software produced to improve the usability
of the computer, rather than to complete specific tasks is referred to as system
software. System software is usually supplied ready made, a good example being
an operating system such as windows or DOS. System software generally only
works on the machine it was designed for. Software designed to perform specific
tasks is called application software, typical examples being word processors,
drawing packages etc. Software programs are supplied on portable storage devices
such as floppy discs and CD ROMS. If the program is stored in ROM it is usually
called firmware.
 Peripherals or Input / Output Devices. These are devices that enable the
computer to communicate with the outside world. The types of peripherals depend
on the application used, typical, standard devices include monitor, keyboard, mouse,
printer and plotter.


8. MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is a method “data communication” which is widely used on modern
aircraft. Multiplexing is sending multiple signals or streams of information on a single
carrier at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal and then recovering
the separate signals at the receiving end.
Analogue signals are commonly multiplexed using Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM) in which the carrier bandwidth us divided in sub-channels of
different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel. Digital
signals are commonly multiplexed using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), in
which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel in alternating time slots.
In some optical fibre networks, multiple signals are carried together as separate
wavelengths of light in a multiplexed signal using Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (DWDM).
8.1 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

FDM is achieved by dividing the channel bandwidth into bands and allocating a band
to each system requiring the use of the channel for the transmission of its signal.
Basically each signal is assigned a different frequency (sub-channel) within the main
channel.
A typical analog internet connection via a twisted pair telephone line operates at the
digital equivalent of 28,800 bits per second. The analogue signal, consisting of a
frequency-modulated audio tone, requires approximately 3KHz of bandwidth for
accurate and reliable data transfer.
Suppose a cable is available with a bandwidth of 3MHz. This is 3,000Khz, so in

theory, it is possible to place 1000 signals, each 3KHz wide, into the cable. The
circuit that does this is known as a multiplexer. It accepts the input from each
individual end user, and generates a signal on a different frequency for each of the
inputs. This results in a high-bandwidth, complex signal containing data from all the
end users.
At the other end of the cable, the individual signals are separated out by means of a
circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end uses. The demultiplexer
comprises basically as set of bandpass filters (BPF).
8.2 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Time division multiplexing is a scheme in which numerous signals are combined for
transmission on a single communications line or channel. Each signal is broken up
into many segments, each having very short duration.

The multiplexer accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each signal
into segments and assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating,
repeating sequence.
The composite signal thus contains data from all end users. At the other end of the
channel, the individual signals are separated out by means of a demultiplexer and
routed to the proper end users. If many signals must be sent along a single long
distance line, careful engineering is required to ensure that the system will perform
properly. An asset of TDM is its flexibility. The scheme allows for variation in the
numbers of signals being sent along the line, and constantly adjusts the time
intervals to make optimum use of the available bandwidth.
Shown below is a 4-to-1 line multiplexer. The control inputs, A, A,¯ , B and B,¯ ,
select which signal is to be transferred. If the EN able is high, no signal is selected.

Multiplexers are available on ICs 2-, 4-, 8-, or 16-to-1 line. It is common to have
more than 16 inputs. Here is an example, selecting one input from 256.
If ABCD = 1010, then the D10 signal is transferred to line 0. If EFGH = 0000, then
line 0 is selected and D10 appears at the output. So, to select input D10 ABCD
EFGH must be 1010 0000 (A0 in HEX). Every input has a unique address.
A demultiplexer is the reverse of a multiplexer; it routes a single input to one of many

outputs.
This is a 1-to-1 line demultiplexer. The control inputs, A, A,¯ , B and B,¯ , select one
output. If the EN able is high, no input is selected.
This is a ‘high-order’ demultiplexer arranged in tree formation. DMUX-T is the trunk,
and eight 1-to-0 lines demultiplexers, DMUK0 to DMUX7, are branches. Only three
of the eight branch demultiplexers are illustrated. The outputs are decoded from the
address ABCDEF on the control lines.

Multiplexers and demultiplexers reduce the number of wires needed to carry digital
information. In this case, instead of sixty-four separate lines, only six control lines
(A, B, C, D, E and F) and one data line are required.

9. DATA BUSES - ARINC

ARINC itself is not a standard nor is it a piece of equipment. ARINC is the acronym for
Aeronautical Radio Incorporated. The ARINC organisation is the techniqual, publishing
and administrative support arm for the Airlines Electronic Engineering committee (AEEC)
groups. The AEEC was formed in 1949 and is considered the leading international
organisation in the standardisation of air transport avionics equipment and
telecommunications system.
9.1 ARINC SPECIFICATIONS

ARINC specifications are divided into four numbering systems and two basic types. The
numbering system includes the 400, 500, 600 and 700 series. The groups are divided into
general design requirements and terminal design standards (characteristics). General
design requires include the 400 and 600 series of documents. Specific terminal design
and testing criteria are set forth in the 500 and 700 series. The 500 series define order
mostly analogue avionics equipment, many of which are still used in modern aircraft with
updated technologies. The 400 series documents are considered general design and
supporting documents for the 500 series avionic equipment characteristics. Similarly, the
600 series documents are considered the general design and support documents for the
700 series of avionic equipment characteristics.
ARINC standards define design and implementations of everything from testing
requirements to NAV systems to in-flight entertainment. Some of the newer specifications
cover digital systems testing, development and simulation criteria. Aside from the
specifications themselves, there are a number of sub-groups, other avionic organisations
and private manufacturers, all of whom publish information regarding the implementation
of avionic systems.
Generally, three specifications define the characteristics of avionic buses. These are
ARINC 419, ARINC 429 and ARINC 629. A few avionic terminal specifications define their
own unique bus architecture, such as ARINC 709 that includes a high-speed radar
imaging bus. ARINC 419 is the oldest and is considered obsolete.
The vast majority of avionics terminals employ ARINC 429 for their avionics bus. Currently
very few aircraft employ ARINC 629.
9.2 ARINC 429

ARINC 429 defines the Air Transport Industries standard for the transfer of digital data
between avionics systems. ARINC 429 is formally known as the mark 33 Digital
Information Transfer System (DITS) specification. At the time of writing these notes, the
current release of the specification is known as ARINC 429-15 and is divided into 3 parts.
 Part 1. ARINC Specification 429P1-15 provides functional, electrical interface, label
and address assignment and word format descriptions.
 Part 2. ARINC Specification 429P2-15 provides a list of discrete word bit assignments
in label order.
 Part 3. ARINC Specification 429P3-15 describes protocol and message definitions for
data block and file transfer techniques.
The ARINC 429 Specification technology had its origins in the ARINC 419 Specification,
‘Digital Data System Compendium’ and the DADS, 575 Specification. Unlike the 419
Specification, ARINC 429 defines a particular bus design.
Corresponding with EASA Part-66 CAT:B1/2
For training purposes only
9.2.1 SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The ARINC 429 specification describes the avionics bus as an ‘open loop’ transmission
model. Typically this bus is described as a simplex bus with multiple receivers. Other
terminology would refer to it as a ’shout’ or ‘broadcast’ bus.
The transmitting Line Replacement Unit (LRU) is known as the ‘source’ while each
receiving LRU is known as a sink. Any particular LRU may have multiple sources and / or
sinks.
A twisted shielded pair of wires carries the ARINC 429 signal and the sets of information
are transmitted at periodic intervals.
The periodic interval of data transmission must be sufficient to provide a minimal rate of
change in the data, so that if a data set is lost, the loss will be of little consequence.
To detect errors, the specification prescribes the use of odd parity indication and
optional error checking.
Typically, a data set is composed of one word and consists of Binary (BNR), Binary
Coded Decimal (BCD) or alphanumeric data encoded per ISO Alphabet No. 5. ARINC
429 also provides for file data transfers that use more than one word. The transfer of
graphic text and symbols used for CRT maps and other displays has not been defined.
Each bus has only one transmitter and up to 20 receivers, however, one terminal may
have many transmitters or receivers on different buses. A receiver is not allowed to ever
respond on the same bus where a transmission has occurred. However, since a LRU may
have one or more transmitters and / or receivers (each on a separate bus), an LRU may
respond over another bus.
AN LRU on the ARINC 429 bus does not have an address. LRUs have equipment
numbers, which are then further grouped into equipment / system types. Equipment and
system identification numbers are used for system management and are not typically
encoded into the ARINC word.
AN LRU is programmed to listen on the bus for ARINC data words. Remember, the data
word begins with a label identifying data of interest.
Transmission of information is from a port on the LRU that is designated for transmission
only. Similarly, receive ports are used for receive only. Information cannot flow into a port
designated for transmission. This is the basic definition of a simplex bus. To obtain bi-
directional airflow between LRUs you must use at least two ARINC 429 buses.
9.2.2 CABLING
The transmission media for the ARINC 429 bus is a 78 ohm twisted shielded pair. One
end of this twisted pair should terminate into the data source and the other end should
terminate into the data sink(s). The shields should be grounded at both ends and at all
production breaks in the cable. Only a single source is permitted per bus and a maximum
number of 20 sinks may be connected.
A source must be capable of handling a maximum load of 400. A receiver sink must
have a minimum effective input impedance of 8K. No particular bus length is specified.
Some of the newer transmitters can handle 20 receivers and over 300 feet of bus length.
Most systems are designed for under 175 feet.
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Issue Oct. 2012 CAT:B1/2
9.2.3 WIRING TOPOLOGY
The choice of wiring topology is usually related to the distance and proximity of the sinks
and source. There are two topologies; Star and Bus Drop.
In earlier designs the star topology was implemented.
Many consider this to be a safe topology because a break in a cable only results in the
loss of a single listener. However, star topology requires much more wire, thus adding
weight and also tends to create a ‘rats nest’ of wiring within harness areas.
The Bus Drop topology avoids the rats nest of wiring and provides a significant weight
saving. However, a break in a single wire could result in the loss of any number of
listeners.
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9.2.4 TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS

ARINC 429 has two speeds of operation; 12.5KHz (12.5KHz to 14.5KHz) and 100KHz
(1%).
The 32 Bit word is transmitted least significant bit (LSB) first over the wire pair with a tri-
state clocking, Return to Zero (RZ) methodology.
Separate words are identified by having an inter-message (or inter-word) gap time of at
least 4 bits times, from end of cycle to beginning of next or fall time.
9.2.5 ARINC 429 WORDS
Each ARINC 429 word consists of 32 bits with the first 8 bits, called the Label, actually
encoded to represent the type of information contained within the 32 bit word.
A typical 32 bit word has 5 parts:
 8 bit Label (Information Identifier)
 Data area
 Odd parity bit
 Source / destination identifier (SDI)
 Sign / status matrix (SSM)
Usage of the SDI and SSM is not mandatory.
P SSM Most Significant Data DATA - 19 bits Least Significant Data SDI 8 BIT OCTAL LABEL
32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
MSB 32 Bit ARINC 429 Word LSB
9.2.5.1 Information Identifier
The information Identifier is the term used to associate two different types of information,
the Label and the Equipment Identifier.
The specification defines these two together as a six character label that provides distinct
designation for any type of ARINC 429 data. This six character Label consists of a three
character octal identifier known as the label ad a three character hexadecimal identifier
known as the Equipment Identifier.
The Label identifies the type of information contained with Binary (BNR) or Binary coded
decimal (BCD) numeric and the word application for discrete, maintenance and file transfer
methods. Labels can have system instruction or data reporting functionality.
The MSB of the actual label is located in the LSB of the ARINC 429 word and is
transmitted first out onto the bus. Since the LSB of the ARINC word is transmitted first,
this in effect, causes the label to be transmitted onto the bus in reverse bit position order.
The label is part of every 32 bit ARINC 429 word and each word begins with a Label. A
label is always transmitted in the first 8 bit of the ARINC 429 word.
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The Equipment Identifier is used administratively and identifies the ARINC 429 bus
source and must be associated with the source-sink combination.
Each bus source may have up to 255 of the Labels assigned for its usage. Since each
type of equipment has its own set of Labels (and data) and a distinct equipment identity,
the ARINC designer can use the combination of the Label and Equipment Identifier to
prevent the conflict of unlike parameters having the same label. Many times this
Equipment Identifier code identifies a system on the aircraft, i.e. Ground Proximity Warning
System, 023.
9.2.5.2 Source Destination Identifier (SDI)
The SDI is optional and when used, occupies bits 9 and 10 of the ARINC word. When
used, the SDI is considered to add an extension onto the ARINC words Label and ARINC
systems are expected to decode the Label / SDI combination as a different label than an
ARINC word with the same label and no SDI implementation.
The SDI has two functions:
 To identify which source of a multi-system installation is transmitting the data
contained.
 To direct which sinks on a multi-listener bus should recognise the data contained
within the ARINC word.
When used in the destination function, sub-systems are given an installation number; 01,
10 or 11 (binary). A zero in both bits 9 and 10 conveys that all sinks on the bus should
decode the data or can be used as the address for a fourth listener on the bus. An
example of a multi-system destination installation is shown below.
Page 9-5
As stated, the use of the SDI is optional and is not available if transmitting ISO Alphabet
#5 alphanumeric data words or when additional bit resolution is needed for BNR or BCD
numeric data. An example of a multi-system source identification installation is shown
below.
Sign Status Matrix

The Sign / Status Matrix (SSM) field may be used to report equipment condition or the sign
(+, -, north, south, east, west, etc.) Bits 30 and 31 are typically assigned to the SSM with
bit position 29 also used for BNR words. In the status function, the SSM field reports
hardware equipment conditions (fault / normal), operation mode (functional test) or validity
of data word content (verified / no computer data).
Status information may also be accompanied by other bit settings within the data word or
data within the ARINC word indicating the type of status or related values. This additional
information would be specific for each system.
9.2.5.3 Parity
Bit 32 is an odd parity bit.

After the rest of the code word has been assembled, the total number of ‘1’s’ is counted. If
there are an even number of ‘1’s’ in bits 1 through 31 then bit 32 is set as a ‘1’ making the
sum total of ‘1’s’ odd.
If there are an odd number of ‘1’s’ in bits 1 through 31 then bit 32 is set as a ‘0’. Once
again the total number of ‘1’s’ is odd.
The 429 receiver (sink) input port checks for odd parity to ensure transmission accuracy,
whilst the source system may enunciate unreliable data words by terminating transmission
of the affected word on the data bus.
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9.2.5.4 Data Area
There are many types of data input to a transmitter, each type requires an appropriate
encoder:
 Discrete data gives the status of a system, each bit indicating the status of a distinct
parameter, such as on / off, pass / fall etc.
 Numeric data provides numerical values for specific conditions, such as distance,
bearing or pressure.
 Alphabetic may be a letter, number, punctuation mark or a two or three letter pre-
defined code or abbreviation.
 Graphic may be a drawing symbol, a line, a circle or arc, or a vector.
 Any Spaces (unused bits) within a data word are filled with Pads of 0s.
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
Analogue signals from system elements are encoded into BCD data words for
transmission.
BCD words transmit several numeric characters and discrete signals to using systems.
Typical parameters include ground speed, windspeed selected course or type loading.
The word is structurally divided functionally into:
Label - SDI - Data - SSM - Parity
Note: the label is unique in that it is transmitted in reverse.
Each label or parameter of the BCD type has different values assigned to it which meet
individual requirements, vis: units, range significant digits and resolution or direction.
Thus DME distance, has label code 201:
Units - nautical miles
Range - -1 to 399.99 nautical miles
Significant digits - 5
Resolution - 0.01 nautical miles
This parameter only uses a two bit SSM so that the data field can operate from bit 11 to bit
29 which is divided into 5 bits of 4 bits to give 5 significant digits or characters.
32 29 11 8 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
P SSM 6 2 3 5 SDI LABEL

CH5 CH4 CH3 CH2 CH1
DATA
Bit 11 is the least significant bit of the least significant character and the data read out is
62.35 miles. The unused bits are assigned to ‘0’ pads. The decimal place is determined by
the degree of resolution required for each parameter.
Use of the sign function is optional with BCD data. If the function is used then:
00 will stand for plus, North, East, Right, To and Above.
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01 will indicate ‘no computed data’.

10 will indicate the functional test mode.
11 will stand for minus, South, West, Left, From and Below.
In status mode:
11 indicates the failure warning.
10 indicated ‘no computed data’.
01 functional test indicator.
00 indication normal operation.
9.2.5.5 Binary Numerical Representation (BNR)

This code is used for analogue numerical data where good resolution is required, with a
good range.
Typical parameters include;
Air Speed, Magnetic Track Angle, Fuel Quantity
BNR requires a three element SSM, and has a different technique for encoding the data.
The label will be in the range 070 to 376 and is encoded as before.
The SDI is as before.
Data Field: bit 28 is given half the maximum range

27 is given Error!the maximum range
26 is given Error!the maximum range
etc.
Example 1
label 663: N/S velocity requires a range of 4096 knots
and a resolution of 0125 knots
bits 11, 12, 13 are not required and are filled with pads or ‘0’s.
bit 28 is half the range i.e. 2048
bit 27 is Error! the range i.e. 1024
bit 14 represents a N/S velocity of 0125 knots
Page 9-8
The code shown below would give a velocity of:

512 + 32 + 2 = 546 knots N/S velocity
the SSM would determine N or S.
32 28 14 11 1
1. 1 1 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1. 1 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
512 32 2
9.2.5.6 Example 2
ADF bearing 162
Bearings are measured as + or - 180 degrees with a resolution of approximately 0.044

degrees.
This will require 12 bits, 17 to 28.
Bits 11 to 16 will be pads.
Bit 28 is thus 90

27 is thus 45
17 is thus 0.0439 …….. (LSB)
The code below gives an angle of 150.
32 28 17 11 8 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
DATA FIELD
A simple way to evaluate the code is to give the least significant bit (17) a value of 1 and
give the higher bits values in the binary scale. Add the binary numbers and multiply by the
value of the LSB in degrees.
Value in
Bit Binary value
degrees
28 90 2048
27 45 1024
26 225 512
25 1125 256
24 5625 128
23 28125 64
22 140625 32
21 07 16
20 035 8
19 017 4
18 008 2
17 0439453125 1
Hence a code containing bit 28 has a binary value of 2048, 27 a value of 1024,
Page 9-9
25 a value of 256 etc.

Example 2 has ‘1s’ set at bit positions 28,27,25,23,21,20,19 and 17. Adding the binary
values for these bits gives a total of 3421. 3421 multiplied by the value in degrees of the
LSB (bit 17) gives the answer of 150 degrees.
SSM is selected from the following codes in BNR
bit
interpretation
31 30 29
0 0 0 failure warning + N.E.R. TO
0 0 1 failure warning - S.W.L. FR
0 1 0 no computed data
1 0 0 functional test + N.E.R. TO
1 0 1 functional test - S.W.L. FR
1 1 0 normal operation + N.E.R. TO
1 1 1 normal operation - S.W.L. FR
0 1 1 no in current use
Parity bit is 32 as before.
9.3 ARINC 629

An ARINC 629 data bus is a electronic data movement system that connects many line
replaceable units (LRUs) in a single communication loop. Data from any ARINC 629 LRU
is available to all other LRUs on the bus.
Communication on ARINC 629, unlike an ARINC 429 is bi-directional, data to and from
LRUs moving on the same bus.
The ARINC 629 bus permits greater volume and speed of data transfer than other data
buses in current use, however, the bus is currently (at the time of writing) only used on the
Boeing 777 aircraft, which employs 11 data buses.
9.3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
An ARINC 629 data bus is a twisted pair of wires with termination resistors at each end.
As many as 120 LRUs can use a single ARINC 629 data bus. The data bus system has
three parts:
 Data bus cable
Current mode couplers Stub cables The following components are also included in all
LRU’s:
 Serial interface modules
Terminal controllers The ARINC 629 data bus system has the following characteristics:
 LRUs send data one at a time in sequence.
 LRUs receive data at the same time.
 Communication is bi-directional, LRUs may send and receive on the same bus.
 One LRU may connect to more than one data bus through separate couplers on each
bus.
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 All data on the bus is available to all the LRUs on that bus.
Each LRU uses one or more current mode couplers to connect to data buses. A current
mode coupler and its terminal move data to and from the bus. Only one terminal listens to
the bus and waits for a stop in data movement on the bus from other LRUs before it
transmits.
9.3.2 CABLING
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The bus cable moves data between LRUs. A current mode coupler and a stub cable
attach each LRU terminal to the data bus cable.
A bus cable is a pair of twisted wires with a termination resistor at each end. Each
resistor has value of approx. 130 ohms.
On the 777 each cable is up to 180 feet long and connects as many as 60 current mode
couplers, although it is possible to have up to 120.
The cable has a centre conductor covered by a layer of foam. A Teflon skin covers the
foam. If the Teflon skin is damaged it can cause corrosion of the conductor or failure of
the system. Special tools are used for bus cable installation on the coupler.
Stub cables are used for bi-directional data movement between the LRU and the current
mode coupler. The stub cables also supply power from the LRUs to the current mode
couplers.
A stub cable contains four wires, two to transmit and two to receive. The cables can be as
long as 57 feet for transmit / receiver couplers and 75 feet for receive only couplers.
A current mode coupler, together with a serial interface module (SIM) supplies the
interface between the ARINC 629 bus and the terminal in the LRU. The coupler is a dual
channel device in both transmit and receive operations. It has two transmit drivers and
two receivers. The SIM makes the transmit and receive channel selection.
In normal transmit mode the coupler transmit drivers put signals onto the data bus. The
coupler receivers voltage signals from the SIM over the transmit stub of the stub cable and
puts the signal onto the data bus. Thus it changes voltage signals from the SIM to current
signals on the bus.
In normal receiver mode the coupler converts current signals received from the bus into
voltage signals for the SIM, transferring the voltage signals via the receive stub of the stub
cable.
If the signal quality from an LRU is unsatisfactory the SIM will stop the transmit operation.
The LRU will continue to receive data during the transmit inhibit mode of operation .
Page 9-12
9.3.3 LRU OPERATION
An ARINC 629 LRU contains a SIM and a terminal controller, these move data between
the LRU and the current mode coupler.
9.3.4 BUS PROTOCOL
ARINC 629 uses a procedure to control access to the data bus. This procedure is the bus
protocol.
Each LRU has a time period in which it may transmit. After an LRU transmits, the control
function measures the time and makes sure that it does not transmit again until all the
other LRUs on the bus have an option to transmit.
ARINC 629 - LRU Functional Description
Page 9-13
9.3.5 ARINC 629 MESSAGES

Data in the ARINC 629 system moves through cables and other components as
messages. Between each message is a terminal gap. A message is a group of word
strings. Each word string has a label word followed by data words. Each message has a
special structure. The structure allows the LRU to select and read the message.
Message Structure
A message has up to 31 word strings. There is a 4-bit time gap between each word
string.
A word string begins with a label word. A word string has up to 256 data words. There is
no gap between words in a word string.
The minimum length message has 1 label and no data words. The maximum length
message has 31 labels with 256 data words following each label, and 30 time gaps of 4
bits each.
A label word is a 20 bit word, it has a:

 12 bit label field
 4 bit label extension field
 single parity bit
 3 bit time length hi-lo sync pulse.
A pulse of one half-bit time, called the pre-sync sync pulse (PSSP), comes before the first
label word of a message. An approximately one half-bit time pre-pre-sync sync (PPSSP)
comes before the PSSP.
The PPSSP and the PSSP occur prior to the 3 bit time hi lo sync pulse.Data Word
Structure
A data word is also a 20 bit word. It has a:

 16 bit data field
 single parity bit
 3 bit time lo hi sync pulse
Page 9-14
Page 9-15
10. FIBRE OPTICS

Although optical fibres have been around for a long time, transmission of information
through them is a relatively new technology.
Reflection of sunlight from a shiny surface was the first type of light beam communication.
The first transmission of speech using a light beam was made February 19, 1880, by
Alexander Graham Bell.
Because of serious limitations of the technology, this means of communication was
ignored until the 1960s when the development of the laser (light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation) focused attention on the possibility of introducing a light beam into a
‘glass pipe,’ or optical fibre.Fibre optics is one area of opto-electronics, which covers the
production, utilisation and evaluation of electromagnetic radiation in the optical wavelength
range and its conversion into electrical signals.
Components that emit, or are sensitive to radiation in the ultra-violet, infra-red and visible
range are defined as ‘opto-electronic components’.
The basic elements of an opto-electronic system are shown below:
Receiver
Transmitter
Optical Coupling (Light
(Light Source)
Detector)
For many years, fibre optics was simply a system for piping light around corners and for
looking into inaccessible places so as to allow the hidden to be seen.
Now fibre optics have evolved into a system of significantly greater importance and is used
to transmit voice, television and data signals by light waves over flexible hair thin threads
of glass or plastic.
Some of the devices used in opto-electronic systems are:
 Transmitters: Light-emitting diodes (LED’s) and Injected Lasers.
 Receivers: Photodiodes and Phototransistors.
 Optical Coupling: Opto-isolators and Optical fibres.
10.1 LIGHT
To achieve a basic understanding of opto-electronic systems it is necessary to review the
fundamentals and nature of light.
Page 10-16
10.1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Fundamentally there is no difference between light waves and electromagnetic waves

such as radio and radar, except that light waves are much shorter and so have a higher
frequency.
In opto-electronics light is defined as radiant energy with wavelengths from about 300nm
to about 30,000nm. Induced in this range are the visible wavelengths 390nm to 770nm,
which is only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
10.1.2 VELOCITY OF LIGHT
For all practical purposes the velocity of light through free space is 3  108m/s (186,000
miles per second). The velocity of light changes as it passes from one medium to another.
When light travels through these other mediums its velocity is reduced. Because of this
slowing down, the light ray bends at the surface of the new medium. In optics a medium is
any substance that transmits light.
10.1.3 STRAIGHT LIGHT PROPAGATION
Light travels in essentially straight lines as long as it stays in a uniform medium. This is
referred to as ‘Rectilinear Propagation’.
10.1.4 REFLECTION
When a beam of light strikes a smooth polished surface, regular reflection will occur as
shown in the diagram below.
Page 10-17
If the surface is irregular or is rough, light will be reflected in many directions as shown in
the diagram below. This scattering of light is referred to as ‘diffuse reflection’.
In every day use an ordinary mirror illustrates regular reflection whereas most non-
luminous bodies demonstrate diffuse reflection.
10.1.4.1 Laws of Reflection
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence are all in the
same plane.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Page 10-18
10.1.5 REFRACTION
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes across the boundary of one medium to
another.
When a ray of light strikes a surface normal to the surface of the medium, as shown in the
diagram below, part of it will be reflected (not shown) and part of it will be absorbed as
shown by the penetrating ray.
As long as the incident ray is normal to the surface it will continue in a straight line in the
new medium. The penetrating ray will not change direction but will slow up considerably.
Now consider the case when the angle of incident is not normal to the plane, as shown in
the diagram below.
Upon entering medium 2, the incident ray changes direction. This bending, or refraction, is
caused by the change of velocity as it enters medium 2. In this case medium 2 is denser
than medium 1 and therefore the refracted ray bends towards the normal. (If medium 1
had been denser than medium 2 the refracted ray would bend away from the normal).
Page 10-19
10.1.5.1 Refractive Index
The Refractive Index (n) is the ratio of the velocity of light in air © to the velocity of light in
the medium being considered ().
c m/s
n = (1)
 m/s
Typical indexes of refraction are given in the following table.

Air 100
Diamond 242
Ethyl Alcohol 136
Fused Quartz 146
Glass 155 - 19
Optical Fibre 15
Water 133
10.1.5.2 Laws of Refraction
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant (Snells Law).
When a light ray travelling in a medium with an index of refraction, n 1, strikes a second
medium with an index of refraction n2, at an angle of incidence i, the angle of refraction, ,
can be determined by Snells Law.
n1 sini = n2 sin ………(2)
Page 10-20
10.1.6 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
As already stated, on refraction at a denser medium, a beam of light is bent towards the
normal and, vice versa.
In the diagram above, the ray APB is refracted away from the normal. For any rarer
medium the angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence. By
increasing the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction will eventually become 90, as in
the case of the ray AP’D. A further increase in the angle of incidence should give an angle
of refraction greater than 90, but this is impossible and the ray is reflection at the
boundary, remaining within the denser medium, this is ‘total internal reflection’, with none
of the light passing through the boundary.
10.1.6.1 Critical Angle c
Consider the ray AP’D in the diagram above. The ray travels parallel to the surface. This
is the critical angle. Substituting in Snell’s Law.
n1 sinc = n2 sin90
= n2
sinc = Error! ………(3)
The conditions for total internal reflection are:

 The light ray must be attempting to travel from a medium of higher refractive index to a
medium with a lower refractive index.
 The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
10.1.7 DISPERSION
Although it has not been stated it has been assumed that the light ray consisted of only
one wavelength. Such light is called Monochromatic, and is not naturally encountered.
Page 10-21
Most light beams are complex waves that contain a mixture of wavelengths and are thus
called polychromatic.
As shown in the diagram below, white light can be separated into individual wavelengths
by a glass prism through the process of ‘dispersion’.
Dispersion is based on the fact that different wavelengths of light travel at
different velocities in the same medium. Because different wavelengths have different
indexes of refraction, some will be refracted more than others.
Page 10-22
10.2 ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC SYSTEMS
The advantages of fibre optic cables over more conventional cables are:
 Wide Bandwidth - currently up to 3300 MHz.
 Smaller diameter, lighter-weight cables - even when the fibres have full protective
coatings they are much smaller and lighter than equivalent copper cables e.g. a 0005
diameter optical fibre cable in a jacket of 025 in diameter can replace a 3in bundle of 900
pairs of copper wire.
 Cross talk negligible - even when numerous fibres are cabled together, cross talk is
negligible.
 Immunity to inductive interference - since fibre optic cables carry light and not
electrical signals, they do not act as antennas to pick up rf interference, electromagnetic
interference or electromagnetic pulses. The result is noise-free transmission.
 Greater security - the system is almost immune to wire tapping since the light in an
optical fibre does not radiate outside of the core.
 Greater safety - only light and not electricity is being conducted. If the cable is
damaged no spark can arise.
 Low cost - sand, the basic ingredient of glass optical fibres and plastic, is cheaper
than copper.
 Long life span - Predicted 20 to 30 years for fibre optics compared to 12 to 15 years
for conventional cables.
 Greater reliability - also ease of maintenance.
10.3 DISADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC SYSTEMS
In fibre optic system major light losses can occur at three optical junctions:
 From source to fibre.
 From fibre to fibre.
 From fibre to photo detector.
When dealing with copper conductors, splicing can be as simple as twisting two wires
together and soldering. Splicing optical fibres, however, is a much more complicated task.
Proper slicing is difficult for two main reasons:
 The hair like optical fibres are so fine they are hard to handle.
 The two fibres must be precisely aligned to keep losses at an acceptable level.
To minimise these problems, special connectors and splicing devices are required.
Page 10-23
10.4 OPTICAL FIBRES – DATA BUS
An optical fibre is a thin flexible thread of transparent

plastic or glass, which carries visible light or invisible
(near-infrared) radiation.
As shown above, an optical fibre consists of a
central core, surrounded by a layer of material called
the cladding that in turn is covered by a jacket.
The core transmits the light waves; the cladding
keeps the light waves within the core and provides
strength to the core. The jacket protects the fibre
from moisture and abrasions.
Materials:
 Core - glass, polystyrene, polymethyl
methacrylic.
 Cladding - glass, silicon or Teflon.
Dimensions:
Core diameters range from 5 to 600 m and cladding diameter vary from 125 to 750 m.
Protective jackets add as much as 100 m in diameter to the fibres total diagram. Some
typical fibre dimensions are given in the three diagrams below (All dimensions shown are
nominal values.
10.4.1.1 Wide Graded Index Multimode Optical Fibre
10.4.1.2 Single Mode Step Index Optical Fibre
Page 10-24
Large-Core
Plastic-Clad Silica Optical Fibre
Typically made in lengths of 1 km without splices. However some fibre cables have been
made as long as 3 km without splices.
Optical glass fibres have a high strength and have the ability to withstand pulling or
stretching. The toughest are as strong as stainless steel wires of the same diameter.
10.5 LIGHT PROPAGATION

The propagation of light in an optical fibre is based on the principle of total internal
reflection.
The refractive index of the core (n1) is greater than the refractive index of the cladding (n 2)
i.e. n1 > n2.
Although the cladding of the cable does not carry light, it is an essential part of the cable.
The cladding is not just a mere covering; it keeps the value of the critical angle constant
throughout the length of the fibre.
10.6 FIBRE TYPES
There are two main fibre types:

 Step index (multimode, single mode)
 Graded index (multimode)
Page 10-25
10.6.1 STEP INDEX FIBRE
Step index fibre is so called because the refractive index of the fibre ‘steps’ up as we move
from the cladding to the core of the fibre. Within the cladding the refractive index is
constant, and within the core of the refractive index is constant.
10.6.1.1 Multimode
Although it may seem from what we have said about total internal reflection that any ray of
light can travel down the fibre, in fact, because of the wave nature of light, only certain ray
directions can actually travel down the fibre. These are called the ‘Fibre Mode’. In a
multimode fibre the fibre supports many different modes. This is shown in the diagram
below.
Page 10-26
10.6.1.2 Single Mode
Because its core is so narrow Single Mode fibre can support only one mode. This is called
the ‘Lowest Order Mode’. Single mode fibre has some advantages over multimode fibre.
10.6.2 GRADED INDEX FIBRE
Graded Index Fibre has a different core structure from single mode and multimode fibre.
Whereas in a step-index fibre the refractive index of the core is constant throughout the
core, in a graded index fibre the value of the refractive index changes from the centre of
the core onwards. In fact it has what we call a Quadratic Profile. This means that the
refractive index of the core is proportional to the square of the distance from the centre of
the fibre.
Graded index fibre is actually a multimode fibre because is can support more than one
fibre mode. But when we refer to ‘multimode’ fibre we normally mean ‘step index
multimode’.
10.7 ACCEPTANCE ZONE

Light rays strike the end of the optical fibre at many different angles. For a ray to
propagate down a fibre it must enter the end of the fibre in a region called the
‘Acceptance Zone’. That is, a light ray not within this zone will get lost in the cladding and
never make its way down the core.
The angle measured from the longitudinal centre line up to the maximum acceptance
angle of an incident ray is called the ‘Semi-Acceptance Angle’. The maximum
acceptance angle is dependent upon the refractive indices of the core and cladding that
determine the critical angle.
Page 10-27
10.8 NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA)

The numerical aperture (NA) is a measure of the light gathering or collecting power of an
optical fibre. The larger the NA the greater will be the amount of light accepted by the
fibre. Thus as NA increases the greater will be the possible transmission distance,
assuming the same light source and detector. However as NA is increased the bandwidth
is decreased.
NA is a function of the refractive indices of the fibre. It is always less than unity.
The numerical aperture is defined as:
10.8.1.1.1.1.1 NA = sinA
A numerical aperture of 0 means the fibre gathers no light. A numerical aperture of 1
means it gathers all the light falls onto it.
Page 10-28
10.9 PULSE SPREADING

The data that is carried in an optical fibre consists of pulses of light energy following each
other rapidly. There is a limit to the highest frequency, i.e. how many pulses per second
that can be sent into a fibre and be expected to emerge intact at the other end. This is
because of a phenomenon known as pulse spreading which limits the ‘Bandwidth’ of the
fibre.
The pulse sets off down with an nice square wave shape. As it travels along the fibre it
gradually gets wider and the peak intensity decreases.
10.9.1 CAUSE OF PULSE SPREADING
The cause of pulse spreading is dispersion. This means that some components of the
pulse of light travel at different rates along the fibre. There are two forms of dispersion.
 Chromatic dispersion
 Modal dispersion
 Chromatic Dispersion - Chromatic dispersion is the variation of refractive index with
the wavelength (or the frequency) of the light. Another way of saying this is that each
wavelength of light travels through the same material at its own particular speed that is
different from that of other wavelengths.
For example, when white light passes through a prism some wavelengths of light bend
more because their refractive index is higher, i.e. they travel slower. This is what gives us
the ‘Spectrum’ of white light. The ‘red’ and ‘orange’ light travel slowest and so are bend
most while the ‘violet’ and ‘blue’ travel fastest and so are bent less. All the other colours
lie in between.
This means that different wavelengths travelling through an optical fibre also travel at
different speeds. This phenomenon is called ‘Chromatic Dispersion’.
 Modal Dispersion - In an optical fibre there is another type of dispersion called

‘Multimode Dispersion’.
Page 10-29
More oblique rays (lower order modes) travel a shorter distance. These correspond to
rays travelling almost parallel to the centre line of the fibre and reach the end of fibre
sooner. The more zigzag rays (higher order modes) take a longer route as they pass
along the fibre and so reach the end of the fibre later.
Total dispersion = Chromatic dispersion + Multimode dispersion
Or put simply: for various reasons some components of a pulse of light travelling along an
optical fibre move faster and other components mover slower. So, a pulse, which starts off
as a narrow bust of light, gets wider because some components race ahead while other
components lag behind, rather like the runners in a marathon race.
10.9.2 CONSEQUENCES OF PULSE SPREADING
10.9.2.1 Frequency Limit (Bandwidth)
The further the pulse travels in the fibre the worse spreading gets. Pulse spreading limits
the maximum frequency if signal which can be sent along a fibre. If signal pulses follow
each other too fast then by the time they reach the end fibre they will have merged
together and become indistinguishable. This is unacceptable for digital systems, which
depend on the precise sequence of pulses as a code for information. The Bandwidth is
the highest number of pulses per second that can be carried by the fibre without loss of
information due to pulse spreading.
10.9.2.2 Distance Limit
A given length of fibre, as explained above has a maximum frequency (bandwidth) that
can be sent along it. If we want to increase the bandwidth for the same type of fibre we
can achieve this by decreasing the length of the length. Another way of saying this is that
for a given data rate there is a maximum distance that the data can be sent.
Page 10-30
10.9.2.3 Bandwidth Distance Product (BDP)
We can combine the two ideas above into a single term called the bandwidth distance
product (BDP). It is the bandwidth of a fibre multiplied by the length of the fibre. The BDP
is the bandwidth of a kilometre of fibre and is a constant for any particular type of fibre.
For example, suppose a particular type of multimode fibre has a BDP of 20 MHz.km then:
1 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 20 MHz
The typical B.D.P. of the three types of fibres are as follows:

Multimode 6 - 25 MHz.km
Single Mode 500 - 1500 MHz.km
Graded Index 100 - 1000 MHz.km
NB: The units of BDP are MHz.km (read as megahertz kilometres). They are not MHz/km
(read as megahertz per kilometres). This is because the quantity is a product (of
bandwidth and distance) and not a ratio.
10.10 ATTENUATION
Attenuation is specified in db.km-1.
Attenuation = 10 log10 Error!
Where I out = outgoing intensity (intensity is measured in W.m-2)
I in = ingoing intensity (W.m-2)

Attenuation in a fibre is measured using an Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer (OTDR),
which looks at the light reflected back along the fibre when a pulse of light is sent down the
fibre. Another metho d is to send light from a continuous source of light and measure the
power emerging at the other end of the fibre.
Page 10-31
10.10.1 CAUSES OF ATTENUATION
The light travelling along a fibre is attenuated, i.e. its intensity decreases as it moves along
the fibre. This happens for 3 main reasons:
 Atomic absorption of light photons
 Scattering of light by flaws and impurities
 Reflection of light by splices and connectors
We will look at each of these factors in turn.

 Atomic Absorption - The atoms of any material are capable of absorbing specific
wavelengths of light because of their electron orbital structure. This absorption can be
observed if you look into the edge of a pane of glass. The light that emerges has a green
colour because the atoms of the glass have absorbed so much red and blue light. In the
same way, as light passes along an optical fibre. The atoms absorb more and more light
as it continues on its path.
 Scattering by Flaws and Impurities - This type of scattering is called ‘Rayleigh
Scattering’. The amount of Rayleigh scattering that takes place depends on the relative
size of the scattering particle and the wavelength of the light. If the wavelength of the light
is large compared to the size of the scattering particle then little light is scattered. If the
wavelength of the light is small compared to the scattering particles then a lot of light is
scattered. So long wavelengths are preferred in fibre optics because of the lower
absorption. Thus 1500 nm is better than 1300 nm, which is better than 850 nm.
 Reflection by Splices and Connectors - In a long fibre cable there may be many
splices, which join the individual lengths of fibre together. In a Local Area Network there
will be many connectors because of the number of subscribers to the system. At each
connector and/or splice some light will be reflected back along the fibre in the opposite
direction. This will happen even for the most perfect splice or connector. Light reflected
backwards does not leave the fibre but is no longer usefully available for the rest of the
fibre, i.e. it is no longer part of the ongoing light.
Page 10-32
10.11 CHOICE OF FIBRES

 Multimode Fibre - Multimode fibre is suitable for local area networks (LAN’s) because
it can carry enough energy to support all the subscribers to the network. In a LAN the
distances involved, however, are small. Little pulse spreading can take place and so the
effects of dispersion are unimportant.
 Single Mode Fibre - using Single Mode Fibre eliminates Multimode Dispersion. The
core is so narrow that only one mode can travel. So the amount of pulse spreading in a
single mode fibre is greatly reduced from that of a multimode fibre. Chromatic dispersion
however remains even in a single mode fibre. Thus even in single mode fibre pulse
spreading can occur. But chromatic dispersion can be reduced by careful design of the
chemical composition of the glass.
The energy carried by a single mode fibre, however, is much less than that carried by a
multimode fibre. For this reason single mode fibre is made from extremely low loss, very
pure, glass.
Single mode low absorption fibre is ideal for telecommunications because pulse spreading
is small.
 Graded Index Fibre - In graded index fibre rays of light follow sinusoidal paths. This
means that low order modes, i.e. oblique rays, stay close to the centre of the fibre, high
order modes spend more time near the edge of core. Low order modes travel in the high
index part of the core and so travel slowly, whereas high order modes spend
predominantly more time in the low index part of the core and so travel faster. This way,
although the paths are different lengths, all the modes travel the length of the fibre in
tandem, i.e. they all reach the end of the fibre at the same time. This eliminates multimode
dispersion and reduces pulse spreading.
Graded Index fibre has the advantage that it can carry the same amount of energy as
multimode fibre. The disadvantage is that this effect takes place at only one wavelength,
so the light source has to be a laser diode which has a narrow linewidth.
Page 10-33
10.12 JOINING OPTICAL FIBRES

Optical fibres have to be joined together to make longer lengths of fibre or existing fibres
lengths, which have been broken, have to be repaired. Also the ends of the fibre have to
be fitted with convenient connectors (terminations) to allow them to be easily plugged into
equipment such as power meters, data transmitters, etc. Unlike electrical cables where all
that is needed to solder lengths of cable together, the process of joining two fibres or
terminating the end of a fibre is more complex and requires special equipment.
Splicing is the process of joining the two bare ends of fibre together. There are two main
types of splicing:
 Fusion Splicing and;
 Mechanical Splicing
10.12.1 POSSIBLE ALIGNMENT ERRORS DURING SPLICING
The ends of the fibres must be precisely lined up with each other, otherwise the light will
not be able to pass from one fibre across the gap to the other fibre. There are four main
alignment errors and any splicing technique is designed to deal with ends of these errors.
The four alignment errors in splicing optical fibres are:
 Lateral
 Axial
 Angular
 Poor End Finish
These are illustrated in the diagrams below.
Page 10-34
10.12.2 FUSION SPLICING
In fusion splicing the ends of the fibre are aligned either manually using micro-
manipulators and a microscope system for viewing the splice, or automatically either using
cameras or by measuring the light transmitted through the splice and adjusting the
positions of the fibres to optimise the transmission. The ends of the fibres are then melted
together using a gas flame or more commonly an electric arc.
Near perfect splices can be obtained with losses as low as 0.02 dB (best mechanical
splice 0.2dB).
One of the systems in top of the range fusion splicers is called a profile Alignment System
(PAS). This system uses a TV camera to view the splice before is it fused. The image is
sent to a microcomputer inside the splicer, which is programmed to recognise when the
cores of the two fibres form a continuous straight line. An adjustment is made to bring the
fibres into alignment in that plane. The camera then moves to a new position to view the
splice in an orthogonal plane. The same process aligns the fibres in this plane too. The
camera then goes back to the original view and starts to make fine adjustments in that
plane. It goes to the second plane and makes fine adjustments in that plane too. This
goes on until the alignment is as close as possible. At this point the arc is fired and the
heat from the arc melts the fibres together locally.
10.12.3 MECHANICAL SPLICING
In mechanical splicing the two fibre ends are held together in a splice. This consists of
some device usually made of glass which by its internal design automatically brings the
two fibres into alignment. The openings at each end of the device are usually fluted to
allow the fibres to be guided into the capillary where the alignment takes place. The splice
is first filled with optical cement whose refractive index is the same as that of the core of
the fibre. After the fibres have been entered into the splice they are adjusted to give the
optimum transmission of light. At this point they are clamped in position and the whole
assembly is exposed to ultra-violet light that cures the cement.
Page 10-35
Mechanical splices are best used for multimode fibre. Some splices now exist which are
suitable for single mode fibre, but have a loss of 0.1dB. This is five times the loss of the
best fusion splice.
10.12.4 TERMINATIONS
There are many different terminations available to terminate or splice the optical fibre
cables. Two examples are detailed below.
A. MICRO LENS
Fig 1 show the construction of a connector using a small glass bead or MICRO LENS to
focus the light output of the LED into the optical fibre.
FIG 1
B. PIGTAIL
The PIGTAIL approach is to permanently attach the fibre to the source. A common way of
achieving this is to cement the fibre into a V groove and align the fibre and source to
obtain optimum coupling. This type is especially used with laser sources as the pigtail
brings the fibre as close to the laser chip as possible to prevent any light spread before
entering the fibre.
Page 10-36
10.13 Aircraft fibre optic networks

At the time of producing these notes the only information available on aircraft fibre optic
networks, was that related to the optical networks fitted to the Boeing 777, these systems
therefore form the basis of these notes. This section is only intended to give the reader an
insight into the use of fibre optic networks on aircraft, and does not give details about the
systems in which they are employed.
Fibre optic networks have advantages over wire type networks in that they:
 can carry more data than wire buses.
 weigh less than wire buses.
 are immune to electromagnetic radiation.
They do however require special, high tolerance connectors and the switching of optical
signals is slightly more involved. Given concerns about electromagnetic compatibility, fibre
optic networks are likely to replace current wire type networks such as ARINC 429 and
even 629 in the not too distant future.
10.14 BOEING 777 FIBRE OPTIC NETWORKS

The fibre optic networks on the Boeing 777 are known collectively as the Onboard Local
Area Network (OLAN).
The OLAN has two parts:
 An Avionics Local Area Network (AVLAN)

 and a Cabin Local Area Network (CABLAN).
Each LAN has:

 A Primary Ring (PRI)
 A Secondary Ring (SEC)
 Two, Bypass Switch Units (BSU,s)
Line Replaceable Units (LRU’s) connect to the primary and secondary rings of a network
via a Bypass Switch Unit (BSU). The primary and secondary rings contain the same data,
but the data travels in opposite directions around the rings. Normally units connected to
the LAN get data from the primary ring. If however a ring or LRU fails, the other LRU’s get
data from the secondary ring.
The AVLAN connects these LRUs:
 Right and Left AIMS cabinets
 Maintenance access terminal (MAT)
 Portable maintenance access terminal (PMAT)
 Four portable maintenance access terminal (PMAT) receptacles
 Pilots and First Officers side displays Brouter
The CABLAN connects these LRUs:

 Zone network controller / telephone distribution unit (ZNTU) 1, ZNTU and ZNTU 3
Page 10-37
 Cabin file server (CFS).
The ZNTU’s interface with the cabin management system (CMS).
10.14.1.1 Cabin Local Area Network (CABLAN)
The fibre optic CABLAN forms part of the cabin data network.
Page 10-38
The cabin data network allows flight attendants to control duty free inventories and sales
and also provides the attendants with screens to control attendant applications and to
access interactive data.
The flight attendants use screens at the cabin system control panel (CSCP) to:
 Keep sales data
 Enable and disable passenger functions
 Control the distribution of video entertainment
Select boarding music The cabin data network provides the passengers with access to:
 Video and audio menu screens
 Games
 In-flight sales through electronic catalogues
 Duty free shopping
 Instructions for telephone calls
 Ground to airplane telephone pages
 Special video channel selections.
Maintenance technicians use some of the functions of the cabin data network for test and
data installation.
Page 10-39
10.14.1.2 The Fibre Optic Connectors
The OLAN uses two types of connectors simply referred to as type-A connectors and type-
B connectors. The individual fibres are colour coded for identification purposes.
Both types of connector have:
 Alignment keys and grooves
 Guide pins and cavities
 Color bands
 Three start threads.
Each connector has alignment keys on the plug and alignment grooves on the
receptacle. These accurately align the optical components of the connector.
Guide pins in the plug fit into cavities in the receptacle when the plug and receptacle
connect. The pins of the plug are designed to bottom in the cavities of the in the receptacle
to prevent over-tightening of the connectors.
The coupling nut on the plug barrel has a yellow band and the receptacle barrel has a red
and yellow band. When the red band on the receptacle is at least 50 percent covered by
the coupling nut it shows a correct connection. With a correct connection, the optical fibres
in the plug align end-to-end with the fibres in the receptacle.
Three start threads on the plug and receptacle ensure a straight start when they are
mated together. The recessed receptacle components prevent damage from the plug if it
strikes the receptacle at an angle. The plug and receptacle seal to prevent the ingress of
moisture or dust.
Page 10-40
The type-A connector may have 3 or 5 optical fibres and is for production breaks that are
not regularly connected and disconnected. It is a multi-channel, in-line (butt-type)
connector that produces a very low light loss between optical fibre components. The plug
and receptacle have ceramic contacts that touch when connected. The light signal passing
through holes in the end of the ceramic contacts when they are in direct physical contact
with each other.
The type-B connector attaches a fibre optic cable to a line replaceable unit (LRU) and is
designed for more frequent connection and disconnection than the type-A connector. It is
a multi-channel, expanded beam (ball lens) connector that also produces a low light loss,
but not as low as in the type-A connector. The connector has miniature ball lenses behind
a protective window. Each lens is at the end of a fibre. One ball lens expands and focus
the light signal from the fibre. The light then passes through the protective windows of the
plug and receptacle to another ball lens. This lens narrows the light beam and sends it into
the next portion of fibre.
Before examining the connector face or the ceramic contacts, the cables should be
disconnected from the equipment at both ends or the equipment should be set to off. The
light from the optical fibre that attaches to the avionics equipment is invisible and
can be intense enough to cause damage to your eyes.
Before installing a connector, it should be examined to ensure it is clean. Only approved
procedures should be used to clean the connectors and the fibre optic lenses.
Connectors should only be disconnected when it is absolutely necessary.
Page 10-41
11. CATHODE RAY TUBE DISPLAYS

A cathode ray tube is a thermionic device consisting of an evacuated envelope inside
which is positioned an electron gun and beam focusing system.
11.1 ELECTRON GUNS
Although some may vary slightly, the basic electron gun consists of:
 Heater - used to heat the cathode.
 Cathode - emits electrons from a very small source when heated, the electrons
forming a mist in front of the cathode.
 Control Grid - at a negative potential with respect to the cathode, used to control the
flow of electrons down the tube.
 1st & 2nd Anodes - produce an electric field that forms the electrons into a beam.
 3rd anode – focuses the electron beam.
 Final Anode - a graphite coating applied on the inside flared part of the tube and
connected via its own terminal to the HT supply.
 The Screen - The front of the tube is coated in phosphor which luminesces when
bombarded by electrons. A variety of colours are available.
Page 11-42
11.1.1 OPERATION OF THE GUN
When heated the cathode produces, from a fairly small source, a mist of electrons that
would remain in front of the cathode if it were not for the positive potentials attracting them
down the length of the tube. Firstly they pass through the control grid which being
negative in respect to the cathode sets up an electric field that opposes their flow and
thereby controls the brightness of the final display.
11.1.1.1 The Electric Field Between Anodes 1 and 2
Next the electrons pass through the first and second anodes, the potential between these
anodes setting up an electric field that concentrates the electrons into a beam ready for
focusing by the third anode.
The voltage of the third anode can be finely adjusted so as to focus the beam of electrons
at the screen, to produce a small spot of light.
It requires a lot of energy to encourage the electrons to travel down the length of the tube,
but what is more important is that when they strike the phosphor at the end of the tube
they must have sufficient energy to make it luminescent, consequently the potentials
associated with a CRT are high, from 8 to 25 kV at the final anode. Most colour televisions
have a final anode potential of 25kV.
Supply connections for heater, cathode and all but the final anode are made to a multi-pin
connector at the end of the tube neck. The insulation problems involved in connecting the
final anode in the same manner have led to it having its own connection on the flared part
of the tube. This connection can be seen on television tubes covered with a rubber boot.
The device described so far would only produce a small spot of light in the centre of the
screen, eventually destroying the phosphor coating. To make any use of the electron
beam we must be able to deflect it so that it strikes different positions on the screen.
There are two methods used to deflect the beam of electrons, the most common is called
Electromagnetic Deflection, used in the majority of televisions, computer monitors and
aircraft instrument display units.
Page 11-43
11.1.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC DEFLECTION
Electrons when moving constitute an electric current and therefore a magnetic field will
exist around them. By placing a coil over the neck of the tube and producing a magnetic
field we can deflect the beam of electrons.
In simple terms, looking at the diagram, the fields on the right of the electron will combine
to produce a stronger field, and the fields on the left of the electron will oppose each other
producing a weaker field, thus pushing the electron to the left. If the field created by the
coil is reversed then the electron can be made to move in the opposite direction, to the
right. By varying the strength of the magnetic field the amount of deflection can be varied.
The same can be seen by using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule for motion, field down the page
(first finger), current into the page as the electron is coming out from the page (second
finger) and the thumb shows the direction of travel of the electron.
By combining a vertical and horizontal field the beam can be deflected in any direction so
as to produce a spot of light in any position on the screen.
11.1.3 ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION
Oscilloscopes use an alternative method of deflecting the beam called Electrostatic

deflection.
If two metal plates are placed opposite each other with a potential across them to form
what looks like a capacitor with air as the dielectric, then an electric field will exist between
the plates. By varying the potential across the plates we can vary the strength of the
electric field.
If we locate the plates so that the beam of electrons passes between them we can use the
field to deflect the electrons, the amount of deflection being dependent upon the potential
across the plates. Changing the direction of deflection is simply a matter of reversing the
polarity of the potential across the plates.
By using two sets of plates to produce both vertical and a horizontal field it is possible to
deflect the beam so as to produce a spot of light anywhere on the screen.
Page 11-44
11.2 TUBE CHARACTERISTICS
The different uses and deflection methods also result in

the use of different tube shapes.
Television Tube
Long narrow neck to enable the deflection coils to be

fitted over it.
Large deflection angles as a result of the quest for a
shallow television set that is more saleable.
Oscilloscope Tube
Large diameter neck

to accommodate the
electrostatic
deflection plates.
Small deflection angles and a flat screen for accuracy.
Page 11-45
11.3 COLOUR PICTURES

To produce a colour picture the screen is coated in three different phosphors - Red, Green
and Blue each being made to luminess by its own electron gun. The colour picture
consists basically of three separate pictures, one in each of the colours, displayed
simultaneously on the same screen.
To ensure the representation is correct each gun must only be allowed to strike its
designated colour of phosphor, this is achieved by simple geometry. A metal screen with
holes in, called a ‘shadow mask’ is fitted approximately 12mm behind the screen, the
beams from the three guns converge on a hole in the mask, pass through it and then
diverge on the other side to strike their correct colour phosphor. It is impossible with a
correctly set up system for the beams to pass through the mask and strike the wrong
colour phosphor. The mask also shades the phosphor from the beams as they move
across the screen.
11.3.1 DELTA GUN TUBES
Early television used what were called ‘Delta Gun’ tubes, the three guns being arranged in
a triangle. The shadow mask has holes that were smaller than the phosphor dots, these
holes accounted for only 16% of the masks surface. Electrons striking the mask are
wasted and serve only to heat it. This system was difficult to adjust and because of the
large amount of ‘shadow’, produced poor picture brightness.
Shadow Mask Colour CRT
Page 11-46
A later development of this, found in many present day televisions, is the ‘Precision In
Line’ (PIL) tube. This replaced the small circular holes in the shadow mask with elongated
ones, thereby reducing the area of mask and improving the brightness of the display. The
areas of phosphor on the screen are also elongated.
This tube is manufactured complete with scan coils as a single unit, the extremely
sophisticated coils being designed with the aid of computers. Having most of the critical
adjustments being built in at the manufacturing stage has resulted in a tube that is very
simple to use and set up.
A Variation on the PIL tube is the Sony Triniton (trade name) which does away with the
shadow mask altogether, replacing it with an ‘aperture grille’ that consists basically of taut
vertical strips running the height of the screen. This together with an improved gun
system, whereby the three individual beams pass through a single point in the neck of the
tube, makes adjustment of the scanning system very easy and vastly improves the picture
brightness.
The majority of aircraft CRT displays are of the Trinitron form.
Page 11-47
12. LED DISPLAYS
An LED is a solid state device comprising a forward biased p-n junction formed from a
slice or chip of gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) moulded into a transparent covering
which not only serves to protect the chip, but also acts as a diffuser lens as shown below.
The diode leads are soldered to a printed circuit board to form the numerical display
required. When current flows through the chip it produces light, the amount of light being
directly proportional to the size of the current flow. To provide different colours, the
proportion of GaP and GaAs is varied and impurities such as oxygen and nitrogen are
added during the manufacturing process. This process is called ‘doping’.
Individual LED’s are used to indicate discrete states such as power on/off. However,
combinations of LED’s are also used to provide a variety of different display formats,
including a form of 7-Bar display commonly produced using liquid crystal techniques, dot-
matrix type displays and alternative forms of presentation for pointers and tapes on
standard instruments.
In a normal seven bar or segment type display as shown above, it is usual to employ
one LED per segment, but the number depends on the overall size of the digits required
for display and its appearance. Two methods maybe adopted for increasing the size and
improving the appearance of a single LED per segment display. In one a core shaped
reflecting cavity known as a ‘light-pipe’ is placed over each LED with its small end down.
The whole assembly is cast inside a housing using glass filled epoxy that fills the light pipe
cavities. When each LED is illuminated, the light is reflected off the glass particles within
the epoxy, and through a surface area that can be up to twenty times that of the LED at
the bottom of the cavity. In the second method, several small chips (10-15 mm square)
are covered with a metallized plastic reflector having seven bar shaped cavities designed
so that a LED is at the centre of each cavity.
In a dot-matrix type display, each dot is made using a single LED. For displaying letters
and numbers the LED’s are normally arranged in a 9 X 5 matrix or a 4 X 7 matrix. This
type of display requires special driver circuits based on some form of microprocessor.
This form of presentation is more common in fields outside aviation, with displays being
produced using light bulbs, metal discs and electromagnetic devices.
Page 12-48
LED’s are also used to replace the pointers or tapes on circular scales or vertical scale
displays. In this case large numbers of individual diodes are arranged in groups to form
the illuminated bars.
Samples
Page 12-49
13. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS

LCD, an abbreviation of Liquid Crystal Display, is a type of display used in digital watches,
portable computers and more recently for aircraft instrumentation. LCD displays utilise two
sheets of polarising material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric
current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass
through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass
through or blocking the light.
Monochrome LCD images usually appear as blue or dark grey images on top of a greyish -
white background. Colour LCD displays use two basic techniques for producing colour,
passive matrix and thin film technology (TFT) or active matrix. Passive matrix is less
expensive, but until recently did not produce very clear images. Modern CSTN and DSTN
technologies are much improved. TFT devices produce images that are as sharp as
traditional CRT displays, but the technology is expensive.
13.1 LIGHT SOURCES & VIEWING MODES
LCD’s don’t emit their own light as CRT’s do. There are three viewing modes:
 Reflective
 Transmissive
 Transflective
In the reflective viewing mode, sunlight or room light enters the LCD from the front, hits a
reflector and a polariser at the rear of the display, and bounces back to the user.
Digital watches, calculators and many other electronic appliances use reflective displays.
But good ambient light is not always available, so other light sources and other viewing
modes have been developed. Some LCD’s are edge-lit—the light source is attached to
the side of the display panel, while most are backlit, with the light source behind the panel.
The light source itself is typically one of three types; electroluminescent, light-emitting
diode (LED), or cold-cathode fluorescent (CCF). Of these, electroluminescent is the most
common for back-lighting, while CCF provides the best edge-lighting.
Aside from the purely reflective viewing mode, there are also the transmissive and
transflective modes. The transmissive mode uses no reflected light, relying entirely on
edge-lighting or back-lighting. The transflective mode uses reflected light when available
and back-light when needed. Most notebook displays are transmissive, while personal
digital assistants such as the Palm III are transflective.
13.2 THE STRUCTURE OF AN LCD

Liquid crystal molecules exist in a state between liquid and solid. The LC material can flow
like a liquid, but the individual rod-shaped molecules can be given a specific orientation.
LC molecules naturally line up in a more or less parallel configuration, like a string of
pickets in a fence. This is called nematic liquid crystals. The first step in LCD technology
is to exploit this behaviour by controlling the parallel alignment precisely.
The diagram at the top of the next page shows that an LCD is made up of several layers.
The LC molecules layer is sandwiched between two alignment layers, which have tiny
parallel grooves, those on one layer being perpendicular to those on the other. A spacer
keeps the alignment layers at a fixed distance.
Page 13-50
13.2.1.1 Liquid Crystal Cell
Because the grooves in the alignment layers are perpendicular and the ends of the strings
of LCs align themselves along the grooves, the strings are twisted. In the most basic LC
display, called twisted nematic (TN), this twist is 90 degrees. Advanced displays, called
supertwist nematic, double supertwist nematic, and even triple supertwist nematic, twist
the LCs up to 270 degrees. The greater the twist, the greater the potential contrast on the
display.
The orientation of light is naturally random, but it can be made to follow a specific direction,
in this case the twist of the LC molecules. The light in an LCD also passes through two
polarising layers, filters that admit only light that’s oriented in a particular direction. These
layers are arranged with their lines of polarisation perpendicular, matching the
corresponding alignment layers. If you simply put two polarising layers together this way,
light would pass through the first and be blocked by the second, because the two light
filters have perpendicular orientations. But the light in an LCD follows the twist of the LC
molecules to match the orientation of the second polarising filter, and therefore it can pass
through. (see diagram on the following page).
The strings of LC molecules remain twisted until electrical current if applied to them, at
which point they ‘stand up’ in an end-to-end alignment, perpendicular to the plane of the
display. The electrode layers supply current to selected areas. Those areas where
current is applied appear dark, because the light filtered through the first polarising layer
follows the strings of standing LC molecules and is blocked by the second polarising layer.
Areas where the current is off appear light, because the light follows the twisted LC
molecules and thus can pass though the second polarising layers. The result is a system
that blocks light in some places and allows it to pass through in others, forming an image.
Page 13-51
Operation of Twisted Nematic Cell

To create colour images, colour filters are applied on top of the individual LCD cells. The
filters typically are arranged in vertical stripes of red, green and blue, though other patterns
are also used. To create a white pixel, three adjacent LCD cells are set to transmit light.
Shades of colour can be created in different ways, including lowing the voltages applied to
the LCD cell to reduce the amount of light transmitted, turning the cell on and off rapidly,
and employing spatial dithering, using adjacent pixels to provide varying amounts of red,
green and blue.
13.3 PASSIVE VERSUS ACTIVE

The most common distinction in LCDs used to be between passive-matrix and active-
matrix, but more recently that distinction has been between dual-scan and TFT displays.
Essentially, it’s the same distinction.
A passive-matrix display relies on a grid of vertical and horizontal conductors, with
individual LCD cells at each intersection. The controlling circuitry sends a current through
each horizontal conductor in turn. If a pixel is to be turned off, the connection is opened
with the corresponding vertical conductor, allowing the current to pass through the cell.
This sequential addressing takes time and is one factor in the relatively slow response
time of passive-matrix designs.
Page 13-52
Dual-scan is an improved version of passive-matrix that refreshes faster by dividing the

screen in half, with each half refreshed independently and simultaneously. Other passive-
matrix technologies include CSTN (Colour Super Twist Nematic) and HPA (High
Performance Addressing), both of which are designed to offer higher response rates and
better contrast.
The main focus over the past few years, however, has been on active-matrix technologies,
also known as TFT (Thin Film Transistors) displays. These displays place at least one
transistor at every pixel location, and these transistors control the pixels independently.
Less current is needed to power the pixels, so the on/off time decreases, and the result is
faster response and less or no ghosting.
TFT displays are much sharper and faster than passive-matrix displays, but they are also
much more expensive to produce. The reason is easy to see: a screen resolution of 800-
by-600 requires over 1.4 million transistors (800 times 600 times 3, with 3 representing the
three colours), while 1,024 by 768 resolution requires over 2.3 million. As you might
expect, there is no room for error, because if one transistors fails, that pixel is permanently
off, therefore that screen location is permanently lighted. Some manufacturers build spare
transistors at each cell, but this increases production costs.
The transistors also add to another problem, reduced light transmission. In an LCD
design, the various layers, including the polarisers the colour filters and the liquid crystal
layer itself, absorb a lot of the light. In an active-matrix panel, the transistor occupies a
portion of the space directly above the liquid crystal cell, blocking still more light. The
proportion of the active-matrix cell that is left open to transmit light is referred to as the
aperture ratio, and LCD engineers are continually working to make this as large as
possible. As panel resolutions increases, however, the number of transistors on the panel
increases (and more space is used up between the cells), blocking even more light.
As a result, most active-matrix LCD panels absorb 95 percent or more of the light they
receive, even when displaying a white full-screen image. This in turn has serious
implications for portable applications such as notebooks, where the amount of power
required by the backlight affects battery weight and running time.
Manufacturers have come up with a range of advances to improve LCD performance. In-
plane switching arranges the LCD horizontally instead of vertically and this can greatly
increase the horizontal viewing angle of a panel. Manufacturers are also working to come
up with thinner LCD layers that will react more rapidly to current changes, giving the
displays response times fast enough to display motion, as with movies.
Other LCD technologies continue to evolve. Ferro electric crystals that are permanently
polarised offer higher response rates and wide viewing angles, and some companies are
developing systems with features of both active and passive displays. IBM recently
announced the development of an LCD with a resolution of 200 pixels per inch, which to
the human eye is no different from the look of a printed page.
There are also bi-stable LCD panels under development, in which cells will stay either on
or off after the power has been turned off. This could have enormous implications for
portable devices, because these displays may require much less power to maintain an
image.
Many manufacturers are creating tiny LCD panels directly on silicon chips; these hold the
promise of costing far less than the direct-view LCD panels used in notebooks and
desktop monitors, and they can be used for portable projectors and in lightweight and
compact rear-projection desktop monitors as well.
Page 13-53
14. ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE SENSITIVE DEVICES

Many electronic Line Replaceable Units (LRUs) on aircraft contain printed circuit boards
containing components that are susceptible to damage from electrostatic discharges.
Such components are referred to as electrostatic discharge sensitive (ESDS) devices.
Decals installed on ESDS LRUs, indicate that special handling is required. Some decals
are shown below, the lower four are typical Boeing ESDS decals.
14.1 STATIC ELECTRICITY & ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE

The most common conception of static electricity and its accompanying discharge, is the
miniature lighting shock you receive when you touch a metal door handle having walked
across a nylon carpet. If the door handle is touched with a key first, the discharge will be
seen but not felt.
The discharge occurs because different materials receive different levels of charge as
materials are rubbed together or pulled apart. The different charge levels create potential
differences between the different materials, and when materials of different electrical
potential are brought into close proximity with each other, a discharge occurs as the
potentials equalise.
The different levels of charge with respect to cotton (the reference material) are shown on
the following page, in what is known as the Triboelectric Series.
The further up or down the series, the greater the charge developed and hence the greater
the discharge when the two materials are brought together.
Page 14-54
14.1.1.1 Triboelectric Series
Air
Human Hands
Asbestos
Rabbit Fur
Glass
Mica
Nylon Increasingly Positive
Wool
Fur
Lead
Silk
Aluminium
Paper
Cotton
Steel
Wood
Amber
Sealing Wax
Hard Rubber
Nickel Copper
Brass Silver
Gold Platinum
Sulphur Increasingly Negative
Acetate Rayon
Polyester
Celluloid
Polyurethane
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
PVC (vinyl)
Silicon
Teflon
Page 14-55
The typical voltages that can occur are shown in the table below, note the importance of
humidity.
Electrostatic Voltages
Means of Static
10 to 20 Percent 65 to 90 Percent
Generation
Relative Humidity Relative Humidity
Walking across carpet 35,000 1,500
Walking over vinyl floor 12,000 250
Worker at bench 6,000 100
Vinyl envelopes for work

7,000 600
instructions
Common poly bag picked
20,000 1,200
up from bench
Work chair padded with
18,000 1,500
polyurethane form
The last table shows a list of static sensitive devices and the voltages that can cause
damage. The damage may vary from a slight degradation of performance, giving rise to
intermittent and spurious indications, to complete destruction, giving rise to total system
failure. The amount of damage varies with the amount of energy that strikes the
component.
The less obvious damage can cause considerable and expensive maintenance
headaches, which may lead to lack of confidence in the equipment.
Sensitivity Range
Static Sensitive Device where damage can
occur
Field Effect Transistor (MOS /
150 - 1000 volts
FET)
CMOS 250 - 1000 volts
Bipolar Transistors 4,000 - 15000 volts
Silicon-Controlled Rectificers
4,000 - 15000 volts
(SCR)
Thin-Film Resistors 150 - 1000 volts
Page 14-56
14.2 ESDS - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

The following maintenance procedures have been taken directly from the Boeing 757
Maintenance Manual.
General (see diagram on the following page)
A. Many electronic line replaceable units (referred to as LRUs) contain micro-circuits
and other sensitive devices which can be damaged internally by electrostatic discharges.
These LRUs are identified as Electrostatic Discharge sensitive (referred to a ESDS). The
placards installed on the ESDS LRUs show that you must be careful. The persons who
remove, install, and move the ESDS LRUs must know about static electricity and the
protection from static discharges that is necessary.
B. Electrostatic charges can be caused by these: human bodies, hair, clothing, floors,
equipment racks, and equipment units. An electrostatic discharge is electrical potentials.
Electrostatic discharges from nylon clothing or human hair onto polyethylene or steel can
damage ESDS components. Damage to the internal components of an ESDS LRU can
cause failure with one static discharge. System properties can change with time because
of many static discharges.
C. The function of these procedures is to show the maintenance persons how to know
and touch the ESDS placard. These procedures contain the precautions that are
necessary to safely touch the units that are identified by the ESDS placard. Three types of
decals are used to identify the units with ESDS sensitive circuits. The military and
commercial symbols are used on some units, while the international (JEDEC) symbol is
used on most ESDS placard (see diagram). The ESDS printed circuit boards that are
LRUs are identified with a ‘static sensitive’ placard (see diagram).
D. This procedure contains four tasks. The first task removes the ESDS printed circuit
boards. The second task installs the ESDS printed circuit boards. The third task removes
the ESDS metal encased units. The fourth task installs the ESDS metal encased units.
Page 14-57
Page 14-58
Remove the ESDS Printed Circuit Boards

A. Equipment:
i. Conductive Bags - 3M type 2100
ii. Conductive Plastic Carriers – Electrical Insulation Supplies PCC - 700
iii. Ohmmeter
iv. Wrist Straps - 3M 2066 or 2067
a. A wrist strap is kept on the plenum of the racks E3 and E4 in the main equipment
centre (see diagram below).
v. 100% Cotton Twine - Commercially available.
vi. ESDS Labels
b. JEDEC International Label - multi-source
c. 3M - No. 7102
Page 14-59
B. Remove the Printed Circuit Boards with the static sensitive placards
Note: The placards on the outer area of the card files show the cards that contain the
ESDS printed circuit boards that are LRUs.
Caution: Make sure you keep contamination or unwanted material away from the
sensitive device. Contamination or unwanted material near the sensitive device can
cause a malfunction in the sensitive device.
i. Remove the system electrical power with the applicable Removal / Installation
procedure.
Warning: Use a wrist strap with a minimum grounding lead resistance of 250
kilohms and a maximum of 15 megohms. Use of a low resistance wrist strap can
cause injury to persons if a high voltage source is touched.
ii. Do these steps to do a test of the wrist strap resistance:
a. Use an ohmmeter to make sure the wrist strap assembly has a minimum resistance
of 250 kilohms and a maximum of 15 megohms.
b. Put the wrist strap on your wrist.
c. Use an ohmmeter to make sure the resistance is less than 10 megohms.
iii. Connect the wrist strap into the electrostatic ground jack of the card file.
Caution: The grounding lead on the wrist strap must touch the skin to give the
protection that is necessary. Failure to use the wrist strap correctly can cause
damage to the ESDS printed circuit boards.
iv. Attach the wrist strap correctly on the person that will remove the printed circuit
board.
v. Open the access door on the card file.
vi. From the location decal, find the printed circuit board to be removed.
vii.Use the top and bottom (or left or right) extractors on the printed circuit board to
remove it from the card file.
viii.Put the printed circuit board in the conductive bag or the container with the ESDS
placard.
Caution: Do not use staples or adhesive tapes to close the conductive bags.
Failure to close the conductive bags correctly can cause damage to the printed
circuit board.
ix. Use an ESDS or a 100% cotton twine to close the conductive bag.
Note: The printed circuit boards in a conductive bag must be put in a rigid container to
make sure the conductive bag stays in a satisfactory condition.
x. Close the access door to the card file.

xi. Disconnect the wrist strap from the electrostatic ground jack.
Page 14-60
Install the ESDS Printed Circuit Boards

C. Equipment:
xii. Conductive Bags - 3M type 2100
Conductive Plastic Carrier Carriers - Electrical
xiii. Insulation
Supplies PCC - 700
xiv. Ohmmeter
xv. Wrist Straps - 3M 2066 or 2067
d. A wrist strap is kept on the plenum of the racks E3 and E4 in the main equipment
centre (see previous diagram).
xvi. 100% Cotton Twine - Commercially available.
xvii. ESDS Labels
e. JEDEC International Label - multi-source
f. 3M - No. 7102
D. Install the Printed Circuit Boards with a static sensitive placard.
Caution: Make sue you keep contamination or unwanted material away from the
Remove the system electrical power with the applicable Removal / Installation
xviii.
procedure.
Use a wrist strap with a minimum grounding lead resistance of 250 kilohms and a
maximum of 15 megohms. Use of a low resistance wrist strap can cause injury to
persons if a high voltage source is touched.
xix. Do these steps to do a test of the wrist strap resistance:
g. Use an ohmmeter to make sure the wrist strap assembly has a minimum resistance
of 250 kilohms and a maximum of 15 megohms.
h. Put the wrist strap on your wrist.
i. Use an ohmmeter to make sure the resistance is less than 10 megohms.
xx. Connect the wrist strap into the electrostatic ground jack of the card file.
Caution: The grounding lead on the wrist strap must touch the skin to give the
protection that is necessary. Failure to use the wrist strap correctly can cause
damage to the ESDS printed circuit boards.
xxi. Attach the wrist strap correctly on the person that will remove the printed circuit
board.
xxii. Open the access door on the card file.
xxiii. From the location decal, find the printed circuit board to be installed.
xxiv. Remove the ESDS printed circuit board from the conductive bag or the carrier.
xxv. With the top and bottom (or left and right) extractors, put the printed circuit board into
the card file.
xxvi. Attach the printed circuit card with the extractors.
xxvii. Close the access door for the card file.
xxviii. Disconnect the wrist strap from the electrostatic ground jack.
Page 14-61
9. Remove the ESDS Encased Units

E. General
xxix.The metal encased units can be put on a rack, the airplane structure or a control
panel.
F. Equipment
xxx. Conductive electrical dust caps and connector covers.
Note: Conductive duct caps and connector covers are black or grey in colour.
j. ITT Cannon - as applicable (stamped ‘conductive’)
Part Number Marking on Connector

Cap
025-1155-001 BKAD1-A&B-R BKAD1-A-R
BKAD1-B-R
025-1156-001 BKAD1-C-R BKAD1-C-R
025-1157-001 BKAD2&3-A&B- BKAD2-A-R
R
BKAD2-B-R
BKAD3-A-R
BKAD3-B-R
0025-1158-001 BKAD2&3-C-R BKAD2-C-R
BKAD3-C-R
k. Souriau - as applicable
Part Number Type Shell Size

Connector
8660-1404 Power 1
8660-1405 Signal 1
8660-1406 Power 2&3
8660-1407 Signal 2&3
xxxi. Anti-static dust caps and connector covers (alternate when conductive caps and
covers not available).
l. Plastic dust caps and connector covers that have an anti-static solution applied and
they are dated.
G. Remove the Metal Encased Units with the ESDS placards.
xxxii. Remove the system electrical power with the applicable Removal / Installation
procedure.
xxxiii. Remove the unit with the ESDS placard from the equipment rack, the airframe, or the
panel as in the applicable Removal / Installation procedure.
Note: Make sure you do not touch the pins in the electrical connector. Make sure a static
sensitive placard is installed adjacent to the electrical connector(s). The static sensitive
placard, or an equivalent, will be shown:
CAUTION
Electrostatic Sensitive
Page 14-62
Device. Conductive
Connector Dust Cover
Required.
This placard shows that the unit can be damaged by an electrostatic discharge through the
connector pins.
xxxiv. Install a conductive dust cover with a static sensitive placard on the connectors, and
standard dust covers on the connectors that do not have the placard.
Note: The conductive dust caps and the connector covers are black in colour.
Note: The conductive dust caps and the connector covers from the installed unit can be
used on the removed unit.
xxxv. Move the unit, as shown in the standard practices, with the conductive dust caps and
connector covers installed.
10. Install the ESDS Metal Encased Units
H. Equipment
xxxvi. Conductive electrical dust caps and connector covers.
Note: Conductive duct caps and connector covers are black or grey in colour.
m. ITT Cannon - as applicable (stamped ‘conductive’)
Part Number Marking on Connector

Cap
025-1155-001 BKAD1-A&B-R BKAD1-A-R
BKAD1-B-R
025-1156-001 BKAD1-C-R BKAD1-C-R
025-1157-001 BKAD2&3-A&B- BKAD2-A-R
R
BKAD2-B-R
BKAD3-A-R
BKAD3-B-R
0025-1158-001 BKAD2&3-C-R BKAD2-C-R
BKAD3-C-R
Page 14-63
n. Souriau - as applicable
Part Number Type Shell Size

Connector
8660-1404 Power 1
8660-1405 Signal 1
8660-1406 Power 2&3
8660-1407 Signal 2&3
xxxvii. Anti-static dust caps and connector covers (alternate when conductive caps and
covers not available).
o. Plastic dust caps and connector covers that have an anti-static solution applied and
they are dated.
I. Install the Metal Encased Units with ESDS placards.
xxxviii.Remove the system electrical power with the applicable Removal / Installation
procedure.
xxxix. Remove all of the conductive dust caps and the connector covers from the unit to be
installed.
Note: Make sure you do not touch the electrical pins.
xl. Install the ESDS unit with the applicable Removal / Installation procedure.
Page 14-64
15. SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL

This topic is covered by copies of CAA Airworthiness Notice No. 45 Issue 3 (22nd March
2002) which follows in its entirety.
Software Management
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 This Notice sets out additional requirements applicable to the certification and
continued airworthiness control of software used in aircraft equipment and systems.
1.2 Extensive use is now being made in aircraft of software-based equipment and
systems. Typically, software may be used in primary and secondary flight controls, engine
controls, electrical generation and distribution, brakes, radio and navigation equipment, flight
instruments, and automatic flight control. The software may have a direct influence on
aircraft safety. Hence, in meeting the appropriate aircraft requirements and, for Controlled
Items, the Requirements of BCAR Sections A or B, or JAR-21, it is necessary to investigate
the software design and to control its certification and post-certification configuration in a
manner equivalent to that for conventional safety-critical systems.
1.3 RTCA/EUROCAE document DO-178/ED-121, issued May 1982, entitled Software
Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification, provides guidance to
aircraft constructors, equipment manufacturers and aircraft operators on software practices
that would support the certification of software-based equipment and systems. This
document is acceptable to the CAA as a basis for the certification of the software in aircraft
equipment and systems.
2 REQUIREMENTS 2.1 General
2.1.1 In addition to the normal assessment of system criticality, the responsible Design
Organisation (normally the aircraft constructor) shall assign a Software Criticality Category to
each software-based equipment or system which shall relate to the severity of the effect of
pos sible software errors within the equipment or system (see Appendix to this Notice). The
Software Criticality Category assigned shall be agreed by the CAA.
2.1.2 Where the equipment is to be the subject of an application to CAA for Accessory
Approval or Appliance Registration, as provided by BCAR Section A, Chapter A4-8 or A4-
10, the level of Software Criticality Category shall be declared in the Declaration of Design
and Performance.
2.1.3 Where the equipment or system is to be approved under the Component Procedure
of BCAR Section A, Chapter A4-8 or, under the aircraft modification procedure of BCAR
Section A, Chapter A2-5, the Software Criticality Category of the equipment or system shall
be declared.
2.1.4 Details of equipment and system Software Criticality Categories should be provided
to the aircraft operators to assist in the evaluation of post-certification modifications (see
paragraph 2.3).
2.2 Initial Certification In respect of a software-based equipment or system, the
responsible design organisation shall provide evidence to the CAA that the software has
been designed, tested and integrated with the hardware in a manner which ensures
compliance with BCAR Section A (see paragraph 3.1).
2.3 Post-Certification Modifications In respect of equipment and systems with
software in the Major, Hazardous or Catastrophic Criticality Categories, a modification
Page 15-65
which affects software shall not be embodied unless it has been approved by the
responsible Design Organisation (see paragraph 3.2).
3 INTERPRETATION OF REQUIREMENTS
3.1 Initial Certification
3.1.1 An applicant for the approval of a software-based equipment or system may use
the guidance material given in document DO-178/ED-121 (or an agreed equivalent
standard) as a means of securing CAA approval of the associated software.
3.1.2 A software Configuration Management Plan, e.g. as defined in Part 7 of
document DO-178/ ED-121, will be required as a means of software identification and
change control to be effective throughout the life of the equipment. The plan will need to
be managed by the responsible design organisation.
3.2 Post-Certification Modifications
3.2:1 Modifications to software will be subject to the same approval procedures as
are applied to hardware modifications (see BCAR Section A, Chapters A2-5, A4-8 or A4-
10 as appropriate). Modified software will need to be identified and controlled in
accordance with the pro cedures stated in the Software Configuration Management Plan.
The guidance material given in document DO-178/ED-121 (or an agreed equivalent
standard) may be used as a basis for the approval of software modifications.
NOTE: The term maintenance is often used by software specialists when referring to
modifications to software.
3.2.2 The CAA will require the design and investigation of a modification, including
those proposed by the aircraft operator, to involve the support service provided by the
design organisation responsible for the equipment or system. It is unlikely that an aircraft
operator could justify the establishment of its own software design capability. Therefore,
where the Software Criticality Category is Major, Hazardous or Catastrophic, the aircraft
constructor would normally be the appropriate Design Organisation, although tasks may
be delegated to equipment manufacturers or software organisations.
3.2.3 Aircraft operators will need to ensure that their normal procedures will report
software problems to the responsible design organisation.
4. IMPLEMENTATION With effect from 1 November 1983, software in aircraft systems
and equipment will be subject to the provisions of this Notice.
5. CANCELLATION This Notice cancels Airworthiness Notice No. 45, Issue 2 dated
29 October 2001, which should be destroyed.
Page 15-66
Note: The above Airworthiness Notices are being replaced with similarly worded EU
(JAR) notices. When they are finalised these notes will be amended to replace the CAA
ANs.
Page 15-67
16. ELECTROMAGNETIC PHENOMENA
16.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is a branch of science and engineering concerned
with the design and operation of equipment in a manner which makes them immune to
certain amounts of electromagnetic interference, while at the same time keeping
equipment generated interference within specified limits.
The scope of EMC is thus very wide and encompasses virtually all equipment powered by
electrical supplies. Practically all engineering systems incorporate power conditioning and
information processing units and thus fall within the scope of EMC.
The frequency range of interest extends from d.c. to light and in certain parts of the
spectrum a strict international regulatory framework has been set up to ensure immunity of
equipment to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), and to control the emission of EMI.
16.2 LIGHTNING AND HIRF VERSUS STATIC DISCHARGE

Airplane flight crews and passengers occasionally experience the sensation of a lightning
strike to the airplane. The bright flash and thunderous noise accompanying many strokes
can be frightening, but there is virtually no danger to the airplane occupants. In some
cases a bright flash may illuminate the cabin yet no thunder clap is heard; likewise, in
some instances, a loud boom may be heard in the absence of a flash of light. .Published
accounts of these lightning strokes to an airplane often erroneously attribute the flash and
thunder clap to a static discharge. Airplane static discharges cannot produce a bright flash
or noise audible in the cabin. In fact, static discharges from the airplane occur almost
continuously in flight without anyone being aware of them. Static dischargers installed near
the wing and fin tips control the point of discharge and reduce the amount of radio noise
which static discharges are capable of producing.An airplane continuously acquires an
electrical charge from collisions with airborne dust and precipitation particles. The airplane
voltage may rise as high as 100,000 volts, but the airplane charging capacity is not
sufficient for it to acquire a damaging (or flash and thunder producing) discharge. The
airplane static charge is similar to the electrical charge a person gathers while walking
across a carpeted room. Almost everyone has had the unpleasant sensation of a mild
shock when reaching for a door knob after walking on a carpet. The discharge to the door
knob may release a potential of 10,000 to 20,000 volts, but like an airplane, the charge
storing capacity of the body is low, so that both the finger and the door knob survive the
static discharge without burns or physical damage. An airplane continues to acquire a
charge as it impacts with airborne particles. As the charge increases the airplane potential
rises, sometimes to as high as 100,000 volts, until the breakdown threshold of the static
discharger is reached. When the breakdown threshold is reached, static discharge begins.
This discharge may be likened to a water reservoir filled to the brim. As more water is
added, it begins to overflow. The overflow begins at the lowest points at the edge of the
reservoir; likewise, the static discharge from the airplane begins from the points of lowest
threshold, the static dischargers.
Page 16-68
The flash and thunder accompanying a lightning stroke is due to the rapid release of
charge from a cloud charge center. The energy produced is dependent upon the speed at
which the electric charge is transferred. If the wall of the reservoir burst, the resultant
cascade of water wreaks more havoc than a mere trickle of overflow. Likewise, the rapid
breakdown of the air path by a lightning stroke releases considerable energy, some of
which produces the characteristic flash and ear splitting boom.
Static discharges and lightning strokes both involve the release of an electrical charge
from a charge center. The vast difference in the effects associated with each is attributable
to the difference in discharge time and the amount of charge released. The charge storing
capacity of even the largest jet airplane is one millionth that of an average lightning
charge.
While airplane static discharge generally occurs continuously in flight, even an
instantaneous discharge could not produce the startling effects of a lightning stroke. If the
maximum airplane charge were instantaneously discharged, approximately 0.3 kilowatts of
power would be produced; enough for a single flash of a light bulb. The power released by
a single average lightning stroke is in the order of 3750 million kilowatts, more than the
combined peak capacity of every electrical power plant in the United States.
Static discharges do produce undesirable effects. Radio frequency noise resulting from
corona discharge of static electricity can disrupt radio communications. This effect is,
however, reduced or eliminated by bonding isolated parts and by installing static
dischargers which control the place of discharge of frictional electric charge. While
effective in reducing “ the undesirable effects of static discharge, static dischargers
have little or no influence on lightning strokes.
Although a lightning stroke to the airplane produces a bright flash and deafening boom,
which usually causes concern among the occupants, the design of modern airplanes
provides them with immunity to serious lightning damage from strokes of the intensity
within known lightning strike phenomena. On occasion some airplane damage may be
sustained, but there is very slight hazard to life and limb from lightning strikes on the
airplane. In no case will static discharges produce -visible damage, a flash or a report.
16.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (HIRF)
Electromagnetic Interference may come from inside or from outside the aircraft.
The internal sources include computers, headsets, radios and navigation aids as well as
the electrical power distribution system of the aircraft. Although they may only radiate tiny
fields, these are very close to the aircraft’s aerials and possibly sensitive equipment’s.
External sources include ground transmitters such as radio, radar, television and
telephone. Some of these have very high power levels and even though the signals travel
large distances, they can still have serious effects on the aircraft. Ground and airborne
installations are sometimes referred to as fixed and intermittent transmitters. Because a
ground transmitter is fixed, its location is marked on most aviation maps and can be
avoided.
External signals may also come from airborne transmitters such as high powered radar or
radio on military aircraft. If a military aircraft were to transmit in close proximity to a civil
aircraft there would be no possibility of avoidance.
Page 16-69
The increased use of digital equipment in aircraft has meant the aviation industry has had
to increase the amount of attention paid to the problem of High Intensity Radiated Fields
(HIRF’s), and has had to increase the level of shielding on aircraft.
16.3.1 EFFECTS OF HIRF
Electromagnetic interface can jam equipment, burn out electrical circuits, cause false
readings on instruments, cause a false command in a flight control system (especially fly-
by-wire), detonate a squib, or even cause an explosion of fuel vapour.
16.4 LIGHTNING STRIKES

The earth acts as a large spherical capacitor plate with the other plate being the
ionosphere. It has a capacitance of approximately 17 farad. The potential difference
between the plates is in the order of 100 Mvolts. At any one time there are about 1500
localised holes in the atmosphere dielectric that lets the charge leak from one plate to the
other. These we call thunderstorms, and the leakage current that takes the form of an
electrical spark, we call lighting. With this current of about 25,000 amps, a lighting strike
can generate something like 25 Tera watts of power. Correct bonding of the aircraft
means that only about 625 kwatts of energy has to be dissipated in the airframe if struck
by lightning. The current only lasts a few milliseconds it is not a problem to the structure,
unless composite structures are used.
The effect of this short burst of electrical energy on the electronic equipment inside the
aircraft can be dramatic. When lighting occurs it creates radio noise. It is not unknown for
Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) needles to point at nearby storms rather than the
selected transmitter.
During a lightning strike, voltages can be superimposed on signals that have no protection.
These can increase the signal levels 500 times. The currents produced by this
phenomenon can be 300,000 times higher than under normal conditions.
To protect against the indirect effects of lightning strike, certain design features are
implemented. Protected components are segregated, wire lanes are separated and
system components are protected by filters, which only allow spike free currents to access
them. The filters have to neutralise power with a magnitude of 500 kwatts.
16.5 PROTECTION
The following methods of protecting against lightning strikes and other forms of
electromagnetic interference are in use in the aircraft industry:
 Proper grounding and shielding with inductances kept to as low a value as possible.
 Guided shields for external computer cables that run right up to the main grounding
point.
 Symmetrical or separated ground connections for all critical signals.
 The separation of critical electronic circuits from interference prone areas.
 The eradication of voltage surges.
16.6 MAINTENANCE
The initial protection against voltage transients caused by lightning strikes and HIRF’s is
provided by the aircraft manufacturer. These should last for the life of the aircraft.
However, for systems to be fully protected, it is up to the maintenance engineer to adhere
to good maintenance practices at all times. To ensure the continuing safety of the aircraft:
 Bonding checks must be correctly carried out.
Page 16-70
 Bonding terminals must be correctly torque loaded.

 Crimping compounds must be used where specified.
 Screens must be correctly terminated and earthed.
16.7 STATIC
The effects of static electricity are of considerable importance in the design, operation and
maintenance of aircraft. Static electricity will cause noise interference in radio
communication equipment as well as other electronic systems.
During flight, an aircraft picks up static charges because of contact with particles such as
rain, snow, ice and dust. The charge results mainly from the high speed impact or
frictional passage of these airborne particles and the charge rate is particularly high when
for example, ice crystals precipitate out from a cold, moist atmosphere. Hence the
expression ‘precipitation static’.
Precipitation is termed ‘hard’ or ‘soft’ to distinguish between the different types of particles.
Hard precipitation refers to the relatively dry particles such as snow, ice, hail and sand.
Soft precipitation refers to wet particles such as rain and sleet.
Aircraft are not shaped like a sphere, therefore the surface charge they experience will not
be even. It has in fact numerous protuberances. These protuberances cause a
redistribution of the electric charge field. The field is concentrated at the tip of a
protuberance, with the consequent higher field intensity in the atmosphere immediately at
the tip. As a result, this portion of the atmosphere could reach such excessive voltage
gradients that charge leakage could start, and after ionisation a complete breakdown could
occur.
When an aircraft is struck by hard precipitation, the particles carry away a charge and the
aircraft is left with a charge of opposite polarity with respect to the surrounding
atmosphere. During this charging time, the smaller exposed radii of the aircraft extremities
and protuberances will reach corona starting potentials and will begin to discharge.
If the aircraft is large and fast, and the precipitation is dense and fairly dry, the charging
will continue. If the charging rate exceeds the discharge rate, the larger radii and /or the
less exposed protuberances will reach their corona starting potentials. The discharge
currents involved begin as fractions of a micro amp but in some conditions they may reach
the order of milliamps. The charging mechanisms result in a discharge of pulsed radio
frequency energy by the corona, which for example can be heard in the earphones of an
ADF receiver as a slow ‘popping’ noise, rising to a crescendo of screaming or crying, as
the aircraft speed increases.
The energy released can also be observed in light form. Although visible corona appear
as a continuous light, in fact a release of electrical energy from the corona is in pulse form.
The energy is spread over the radio spectrum, but is in the main contained in the lower
frequencies.
If the charging mechanism could be removed, the problems of interference from static
would be relieved, but this is not possible. However it is possible to bring about a
reduction of the charge and to provide means of discharging the aircraft static in a
regulated and electrically quiet manner.
The device used to perform this task is called the Static Discharger. Static discharges
are intended to prevent or reduce the radio noise experienced. This is achieved since the
dischargers provides the means of shifting the discharge point aft of the trailing edge of the
extremity where the RF coupling is at a minimum.
Page 16-71
16.8 STATIC DISCHARGERS

The dischargers are designed so that the charge travels along the resistive coatings over
the glass fibre material to the discharger tip positioned some way from the wing or tail
surface. Since the RF coupling is at a minimum here the dischargers acts as low
impedance discharge points. This means that the voltage required to cause and sustain
discharging is minimised. Dischargers need to be fitted in sufficient numbers to ensure
that their total discharge current holds the aircraft potential below the threshold of direct
discharge at the higher charge accumulation rates anticipated.
16.8.1 TYPES OF STATIC DISCHARGERS
The diagram above shows an older type of static discharger comprising a stranded cotton
wick, chemically treated with metallic silver, covered with a protective plastic sheath
leaving a short tail exposed. An aluminium anchor plate is fitted to the sheath for
attachment to the aircraft.
During service the wick will erode reducing the discharge efficiency. To restore efficiency
the plastic sheath is progressively trimmed exposing fresh wick fibres. Normally the
sheath is marked with a limit of trim which when reached means the replacement of the
whole discharger.
Page 16-72
Rod Discharger
Many modern dischargers, as shown above, consists of tapered glass fibre rods which
give mechanical support. This glass fibre is rendered conductive by a coating of material
having high electrical resistivity to provide a path back from the discharge tip assembly.
The conductive coating is protected by bake-on synthetic finish and in some types is
further protected by a heat-shrunk sheath of Skydrol - resistant plastics. Three types of
discharger tips are normally used:
 a minute brush of extremely fine 80/20 nichrome wires
 solid carbon which is machined to a 90 degree point
 tungsten needles
The glass fibre rod is terminated at its thicker end by one of several attachment fittings,
assembled together with a conducting cement.
The diagram above shows a special type of lightning divertor fitted at the apex of nose
radomes on some aircraft. The radome apex is normally particularly prone to noisy
discharge. To minimise the noise from this source a discharger assembly can be screwed
into the lightning divertor spike. This discharger comprises a 4 wire brush discharger
mounted at the forward end of the rigid dielectric support, critically angled back so that
each wire brush remains well exposed to high electric field density, while remaining
protected by its polythene shroud against bunching of wires under air pressure. A high
resistance spiral track inside the radome provides the current path back to the airframe.
Light aircraft discharges are normally of the flexible type. Similar to the plastic sheath
discharger the plastic sheath is replaced by a flexible nylon cord. The dischargers found
on the very smallest aircraft are merely braided wire extending the tip beyond the trailing
edges of the wings and tailplane.
Page 16-73
16.8.2 SITING OF STATIC DISCHARGES
It is important that sufficient numbers of static dischargers are fitted and sited in positions
where they can efficiently discharge the static with the minimum of interference being
induced into radio aerials. Optimum siting of dischargers can only be determined by a
thorough investigation of the characteristics of the particular aircraft type. In general, the
wing, tail and fin tips, particularly at the trailing edges, are the locations of the greatest
potential gradient. Dischargers positioned at these points, with additional units at spacings
of 9 inches (24 cm) around these regions will normally give satisfactory results.
Dischargers should not be located near to radio aerials.
16.8.3 MAINTENANCE OF STATIC DISCHARGERS
The dischargers should be checked in accordance with procedures detailed in the relevant
maintenance manual and at the periods prescribed therein. In addition the following points
should be observed.
 Periodically a general check should be made to ensure that all dischargers are
securely mounted, are not broken or missing.
 The efficient operation of the dischargers is dependent on good electrical contact
between the base and the aircraft. This resistance should in general not exceed 005
ohms. However, provided there is no static interference with the radio systems, a
resistance not exceeding 01 ohms may be acceptable. If the discharger exceeds the
acceptable limit, the dischargers must be removed and the contact surfaces cleaned.
 Where dischargers of the tapered glass-fibre rod are fitted, the condition of the resistive
coating between the base and tip, and of the Skydrol-resistant plastics, should be checked
for physical continuity, particularly at the base and tip joints. The electrical resistance
between the base and tip should be within the limits specified by the manufacturer for the
type of discharger. Typically, values between 8 and 100 Mohms are acceptable for trailing
edge dischargers and 5 to 60 Mohms for tip-mounted dischargers.
Page 16-74
17. ELECTRONIC / DIGITAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

The final chapters in this set of notes are intended to identify a list of topics that you are
expected to read during the practical phase of the course. This section is again designed
to encourage you to use the resources available within the faculty and thereby increase
your ability to use aircraft maintenance manuals in different formats.
Whilst reading the topics you should take notes and produce any diagrams you feel may
be useful.
You are not expected to known each topic in detail. You will be expected to:- Have a
general appreciation of system operation down to system block diagram level, a
knowledge of any built in test equipment or facilities available on the system and an
awareness of how each system can be functionally tested. A knowledge of individual tests
is not required.
Do not print out complete chapters from the maintenance manuals. Take notes and put
things into your own words so that you are able to understand it at a later date.
Where specific aircraft systems have been identified, it is only because these are known to
contain relevant information at the appropriate level:
EFIS. Boeing 737 and 757 systems will be explained, however it would be useful to look
at the systems of several different aircraft manufacturers i.e. Airbus, SAAB etc. these are
available.
ECAM. (Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor). This is an early Airbus system, you will
therefore have to look at the A310 / A320 manuals.
EICAS. (Electronic Indicating and Crew Alerting System). This is an early Boeing system,
information on this system can be found in the early 757 manuals.
FMS. (Flight Management Systems). Airbus, Boeing 747 - 400 and SAAB 340 manuals
provide sufficient information.
GPS. (Global Positioning System).
IRS. (Inertial Referent System).
TCAS. (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) Boeing 777 - 200. There is also a computer
based training program on some of the computers in the avionic workshops.
ACARS. (Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System).
FBW. (Fly By-Wire). Use the college library and latest Airbus manuals.
Your Lecturer will give a brief overview, together with the remaining chapters of these
notes, to help you to start your self-study of these systems.
There is also a marked assignment on this chapter you must complete.
Page 17-75
17.1 INTRODUCTION TO EFIS, EICAS & ECAM

As aircraft design has become more sophisticated and systems more automatic a logical
step was to modernise the cockpit displays. As automation takes control, the pilot’s role is
more towards ‘Flight Management’. Direct control of the aircraft and its navigation is
increasingly entrusted to programmed computer functions. How the aircraft informs the
crew what it is doing, in response to crew or programme inputs, is crucial.
The use of colour Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT’s) to display cockpit information has provided
the increased flexibility necessary in flight deck instrumentation. Symbology and data can
be reprogrammed, it can be overlapped, and most importantly, it can be shown in order of
priority.
CRT’s have enable manufacturers to offer data display and configurations to suit a
customers needs. Extra data can easily be shown on either side of the cockpit. Different
navigation formats can be shown at the touch of a button. These systems have been in
use now for a number of years and have proved to reduce maintenance and operating
cost in flight instrumentation.
The first airliners to have both EFIS and CRT engine instruments were the Airbus A310
(certified in March 1983) which has an EFIS display supported by an Electronic Central
Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) and Boeing’s 757 and 767 ( 1982) which have an EFIS display
accompanied by an Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS). Several
corporate jets were fitted with EFIS at around this time, including the Dassault Breguet
Falcon 200 and the Gulfstream IV.
Fig. 1 A Typical Glass Cockpit Layout
Page 17-76
A basic EFIS system is little more than an Electronic Flight Director with EHSIs (Electronic
Horizontal Situation Indicators) sometimes called Navigation Displays (NDs) and EADIs
(Electronic Attitude Director Indicators) sometimes called Primary Flight Displays (PFDs)
as display units. Many aircraft manufacturers have extended the functions of the EFIS to
include all the navigation and most of the flight information required by the pilot.
Irrespective of the type, an EFIS system will require a number of CRTs as display units,
Symbol Generators to control the displays, a computer to process the information and, of
course, all the sensors required to produce that information.
The sensors are usually the same as those used on standard instruments, whereas CRTs,
Symbol Generators and Computers, depending on the manufacturer, either can be
independent units or integrated to each other.
Some EFIS systems are self-contained (as part of the flight director/autopilot) some are
part of the Integrated Display system of the Aircraft.
ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

Advantages of an EFIS include
a) Flexibility of displays.
b) Easily modified to suit customers requirements.
c) Reduces operational and maintenance costs.
d) Reduces cockpit clutter by centralising displays.
e) Increased reliability.
f) Parallax readings of pointers against scales eliminated.
g) Brighter and clearer instrument displays.
A typical EFIS system consists of two or more electronic display units and their associated
drive and control units. The display units use high-resolution, black matrix, shadow mask,
colour cathode ray tubes (CRT’s) as the display medium.
Different configurations of CRT displays will be encountered.
Page 17-77
The CRT’s display the information that is usually found on standard electro-mechanical
servo driven ADI and HSI instruments. Additional information; such as weather radar,
navaid/way point locations, airspeed, moving map display, flight control mode
annunciation, autopilot/yaw damper engage status, attitude comparator warnings, decision
height, check lists and diagnostic messages may also be displayed.
Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI)
Fig. 2 A
Typical EADI
Display
The typical EADI, sometimes referred to as the Primary Flight Display (PFD), presents a
multicolour CRT display of the airplane attitude and flight control system steering
commands. VOR, localiser, inertial navigation, glideslope and pre-selected altitude
deviations, flight control system mode annunciation, autopilot engage annunciation,
attitude sensor annunciation, marker beacon annunciation, radio altitude, decision height
set and annunciation, altitude alert, fast slow or angle of attack deviation, indicated
airspeed, and excessive ILS deviation can also be displayed. Any information not required
can be simply removed to reduce clutter.
Page 17-78
Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI)

The typical EHSI or sometimes referred to as the Navigation Display (ND) presents a
multicolour CRT display of the airplane horizontal navigation situation. Information
displayed can include compass heading, selected heading, selected VOR, localiser, LNAV
course and deviation (including annunciation of deviation type), navigation sensor
annunciation, digital selected course/desired track readout, excessive ILS deviation,
heading sensor, annunciation, ILS and heading comparator warnings, to/from, distance to
station/way point, glideslope, VNAV deviation, ground speed, time-to-go, elapsed time or
wind, course information and source annunciation, weather radar, way point alert and
bearing pointers to display VOR, LNAV or ADF bearings. The EHSI can also be operated
in approach format or an en route format with or without weather radar.
Fig. 3 A Typical EHSI Display in Rose or Full Mode
Fig. 4 A Typical EHSI Display in Arc or Partial Mode
Page 17-79
Figure 5 illustrates the system components, signal flow and component interface of each
subsystem. The left and right hand cockpit display and controls are identical, but as the
block diagram shows, different displays can be selected at the same time on either side of
the cockpit. All four CRT display units are interchangeable. The CRTs operate in both
stroke and raster writing modes to enable the most efficient generation of the display
elements. An integral warning system monitors the performance of each CRT. This
protects the CRT from damage and transmits a display failure signal to the symbol
generator when a failure occurs. Each display has two photo sensors that provide
automatic dimming.
The EFIS system will contain either two or three identical symbol generators that are the
centre of information flow in the system. The symbol generators major task is to convert
the information present at its input to video and deflection formats required by the CRTs to
form the EADI and EHSI displays. The symbol generator accepts inputs from one set of
sensors selected by the system control panel or automatically from one of the external
avionic systems.
This information is used to select display format and information source. Information
processed at the symbol generator inputs includes attitude (pitch and roll) heading,
glideslope, LOC, course deviation, bearing (ADF and NAV) and selected Air Data
quantities. Avionic navigation information can be derived from an external system such as
Inertial Reference Systems, Flight Management Computers, Flight Control Computers,
Thrust Control Computers and Weather Radar.
Information arrives at the symbol generator in either ARINC 429 format or as discrete
switching signals. It is converted into a display drive form, sent on a bus to the CRT
displays. As in conventional ADI and HSI displays, the information displayed on the left
hand side comes from a different source to that on the right hand side. Comparison of the
two different signal sources takes place within the symbol generator, with any disparity
generating appropriate warnings and cautions.
Page 17-80
CRT Displays
The display is a shadow masked vertical raster CRT with three colour guns RED, BLUE
and GREEN. They use magnetic deflection and electrostatic focus control. Failure of one
of the colour guns will result in a monochromatic display. The three colours are used to
generate other colour combinations such as MAGENTA, CYAN, YELLOW and WHITE.
The circuit operation and unit temperature are checked by the symbol generator BITE
circuits. Any detected fault will be displayed on the screen. Display size can vary from 4” X
5” up to 8” X 8”. The colours used on the displays generally have the following meanings:
GREEN - Indicates engaged flight mode annunciations.
WHITE - Indicate present status situation, scales, flight mode annunciations.
MAGENTA - Indicates command information, pointers, symbols, fly to condition.
CYAN - (Light Blue) - Indicates non-active background information (i.e. EADI sky).
YELLOW - Indicates cautionary information, fault flags.
RED - Indicates warning.
BLACK - Indicates blank areas.
EFIS Control Panel
Two control panels, one for the captain, and one for the first officer are located on either
side of the centre console and used for system control.
Remote light sensors are located either side of the instrument glare shield to automatically
adjust the brightness of the displays, additional sensors are fitted into the front of the
display units to adjust for ambient conditions.
The EFIS control panel is split into definite areas for the control of the EADI and EHSI with
a third area for map display switches, they may however, be divided vertically or
horizontally with slight variations in switch functions.
Page 17-81
Fig. 6 A Typical EFIS Control Panel
Page 17-82
Switching Panel
Each pilot has at his disposal a switching panel used to control switching of the display
source to the opposite side and to provide switching indication in the event of
ATTITUDE/HEADING (1), VOS/ILS (2) or SGU (3) failure. When switching is performed
by the Captain, the symmetrical switching cannot be performed by the First Officer.
Sensor inputs are monitored for serviceability and if faulty, the relevant information is
erased from the displays, being replaced with a yellow flag or red annunciation of the
failure. (e.g. EADI attitude ball replaced by red ATT annunciator).
Failures
In the event of failure of one cathode-ray tube (image lost or distorted) the brightness
control corresponding to this CRT must be placed in the OFF position (on the EFIS control
panel) by the crew. The remaining CRT then displays a composite mode which is the
synthesis of information normally displayed on the EADI and EHSI.
In the event of failure of one SGU a red or yellow cross is shown on the affected
display(s). The crew can select the opposite SGU by pressing the SGU push-button switch
on the switching panel. The results are as follows:
SYS2 (SYSI) legend comes on white on CAPT (F/O) switching panel, CAPT2 (F/O) legend
comes on green on F/O (CAPT) switching panel. Captain’s (First Officer’s EADI and EHSI
copy First Officer’s (Captain’s) EADI and EHSI
As both sides operate from the same source, the corresponding amber annunciators are
all present on the EADIs.
The crew must then check information displayed on the EADIs and EHSIs with respect to
the other instruments at his disposal, i.e. standby horizon indicator, standby compass,
radio magnetic indicator (RMI).
In the event of attitude, heading, VOR or ILS loss, the crew can use the opposite source
by pressing the corresponding push-button switch on the switching panel. For aIl other
sources, the corresponding information is lost with yellow flags being displayed in their
place.
Loss of normal power supplies the EFIS is lost. When the crew presses the STBY BUS
push-button switch, the Captain’s EADI and EHSI operate normally (power supplied by the
STBY busbar).
System Testing
Full BITE (Built in Test) facilities are provided on EFIS systems. These tests are normally
carried out either by operation of dedicated switches on the EFIS control panel or from a
separate maintenance and test panel.
Page 17-83
When an EFIS self-test is run the symbol generator injects a test signal into the major
system components (control panel, symbol generator and display units). This results in
test patterns and test results being displayed on the corresponding EADI and EHSI.
Page 17-84
17.2 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS (ENGINE & AIRFRAME SYSTEMS)

With the introduction of the “Glass Cockpits”, most traditional gauges, instruments and
warning lights have been replaced by fully electronic display systems. There are different
types of display systems available, the two main ones being:
Engine Instrument and Crew Alerting System (EICAS).
Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM).
17.2.1 ENGINE INDICATING & CREW ALERTING SYSTEM (EICAS)

The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel and two computers supplied with
analog and digital signals from the engine and system sensors. The computers are designated
“Left” and “Right” and only one is in control of the system at any one time, the other is held in
standby. In the event of a failure, it may be switched in either manually or automatically.
Operating in conjunction with the system are discrete caution and warning lights, standby engine
indicators and a remotely-located panel for selecting maintenance data display. The system
provides the flight crew with information on primary engine parameters (Full-time), with secondary
engine parameters and advisory/caution/warning alert messages displayed as required.
Page 17-85
17.2.1.1 DISPLAY UNITS

These units provide a wide variety of information relevant to engine operation,
and operation of other automated system. The operation of these displays is the
same as those in the EFIS as previously described.
The upper unit displays primary engine parameters, i.e. N1 speed, EGT, and
warning and caution messages. The lower unit displays secondary parameters,
i.e. N2 speed, fuel flow, oil quantity, pressure and temperature. In addition, the
status of non-engine systems e.g. flight control surface position, hydraulic
system, APU, etc., can be displayed.
On the upper unit, a row of Vs will appear when secondary information is being
displayed on the lower unit. Seven colours are produced by the CRTs for
displaying information. Table 1 shows the colours and description of their
uses.
Colour Description
White All scales, normal operating range of pointers, digital readouts.
Red Warning messages, maximum operating limit marks on scales, and
digital readouts.
Green Thrust mode readout and selected EPR/N1 speed marks or target
cursors.
Blue Testing of system only.
Yellow Caution and advisory messages, caution limit marks on scale, digital
readouts
Magenta During in-flight engine starting, and for cross bleed messages.
Cyan Names of all parameters being measured (e.g. N1, oil pressure, TAT,
etc.) and status marks or cues.
Table 1
Figure below shows the layout of the EICAS Displays.
EICAS Primary and Secondary Display Formats
Page 17-86
CAUTION
TAT 15°c
0.0 0.0
CANCEL RECALL 10 10
2 2
6 6
N1
0 0
EGT
VVVVVVV
Primary EICAS Display

Secondary EICAS Display
17.2.1.2 DISPLAY MODES
88.00 88
50 50
OIL PRESS N2
120 120 86 86
OIL TEMP
N3
18 18 4.4 4.4
OIL QTY
N1 FAN
FF
3.1 1.9
VIB
EICAS is designed to categorize displays and alerts according to the function

and usage. For this purpose there are three modes of displaying information:
Page 17-87
1. Operational (selected by the flight crew).
2. Status (selected by the flight crew).
3. Maintenance (ground use only and selected via the maintenance panel).
OPERATIONAL MODE
This mode displays the engine operating information and any alerts required to be actioned by the
crew in flight. Normally only the upper display unit presents information: the lower one remains
blank and can be selected to display secondary information as and when required.
STATUS MODE
When selected this mode displays data to determine the dispatch readiness of an aircraft, and is
closely associated with details contained in the aircraft’s Minimum Equipment List. The display
shows the positions of the flight control surfaces in the form of pointers registered against vertical
scales, selected sub-system parameters, and equipment status messages on the lower display
unit. Selection is normally done on the ground, either as part of the pre-flight checks of dispatch
items, or prior to shutdown of electrical power to aid the flight crew in making entries in the
aircraft’s Technical log.
L C R 0.0 FF 0.0
HYD QTY 0.99 1.00 0.98
HYD PRESS 2975 3010 3000
APU EGT 440 RPM 103 OIL 0.75
OXY PRESS 1750
RUD
AIL ELEV AIL
EICAS Status Page

MAINTENANCE MODE
This mode provides maintenance engineers with information in five different display formats to aid
them in fault finding and verification testing of major sub-systems.
Page 17-88
17.2.1.3 DISPLAY SELECT PANEL

To control the operation of the EICAS, a control panel is situated on the centre pedestal.
EICAS Control Panel
DISPLAY SELECT PANEL OPERATION

Engine Display Switch: This is a push type switch for removing or presenting the display of
secondary information on the, lower display.
Status Display Switch: This is a push type switch for removing or presenting the status
page on the lower display.
Event Record Switch: Normally, there is an auto event function, this will automatically
record any malfunctions as they occur.
The push switch enables manual event marking so that the crew can
record a suspect malfunction for storage in a non-volatile memory.
This data can be retrieved from the memory and displayed by
ground engineers by operating the ground maintenance panel. This
manual switch can also be used for activating the recording of fault
data, either in the air or on the ground, on the Environmental Control
system, Electrical Power system, Hydraulic system and APU.
Computer Select Switch: In the “AUTO” position it selects the left or primary computer and
automatically switches to the other in the event of a failure. The
other positions are for manually selecting either the right or left
computers.
Display Brightness: Controlled by the inner knob for the display intensity, the outer for
display brightness.
Thrust Reference Set: Pulling and rotating the inner knob positions the reference cursor on
the thrust indicator display (either EPR or N1) for the engines, which
are selected by the outer knob.
Max Indicator Reset: If any of the measured parameters e.g. Oil Pressure, EGT etc. and if
they exceed normal operating limits, this will be automatically alerted
on the display units. The purpose of the reset button is to clear the
alerts from the display when the excess limits no longer exist.
Page 17-89
17.2.1.4 ALERT MESSAGES

The system will continually monitor a large number of inputs (400+) from engine and airframe
systems. If a malfunction is detected then the appropriate alert message is annunciated on the
upper display. Up to 11 messages can be displayed and are at the following levels:
LEVEL A - Warning: Requiring immediate corrective action and are displayed in “RED”.
Master warning lights are also activated and aural warnings from the
Central Warning System are given.
LEVEL B - Caution: Requiring immediate crew awareness and possible action. They are
displayed in “AMBER”. An aural tone is also repeated twice.
LEVEL C - Advisory: Requiring crew awareness, displayed in “AMBER”. There are no
caution lights or aural tones associated with this level.
LEVEL A
TAT 15°c
WARNING
APU FIRE
R ENGINE FIRE 70.0 110.0
CABIN ALTITUDE 10 10
2 2
LEVEL B C SYS HYD PRESS 6 6
R ENG OVHT
CAUTION AUTOPILOT N1
C HYD QTY
R YAW DAMPER 999
775
LEVEL C L UTIL BUS OFF
ADVISORY
EGT
VVVVVVV
Upper EICAS Display – Alert Messages
Page 17-90
17.2.1.5 MAINTENANCE CONTROL PANEL

This panel is used by maintenance engineers for the purpose of displaying maintenance data
stored within the system’s computer memories. Figure 7 shows a typical maintenance control
panel.
Figure 7 - Maintenance Control Panel
PERFORMANCE AND
AUXILLIARY POWER SELECTS DATA FROM
UNIT FORMATS AUTO OR MANUAL EVENT
IN MEMORY
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL ELECTRICAL AND HYDRAULIC
SYSTEM AND MAINTENANCE SYSTEM FORMAT
MESSAGE FORMATS
EICAS MAINT EVENT

READ
DISPLAY SELECT AUTO MAN
ECS ELEC PERF
MSG HYD APU

REC ERASE
CONF ENG
MCDP EXCD
TEST
ERASES STORED DATA

CONFIGURATION AND BITE TEST SWITCH CURRENTLY DISPLAYED
MAINTENANCE ENGINE RECORDS REAL-TIME
FOR SELF-TEST ROUTINE
CONTROL/DISPLAY EXCEEDANCES DATA CURRENTLY DISPLAYED
PANEL (IN MANUAL EVENT)
ECS and MSG. Displays Environmental Control System information (air conditioning etc)
and any maintenance messages that are present. When there are more than 11 messages
they are displayed on additional pages in the same manner as the warning display system,
these additional pages are viewed by pressing the ECS/MSG button once for each
subsequent page. Pressing the switch after reading the last page of messages will display
primary engine information on the upper unit and secondary engine information on the
lower unit.
ELEC / HYD. Displays information relating to the electrical and hydraulic systems of the
aircraft, will include Pressures, Temperatures, Quantities of oils and hydraulic fluids,
Temperatures and Outputs of generators etc.
PERF / APU. Displays information on the performance of the main engines and the
Auxiliary Power Unit along with additional information concerning the APU.
CONF / MCDP. Lists the engines for which the EICAS system computers have been
configured and when the Maintenance Control Display Panel is connected displays
detailed procedural information for testing of the main aircraft systems.
ENG EXCD. If any engine parameters are exceeded, the duration and highest value
attained (for each exceedance) are automatically stored in the EICAS computers memory,
this switch enables this information to be displayed.
Page 17-91
Pressing the ELEC/HYD, PERF/APU, CONF/MCDP or ENG EXCD switches once displays
the associated parameters on the lower display unit and puts the upper display into
compact format.
Pressing the switch for the second time, with associated parameters displayed, will cause
the primary engine parameters to be displayed on the upper screen and the secondary full
engine data to be displayed on the lower screen.
Event Read Switches
These are momentary push type switches that do not illuminate when pressed. They are
used in conjunction with the ECS/MSG, ELEC/HYD or PERF/APU switches to display
information that has been stored in the non-volatile memory of the computers, either as a
result of an automatic or manual event.
Use of the Auto Event switch will cause the statement “AUTO EVENT” to be displayed,
pressing the switch a second time will display real time parameters.
Use of the Manual Event switch will cause the statement MANUAL EVENT to be
displayed. this switch enables the data stored as a result of operation of either the DSP
event record switch or the maintenance panel REC switch to be displayed.
Manual Event Record Switch
Momentary push type switch that enables the computer to store real time data related to
the maintenance format that is being displayed, cannot be used with ECS/MSG format.
This data can then be read by selecting the same display format and operating the manual
event read switch. The last data stored overwrites previously stored data, only the last
being available for display.
Erase Switch
Momentary push type switch used to erase data stored in the computers memories ( suto
and manual), used in conjunction with ECS/MSG, ELEC/HYD, PERF/APU or ENG EXCD
switches.
Data to be erased (Auto or Manual event) is displayed by selecting the required format in
conjunction with the Auto or Manual read switch, the erase button is then pressed and held
until the data is removed from the display unit.
Test Switch
Momentary push switch that can only be activated when the aircraft is on the ground with
its parking brake set. When pressed a complete test routine of the system is carried out
including:
Interfaces Signal conditioning circuits Digital processes
SGU circuits Video and deflection circuits Power supplies
For this purpose an initial test pattern is displayed on both display units with a message in
white to indicate the system being tested, the L or R EICAS dependent upon selection of
the DSP computer selector switch.
During test, master warning and caution lights, aural devices and the standby engine
indicator (if selected to auto) are activated. The message “TEST IN PROGRESS” appears
in the top left of the upper display unit, when the test is completed one of the following will
occur:
1. A “TEST OK” message will replace the “TEST IN PROGRESS” message when the
CU test read-out (upper right of top display) is all zeroes and both display units are
operational.
Page 17-92
2. A “TEST FAIL” message will replace the “TEST IN PROGRESS” message when the
CU test read-out is non zero or a display unit has failed. This message will be followed by
further advice as to unit failures.
Page 17-93
The test patterns displayed during self test are as shown below.
The “KEY” message is an indication that the computer wants to test various inputs to the
system and requires the engineer to operate the switch that is displayed after the word
key. Correct operation of the switch will be indicated by a message appropriate to the
switch being displayed, i.e. when the erase switch on the MCP is pressed the message
“ERASE” appears.
The message “PRESS ERASE TO CLEAR MEMORY” appears when the erase switch on
the MCP is pressed to erase the CU TEST, CU Monitor and parameter disagree codes
from the display unit screens.
To terminate the test, the MCP test switch is pressed, or if safe to do so the aircrafts
parking brake may be released. the display units will revert to their normal primary and.
secondary information displays.
Page 17-94
17.2.2 ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT MONITORING (ECAM)
ECAM differs from EICAS in that the data displayed relate essentially to the primary systems of the
aircraft and are displayed in checklist and pictorial or synoptic format.

These are mounted side-by-side. The left-hand unit (Warning Display) is dedicated to information
on the status of the system; warnings and corrective action in a sequenced checklist format, while
the right-hand unit (System or Synoptic Display) is dedicated to associated information in pictorial
or synoptic format. Figure 8 shows the layout of ECAM displays.
ECAM Display Layout
The ECAM system comprises;
17.2.2.2 FLIGHT WARNING COMPUTERS.

Two Flight Warning Computers (FWCs) are used to acquire information on the
serviceability of the aircraft systems, they process this information and pass it to the
symbol generators for display.
All of the critical failure warnings are passed to both FWCs with the remaining warnings
being split between the two computers. A cross talk bus provides for the exchange of
information between the two computers.
The FWCs generate the aural warnings, warning light control signals, stick-shaker control
signals, the AFCS warning signals and data for the aircraft instrument display system.
Page 17-95
17.2.2.3 SYTEMS DATA ANALOGUE CONVERTER

An SDAC acquires various analogue and discrete data and converts it into digital format
ready for further processing, it has a capacity for 200 discrete and 150 analogue inputs.
17.2.2.4 SYMBOL GENERATOR UNITS

Two SGUs process information from the Flight Warning Computers, the Systems Data
Analogue Converter and the Fuel Quantity Indicating system (FQI) converting it into the
format required for display by the display units.

The information is displayed on two full colour, shadow mask, high resolution display units
that are interchangeable with the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) display units.
17.2.2.6 WARNING LIGHT DISPLAY UNIT

The WLDP is similar to a conventional Centralised Warning Panel and is provided as a
“back-up” to the ECAM display system.
17.2.2.7 ECAM CONTROL PANEL

The ECAM control panel allows the crew to:
Clear Warning Presentations from the display.
Call up The Status function.
Play back a failure sequence.
Manually select systems displays.
17.2.2.8 ECAM MAINTENANCE PANEL

Used on the ground by engineers for maintenance operations and fault analysis.
Page 17-96
ECAM Block Diagram
Page 17-97
ECAM DISPLAY MODES
There are four display modes, three of which are automatically selected and referred to as phase-
related, advisory (mode and status), and failure-related modes. The forth mode is manual and
permits the selection of diagrams related to any one of 12 of the aircraft’s systems for routine
checking, and also the selection of status messages provided no warnings have been triggered for
display. Selection of the displays is by means of a system control panel.
FLIGHT PHASE RELATED MODE

In normal operation the automatic flight phase-related mode is used, and the displays will be
appropriate to the current phase of aircraft operation, i.e. Pre-flight, Take-off, Climb, Cruise,
Descent, Approach, and post landing. Figure 9 shows displays for the cruise.
ECAM Display (Cruise Mode)
ADVISORY MODE
If a parameter starts to drift outside the normally expected operating range the FWCs will
automatically display the associated systems page on the right display unit. The letters
“ADV” will appear beside the system title to show that the display is for advice.
This mode enables the crew to take remedial action to cure the problem before a failure situation
occurs.
Page 17-98
ECAM FAILURE MODE

Automatic Mode related to a failure
When a failure is detected by the Flight Warning Computers the relevant message is
generated and displayed on the left display unit, if an associated systems page is available
the right display will automatically display it.
The systems diagram enables the crew to cross check the failure and to see what systems are
unserviceable, it also provides a means of monitoring any corrective action that is taken.The
failure-related mode takes precedence over the other modes. Failures are classified in 3 levels:
Independent Failures.
Failures that affect an isolated piece of equipment or system.
Primary Failure.
The failure of an item of equipment or a system that causes the loss of dependent
equipments or systems.
Secondary Failure.
A secondary failure is the loss of an equipment or a system as the direct result of a
primary failure. These failures could well be cleared after the necessary remedial action
has been taken.
Different combinations of failures may occur sequentially or simultaneously.
ECAM with automatic Brake Hot Warning
Manual Mode
By using the ECAM control panel the crew are able to display any of the twelve systems pages that
are available. Should a failure or advisory fault occur whilst in this mode the system will
automatically return to the appropriate automatic display mode.
Page 17-99
Examples of ECAM System Displays
Note; These pages are displayed:
Automatically due to an advisory or failure related to the system,
or,
whenever called manually.
Page 17-100
Display Switches (1)

Two display switches are provided, one for each display, they are used to switch on and
control the brightness of the relevant display unit, left or right.
ECAM Symbol Generator switches (2)

As well as being switches for disabling the symbol generators these are also fault
annunciators, under normal operating conditions the switches are not illuminated. When a
fault is detected in a symbol generator the relevant switch will light amber, pressing the
switch turns off the symbol generator and replaces the amber fault light with a white off
light.
System switches (3)

Momentary push type switches that illuminate when pressed, these switches enable the
crew to manually select the system diagrams as indicated on the switch. With an
unserviceable display unit manual selection of a system diagram is not possible if a
warning or status message is present.
Manual selection of a system diagram will be automatically overridden if a warning or status
message requires to be displayed, removal of the diagram is achieved by pressing the illuminated
switch or by pressing one of the other system switches.
Recall (4)
This.switch is used to display caution or advisory messages that have previously been
cleared from the screen. Should a fault no longer be present it will not be displayed, if
there are no faults the message “NO WARNING PRESENT” will appear on the left screen.
When the recall switch is pressed the CLR switch (6) will illuminate white.
Status (5)
Allows the sircraft status to be diplayed manually with no warning displayed, does not
illuminate when pressed but causes the CLR switch to illuminate. The status messages
will automatically be suppressed if a warning occurs.
Clear (6)
Page 17-101
Illuminates when either a warning or a status message is present on the left display. If
there is more than one page of messages then the clear switch is pressed once to display
each consecutive page, pressing one more time will clear the screen and cause the light to
extinguish.
Page 17-102
17.3 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RADIO BEACON SYSTEM (ATCRBS)
17.3.1 TRANSPONDERS
Transponders are not exactly navigation equipment, but are a “Means of Identification”. In
the past, a radar controller watching his scope, would only know if the ‘blip’ that he saw on
his screen was the aircraft he was ‘working’, (handling), if it identified itself by carrying out
a turn at the controller’s request. With the ATC system, the controller can identify the
aircraft by interrogating it.
The ground control has two types of radar with which to control air traffic:
1. Primary Radar.
2. Secondary Radar.
The primary radar provides the ground station operator with a symbol on his surveillance
radarscope for every aircraft in his area. It is a reflection type of radar system not requiring
any response from the aircraft.
The secondary radar system uses what is called an “ATC Transponder” in the aircraft.
The transponder is a transmitter/receiver, which transmits in response to an interrogation
from the ground station secondary surveillance radar system. The primary and secondary
radar antennas are mounted on the same rotating mounting, and therefore both always
look in the same direction at the same time.
The aircraft’s transponder reply can also include a special code, which identifies that
particular aircraft on the scope. If the pilot receives instructions from the ground station he
presses the “Ident” button on his control panel. This causes the display on the radarscope
to change thus identifying the aircraft to the controller. The transponder can also transmit
the aircraft’s altitude, which can be displayed to the ground controller.
ATCRBS Operation
Page 17-103
ATCRBS CONTROL PANEL

The ATCRBS control panel allows the flight crew to select ATC 1 or 2, the mode of
operation and the identification code select
ATCRBS Control Panel
The ground station transmits its interrogation pulse on 1030 MHz as a three-pulse signal.
The space between the first and third pulse signifies the mode reply required. The system
operates in four modes, these are:
1. Mode A - Identify.
2. Mode B - Obsolete.
3. Mode C - Pressure Altitude.
4. Mode D – Unassigned.
MODE A
Operating mode for normal operation. The transponder is ready to respond to ATC any
interrogations and replying with a unique identification code. The pulse spacing is 8sec.
MODE C
Altitude reporting capability of the transponder. The aircraft’s Air Data System will supply
altitude information for use in Mode C replies. This allows the ground controller, to not
only identify an aircraft but also to ascertain its altitude, so he can guide it safely through
his allocated airspace. The pulse spacing is 21sec.
Mode A & C Interrogation Pulses
Page 17-104
Once the aircraft’s transponder has received an interrogation, it will reply with either Mode
A or C (1090 MHz). One problem to overcome with this system is an aircraft replying to
interrogations when not being illuminated by the primary radar. To overcome this, a
suppression pulse is transmitted (P2). If the amplitude of this pulse is equal/greater than
P1, the aircraft will not reply to the interrogation.
NO REPLY P1 REPLY P3
P2 P2
P1 P3
SIDELOBES
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA MAIN
BEAM (P1 & P2)
OMNI ROTATION
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA (P2)
ATCRBS Suppression
ATCRBS
Block Schematic
Page 17-105
17.3.2 MODE S TRANSPONDERS

After 1989, a completely new type of ATC system was introduced. This system is called
mode S (mode select). The new interrogators and transponders are called ATCRBS/mode
S because they are capable of working with the old ATCRBS equipment or with new mode
S equipment.
For the present time, there will be ATCRBS only equipped aircraft sharing airspace with
ATCRBS/mode S equipped aircraft. On the ground, most of the stations are ATCRBS-
only, but there will be a gradual phasing in of ATCRBS/mode S ground stations. Both
types of station can interrogate either type of transponder, and both types of transponder
can respond to either type of ground station. TCAS-equipped aircraft interrogate both
ATCRBS and ATCRBS/mode S equipped aircraft just as an ATCRBS/mode S ground
station would do.
At some point in the future, all ATCRBS-only equipment will be phased out for commercial
aviation. All ground stations and aircraft will then operate in mode S only.
The mode S ATC system enables ground stations to interrogate aircraft as to identification
code and altitude just as the ATCRBS system does. These interrogations, however, are
only part of a larger list of (up-link and downlink) formats comprising the mode S data link
capacity. One of the most important aspects of mode S is the ability to discretely address
one aircraft so that only the specific aircraft being interrogated responds, instead of all
transponder-equipped aircraft within the range of the interrogator.
MODE S INTERROGATION AND REPLIES
The ATCRBS/Mode S system operates in a way similar to ATCRBS. As a transponder
equipped aircraft enters the airspace, it receives either a Mode S only all-call interrogation
or an ATCRBS/Mode S all-call interrogation which can be identified by both ATCRBS and
Mode S transponders. ATCRBS transponders reply in Mode A and Mode C, while the
Mode S transponder replies with a Mode S format that includes that aircraft’s unique
discrete 24-bit Mode S address. The Mode S only all-call is used by the interrogators if
Mode S targets are to be acquired without interrogating ATCRBS targets.
DISCRETE ADDRESSING
The address and the Location of the Mode S aircraft is entered into a roll-call file by the
Mode S ground station. On the next scan, the Mode S aircraft is discretely addressed.
The discrete interrogations of a Mode S aircraft contain a command field that may
desensitize the Mode S transponder to further Mode S all-call interrogations. This is called
Mode S lockout. ATCRBS interrogations (from ATCRBS only interrogators) are not
affected by this lockout. Mode S transponders reply to the interrogations of an ATCRBS
interrogator under all circumstances.
TCAS separately interrogates ATCRBS transponders and Mode S transponders. During
the Mode S segment of the surveillance update period, TCAS commences to interrogate
Mode S intruders on its own roll-call list.
Because of the selective address features of the Mode S system, TCAS surveillance of
Mode S- equipped aircraft is straightforward.
Page 17-106
Mode S Operation
TRANSPONDER
PRIMARY
RADAR
REPLY INTERROGATION
1090MHz 1030MHz
ECHO
PRIMARY
SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE
SURVEILLANCE RADAR (PSR)
RADAR (SSR)
ATC
RADAR
SCOPE
ROLL CALL
NEIGHBORING
GROUND LINK AIRSPACE
AIRPLANE 1
CONTROLLER
AIRPALNE 2
(MODE S)
AIRPLANE 3
OPERATION
As a Mode S aircraft flies into the airspace served by another Mode S interrogator, the first
Mode S interrogator may send position information and the aircraft’s discrete address to
the second interrogator by way of ground lines. Thus the need to remove the lockout may
be eliminated, and the second interrogator may schedule discrete roll-call interrogations
for the aircraft. Because of the discrete addressing feature of Mode S, the interrogators
may work at a lower rate (or handle more aircraft).
In areas where Mode S interrogators are not connected by way of ground lines, the
protocol for the transponder is for it to be in the lockout state for only those interrogators
that have the aircraft on the roll-call. If the aircraft enters airspace served by a different
Mode S interrogator, the new interrogator may acquire the aircraft via the replay to an all-
call interrogation. Also, if the aircraft does not receive an interrogation for 16 seconds, the
transponder automatically cancels the lockout.
Page 17-107
17.4 TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS)
TCAS is an airborne traffic alert and collision avoidance advisory system, which operates
without support from ATC, ground stations. TCAS detects the presence of nearby intruder
aircraft equipped with transponders that reply to Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon Systems
(ATCRBS) Mode C or Mode S interrogations. TCAS tracks and continuously evaluates
the threat potential of intruder aircraft to its own aircraft and provides a display of the
nearby transponder-equipped aircraft on a traffic display. During threat situations TCAS
provides traffic advisory alerts and vertical maneuvering resolution advisories to assist the
flight crew in avoiding mid-air collisions.
TCAS I provides proximity warning only to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of
intruder aircraft. It is intended for use by smaller commuter and general aviation aircraft.
TCAS II provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories (recommended escape
maneuvers) in a vertical direction to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline, larger commuter and
business aircraft will use TCAS II equipment.
TCAS III which is still under development, will provide traffic advisories and resolution
advisories in the horizontal as well as the vertical direction to avoid conflicting traffic.
The level of protection provided by TCAS equipment depends on the type of transponder
the target aircraft is carrying. It should be noted that TCAS provides no protection against
aircraft that do not have an operating transponder.
Page 17-108
The table shows levels of protection offered by the transponder carried by individual
aircraft.
OWN AIRCRAFT
TCAS I TCAS II TCAS III
Mode A
XPDR Only TA TA TA
Mode C TA
Or Mode S TA TA VRA
XPDR VRA HRA
TA TA
TCAS I TA VRA VRA
HRA
TA TA
TCAS II TA VRA VRA
TTC HRA
TTC
TARGET AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT
TA TA
TCAS III TA VRA VRA
TTC HRA
TTC
TA – TRAFFIC ADVISORY
VRA - VERTICAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
HRA - HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
TTC - TCAS – TCAS COORDINATION
Page 17-109
THE TCAS II SYSTEM

TCAS II provides a traffic display and two types of advisories to the pilot. One type of
advisory, called a traffic advisory (TA) informs the pilot that there are aircraft in the area,
which are potential threats to his own aircraft. The other type of advisory is called a
resolution advisory (RA), which advises the pilot that a vertical corrective or preventative
action is required to avoid a threat aircraft. TCAS II also provides aural alerts to the pilot.
TCAS Protection Area

When a Mode S or Mode C intruder is acquired, TCAS begins tracking the intruder.
Tracking is performed by repetitious TCAS interrogations in Mode S and Mode C. When
interrogated transponders reply after a fixed delay. Measurement of the time between
interrogation transmission and reply reception allows TCAS to calculate the range of the
intruder. If the intruder’s transponder is providing altitude in its reply, TCAS is able to
determine the relative altitude of the intruder.
Page 17-110
TCAS System Block Schematic

Transmission and reception techniques used on TCAS directional aerials allows TCAS to
calculate the bearing of the intruder. Based on closure rates and relative position
computed from the reply data, TCAS will classify the intruders as non-threat, proximity, TA,
or RA threat category aircraft.
If an intruder is being tracked, TCAS displays the intruder aircraft symbol on an electronic
VSI or joint-use weather radar and traffic display. Alternatively in some aircraft the TCAS
display will be on the EFIS system.
The position on the display shows the range and relative bearing of the intruder. The
range of TCAS is about 30 NM in the forward direction.
AURAL ANNUNCIATION
Displayed traffic and resolution advisories are supplemented by synthetic voice advisories
generated by the TCAS computer. The words “Traffic, Traffic” are annunciated at the time
of the traffic advisory, which directs the pilot to look at the TA display to locate the intruding
aircraft. If the encounter does not resolve itself, a resolution advisory is annunciated, e.g.,
“Climb, Climb, Climb”. At this point the pilot adjusts or maintains the vertical rate of the
aircraft to keep the VSI needle out of the red segments.
Page 17-111
TCAS Air-to-Air Operation
AIRCRAFT 2
TCAS AIRCRAFT 2 TRANSMITS
ATCRBS ALL CALL
AIRCRAFT 2 RECIEVES SQUITTER
(1030 MHz) AIRCRAFT 3
AND ADDS AIRCRAFT 1 TO
RESPONDS MODE C
ITS ROLL CALL, THEN INTERROGATES
(1090 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 1 (TCAS 1030 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 3
ATCRBS ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1
MODE S ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1 TRANSMITS
OMNIDIRECTIONAL
SQUITTER SIGNALS
(MODE S 1090 MHz)
ALL 3 AIRCRAFT REPLY

TO INTERROGATIONS FROM
GROUND STATION
(1090 MHz)
GROUND STATION
TRANSMITS
INTERROGATIONS
AT (1030MHz)
TCAS OPERATION IS COMPLETELY INDEPENDENT

NOTE: OF GROUND STATION OPERATION
Page 17-112
Electronic VSI - TCAS indications
TCAS Warnings EADI Display
Page 17-113
Displayed traffic and resolution advisories are supplemented by synthetic voice advisories
generated by the TCAS computer. The words “Traffic, Traffic” are annunciated at the time
of the traffic advisory, which directs the pilot to look at the TA display to locate the traffic. If
the encounter does not resolve itself, a resolution advisory is annunciated. The aural
annunciation’s listed below have been adopted as aviation industry standards.
The single announcement “Clear of Conflict” indicates that the encounter has ended
(range has started to increase), and the pilot should promptly but smoothly return to the
previous clearance.
Traffic Advisory: TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC

Resolution Advisories:
Preventative:
MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED, MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED. Ensure
that the VSI needle is kept out of the lighted segments.
Corrective:
CLIMB-CLIMB-CLIMB. Climb at the rate shown on the RA indicator:
normally 1500 fpm.
CLIMB.CROSSING CLIMB-CLIMB, CROSSING CLIMB. As above except
that it further indicates that own flightpath will cross through that of the
threat.
DESCEND-DESCEND-DESCEND. Descend at the rate shown on the RA
indicator: normally 1500 fpm.
DESCEND, CROSSING DESCEND-DESCEND, CROSSING DESCEND.
As above except that it further indicates that own flight path will cross
through that of the threat.
REDUCE CLIMB-REDUCE CLIMB. Reduce vertical speed to that shown
on the RA indicator.
INCREASE CLIMB-INCREASE CLIMB. Follows a “Climb” advisory. The
vertical speed of the climb should be increased to that shown on the RA
indicator nominally 2500 fpm.
INCREASE DESCENT-INCREASE DESCENT. Follows a “Descend”
advisory. The vertical speed of the descent should be increased to that
shown on the RA indicator: nominally 2500 fpm.
CLIMB, CLIMB NOW-CLIMB, CLIMB NOW. Follows a “Descend” advisory
when it has been determined that a reversal of vertical speed is needed to
provide adequate separation.
DESCEND, DESCEND NOW-DESCEND. DESCEND NOW. Follows a
“Climb” advisory when it has been determined that a reversal of vertical
speed is needed to provide adequate separation.
Page 17-114
PERFORMANCE MONITORING
It is important for the pilot to know that TCAS is operating properly. For this reason a self-
test system is incorporated. Self-test can be initiated at any time, on the ground or in
flight, by momentarily pressing the control unit TEST button. If TA’s or RAs occur while
the self-test is activated in flight, the test will abort and the advisories will be processed
and displayed.
When self-test is activated an aural annunciation “TCAS TEST” is heard and a test pattern
with fixed traffic and advisory symbols appears on the display for eight seconds.
After eight seconds “TCAS TEST PASS” or “TCAS TEST FAIL” is aurally announced to
indicate the system status.
TCAS UNITS
Mode S/TCAS controlGAIN
unit. TILT
UP
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP
DWN
MIN MAX
VAR 10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC
TA DSPLY XPDR FAIL

XPDR
AUTO ON
TA
TC
OFF ON
DISPLAY STBY MARKER
AS
IDENT
2463 TA
/RA
ATC OFF MAX OFF MAX

C
A FRZ FRZ
S ALT RPTG
TCAS XPDR
OFF TEST 1 2
1 2
LEFT RIGHT
INOP ALRT
The controls operate as follows:

Transponder Code Display
This shows the ATC code selected by the two dual concentric knobs below the display.
The system select switch (XPDR 1-2) controls input to the display.
Certain fault indications are also indicated on the display. “PASS” will show after a
successful functional test and “FAIL” will show if a high level failure is detected
under normal operating conditions.
Also shown is the active transponder by displaying ATC 1 or 2.
Mode Control Selector Switch

This is a rotary switch labeled STBY-ALT RPTG OFF-XPNDR-TA-TA/RA. The TCAS
system is activated by selecting traffic advisory (TA) or traffic and resolution
advisory (TA/RA). When STBY is selected both transponders are inactive. In the
Page 17-115
ALT RPTG OFF position the altitude data sources are interrupted preventing the
transmission of altitude.
ABV-N-BLW Switch
This selects the altitude range for the TCAS traffic displays. In the ABV mode the range
limits are 7,000 feet above and 2,700 feet below the aircraft. In the BLW mode the
limits are 2,700 feet above and 7,000 feet below. When normal (N) is selected the
displayed range is 2,700 feet above and below the aircraft.
Traffic Display Switch
When AUTO is selected the TCAS computer sets the displays to “pop-up” mode under a
traffic/resolution advisory condition. In MAN the TCAS displays are constantly
activated advising of any near by traffic.
Range Switch
This selects different nautical mile traffic advisory horizontal range displays.
IDENT Push-button
When pushed causes the transponder to transmit a special identifier pulse (SPI) in its
replies to the ground.
Flight Level Push-button (FL)
This is used to select between relative and absolute attitude information.
Honeywell TCAS Computers
RT-951
RT-950 Honeywell TCAS
Honeywell TCAS
COMPUTER UNIT
COMPUTER UNIT
"SELF TEST" TCAS TA

"SELF TEST"
TCAS TA
PASS DISP Replace TCAS CU if ONLY the red TCAS Fail PASS DISP
Replace TCAS CU if ONLY the red TCAS Fail lamp is on during any status display (following
lamp is on during any status display (following TCAS RA the lamp test). When additional lamps are on, TCAS RA
correct indicated subsystem PRIOR to
the lamp test). When additional lamps are on, FAIL DISP replacement of TCAS CU. FAIL DISP
correct indicated subsystem PRIOR to
replacement of TCAS CU. TOP RAD TOP RAD
ANT ALT ANT ALT
BOT XPDR BOT XPDR
ANT BUS ANT BUS
HDG ATT HDG ATT

PUSH
DATA LOADER PUSH
DATA LOADER TO
TO TEST
TEST
RT-950 RT-951
Page 17-116
SELF TEST
If the test button is momentarily pressed fault data for the current and previous flight legs
can be displayed on the front panel annunciators.
When the TEST is initially activated all annunciators are on for 3 seconds and then current
fault data is displayed for 10 seconds, after which the test terminates and all annunciators
are extinguished.
If the test button is pressed again during the 10-second fault display period the display is
aborted and a 2-second lamp test is carried out. The fault data recorded for the previous
flight leg is then displayed for 10 seconds.
This procedure can be repeated to obtain recorded data from the previous 10 flight legs.
If the test button is pressed to display fault data after the last recorded data all
annunciators will flash for 3 seconds and then extinguish.
DATA LOADER INTERFACE
Software updates can be incorporated into the computer via a set of ARINC 429 busses
and discrete inputs. These allow an interface to either an Airborne Data Loader (ADL)
through pins on the unit’s rear connector or to a Portable Data Loader (PDL) through the
front panel “DATA LOADER” connector.
The computer works with either ARINC 603 data loader low speed bus or ARINC 615
high-speed bus.
A personal computer (PC) can be connected to the front panel “DATA LOADER”
connector. This allows the maintenance log and RA event log to be downloaded to the PC
via an RS 232 interface.
Page 17-117
17.5 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)
INTRODUCTION
The modern inertial navigation system is the only self-contained single source for all navigation
data. After being supplied with initial position information, it is capable of continuously updating
extremely accurate displays of the aircraft’s:Position.Ground Speed.Attitude.Heading.
It can also provide guidance and steering information for the auto pilot and flight
instruments.
WIND SPEED & DIRECTION

PRESENT
POSITION
DC G
(A DIN
)
ED EA
K
AC
PE S H
TR ED
VELOCITY NORTH/SOUTH (VN)

’ S E
RS T’
F T SP
AI F
RA ND
& CRA
IRC ROU
A G
R
&
AI
TRK DRIFT
HDG
EAST/WEST VELOCITY (VE)
Navigation Triangle
GENERAL PRINCIPLE
In order to understand an inertial navigation system we must consider both the definition of
“Inertia” and the basic laws of motion as described by Sir Isaac Newton. Inertia can be
described as follows:
1. Newton’s first law of motion states:
 “A body continues in a state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted
upon by an external force”.
2. Newton’s second law of motion states:
 “The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the sum of the forces acting on
the body.”
Page 17-118
3. Newton’s third law states:

 “For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction”.
With these laws we can mechanise a device which is able to detect minute changes in
acceleration and velocity, ability necessary in the development of inertial systems.
Velocity and distance are computed from sensed acceleration by the application of basic
calculus.
Acceleration, Velocity and Distance Graphs.

Note; Velocity changes whenever acceleration exists and remains constant when
acceleration is zero.
INS OPERATION
The basic measuring instrument of the inertial navigation system is the accelerometer.
Two accelerometers are mounted in the system. One will measure the aircraft’s
accelerations in the north-south direction and the other will measure the aircraft’s
accelerations in the east-west direction. When the aircraft accelerates, the accelerometer
detects the motion and a signal is produced proportional to the amount of acceleration.
This signal is amplified, current from the amplifier is sent back to the accelerometer to a
torque motor, which restores the accelerometer to its null position.
The acceleration signal from the amplifier is also sent to an integrator, which is a time
multiplication device. It starts with acceleration, which is in feet per second squared (feet
per sec per sec) and end up after multiplication by time with velocity (feet per second).
Page 17-119
The velocity signal is then fed through another integrator, which again is a time multiplier,
which gives a result in distance in feet. So from an accelerometer we can derive:
Ground Speed.
Distance Flown.
If the computer associated with the INS knows the latitude and longitude of the starting
point and calculates the aircraft has travelled a certain distance north/south and east/west
it can calculate the aircraft’s present position.
INS Operation
To accurately compute the aircraft’s present position, the accelerometers must be

maintained about their sensing axes. To maintain the correct axes, the accelerometers are
mounted on a gimbal assembly commonly referred to as the platform. The platform is
nothing more than a mechanical device, which allows the aircraft to go through any
attitude change at the same time maintaining the accelerometers level. The inner element
of the platform contains the accelerometers as well as gyroscopes to stabilize the platform.
The gyros provide signals to motors, which in turn control the gimbals of the platform.
Page 17-120
Inertial Platform
We can also measure the angular distance between the aircraft and the platform in the
three axes, giving us the aircraft’s pitch, roll and heading angles. These can be used in
the navigation computations and also give heading and attitude information to the relative
systems.
The gyro and accelerometer are mounted on a common gimbal. When this gimbal tips off
the level position, the spin axis of the gyro remains fixed. The case of the gyro moves with
the gimbal, and the movement is detected by a signal pick-off within the gyro. This signal
is amplified and sent to the gimbal motor, which restores the gimbal back to the level
position.
Gyro Stabilization
Page 17-121
ALIGNMENT
The accuracy of an INS is dependent on the precise alignment of the inertial platform to a known
reference (True North), with respect to the latitude and longitude of the ground starting position at
the time of “Starting Up” the system. The inertial system computer carries out a self-alignment
calibration procedure over a given period of time before the system is ready to navigate the
aircraft.
The computer requires the following information prior to alignment so that it can calculate the
position of “True North”:
 Aircraft’s Latitude Position.
 Aircraft’s Longitude Position.
 Aircraft’s Magnetic Heading (from Mag Heading System).
The alignment procedure can only be carried out on the ground, during which the aircraft
must not be moved. Once started the alignment procedure is automatic
THE NAVIGATION MODE
In the navigation mode the pitch, roll attitude and the magnetic heading information is updated
mainly with the attitude changes sensed by gyros. Because the IRS is aligned to true north a
variation angle is used to calculate the direction to magnetic north. Each location on earth has its
own variation angle. All variation angles between the 73 North and 60 South latitude are stored in
the IRS.
The present position is updated mainly with accelerations sensed by the accelerometers. The
accelerations are corrected for the pitch and roll attitude and calculated with respect to the true
north direction.
STRAPDOWN INERTIAL NAVIGATION
As already discussed, inertial navigation is the process of determining an aircraft’s location

using internal sensors. Unlike the gimbaled system, in a strapdown system the
accelerometers and gyros are mounted solidly to the aircraft’s axis. there are no gimbals
to keep the sensors level with the earth’s surface, so that one sensor is always on the
aircraft’s longitudinal axis, one on the lateral axis and one on the vertical axis. likewise the
gyros are mounted such that one will detect the aircraft’s pitch, another the roll and the
third the aircraft’s heading.
The accelerometer produces an output that is proportional to the acceleration applied along the
sensor’s input axis. a microprocessor integrates the acceleration signal to calculate a velocity and
position. although it is used to calculate velocity and position, acceleration is meaningless to the
system without additional information
For example, if we consider the acceleration signal from the accelerometer strapped to the
aircraft’s longitudinal axis. It is measuring the forward acceleration of the aircraft,
however, is the aircraft accelerating north, south, east, west, up or down? In order to
navigate over the surface of the earth, the system must know how its acceleration is
related to the earth’s surface.
Page 17-122
Because the accelerometers are mounted on the Longitudinal, Lateral and vertical axes of
the aircraft, the IRS must know the relationship of each of these axes to the surface of the
earth. The Laser Ring Gyros (LRGs) in the strapdown system make measurements
necessary to describe this relationship in terms of pitch, roll and heading angles. These
angles are calculated from angular rates measured by the gyros through integration e.g.
Gyro measures an angular rate of 3/sec for 30 seconds in the yaw axes. Through
integration, the microprocessor calculates that the heading has changed by 90 after 30
seconds.
Given the knowledge of pitch, roll and heading that the gyros provide, the microprocessor
resolves the acceleration signals into earth-related accelerations, and then performs the
horizontal and vertical navigation calculations. Under normal conditions, all six sensors
sense motion simultaneously and continuously, thereby entailing calculations that are
substantially more complex than a normal INS. Therefore a powerful, high-speed
microprocessor is required in the IRS in order to rapidly and accurately handle the
additional complexity.
LASER RING GYRO OPERATION
Laser Ring Gyros (LRG) are not in fact gyros, but sensors of angular rate of rotation about
a single axis. They are made of a triangular block of temperature stable glass. Very small
tunnels are precisely drilled parallel to the perimeter of the triangle, and reflecting mirrors
are placed in each corner. A small charge of Helium-neon gas is inserted and sealed into
an aperture in the glass at the base of the triangle.
When a high voltage is run between the anodes and the cathode, the gas is ionized, and
two beams of light are generated, each travelling around the cavity in opposite directions.
Page 17-123
Since both contrarotating beams travel at the same speed (speed of light), it takes the
exact same time to complete a circuit. However, if the gyro were rotated on its axis, the
path length of one beam would be shortened, while the other would be lengthened. A
laser beam adjusts its wavelength for the length of the path it travels, so the beam that
traveled the shortest distance would rise in frequency, while the beam that traveled the
longer distance would have a frequency decrease.
The frequency difference between the two beams is directly proportional to the angular
rate of turn about the gyro’s axis. Thus the frequency difference becomes a measure of
rotation rate. If the gyro doesn’t move about its axis, both frequencies remain the same
and the angular rate is zero. Figure 11.5.2.85 shows a Laser Ring Gyro.
SERVOED
FRINGE MIRROR
PATTERN ANODE
CATHODE
MIRROR
CORNER
PRISM
ANODE
PIEZOELECTRIC
DITHER
MOTOR
Laser Ring Gyro (LRG)
MODE SELECT UNIT (MSU)

The mode select unit controls the mode of operation of the IRS. There are two types in
common use:
Six Annunciator MSU.
Triple-Channel MSU.
The six-annunciator MSU provides mode selection, status indication and test initiation for
one Inertial Reference Unit (IRU
Page 17-124
Six-AnnunciatorMSU
IRS Triple-Channel MSU
Page 17-125
MODE SELECT UNIT MODES

IRS Modes are set by setting the MSU mode select switch as follows:
OFF-TO-ALIGN – The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode.
When BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. The IRU remains in the alignment mode until the mode select switch is set to OFF,
NAV or ATT. The NAV RDY annunciator illuminates upon completion of the alignment.
OFF-TO-NAV – The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode.
When BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. Upon completion of the alignment mode the system enters the navigation mode.
ALIGN-TO-NAV – The IRU enters navigate mode from alignment mode upon completion
of alignment.
NAV-TO-ALIGN - The IRU enters the align downmode from the navigate mode.
NAV-TO-ALIGN-TO-NAV – The IRU enters the align downmode and after 30 seconds,
automatically re-enters the navigate mode.
ALIGN-TO-ATT or NAV-TO-ATT – The IRU enters the erect attitude submode for 20
seconds, during which the MSU ALIGN annunciator illuminates. The IRU then enters the
attitude mode.
MSU ANNUNCIATORS
ALIGN – Indicates that the IRU is in the alignment mode. A flashing ALIGN annunciator
indicates in-correct LAT/LONG entry, excessive aircraft movement during align.
NAV RDY – Indicates that the alignment is complete.
FAULT – Indicates an IRS fault.
ON BATT – Indicates that the back-up battery power is being used.
BATT FAIL – Indicates that the back-up battery power is inadequate to sustain IRS
operation during back-up battery operation (less than 21 volts).
NO AIR – Indicates that cooling airflow is inadequate to cool the IRU.
INERTIAL SYSTEM DISPLAY UNIT (ISDU)
The ISDU selects data from any one of three IRUs for display and provides initial position
or heading data to the IRUs.
Page 17-126
Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU)

KEYBOARD
The keyboard is used to enter latitude and longitude in the alignment mode or magnetic
heading in the attitude mode. The ISDU then sends the entered data simultaneously to all
IRUs when ENT pressed.
The keyboard contains 12 keys, five of the 12 keys are dual function: N/2, W/4, H/5,E/6
AND S/8. A dual function key is used to select either the type of data (latitude, longitude
or heading) or numerical data to be entered. Single function keys are used to select only
numerical data.
The CLR (clear) and ENT (enter) keys contain green cue lights which, when lit indicate
that the operator action is required. CLR is used to remove data erroneously entered onto
the display; ENT is used to send data to the IRU.
DISPLAY
The 13-digit alphanumeric spilt display shows two types of navigation data at the same
time. The display is separated into one group of 6 digits (position 1 through 6) and one
group of 7 digits (positions 7 through 13). Punctuation marks (located in positions
3,5,6,10,12,and 13) light when necessary to indicate degrees, decimal points, and
minutes.
SYSTEM DISPLAY SWITCH (SYS DSPL)

The SYS DSPL switch is used to select the IRU (position 1,2 or 3) from which the
displayed data originates. If the switch is set to OFF, the ISDU cannot send or receive
data from any of the 3 IRUs.
Page 17-127
DISPLAY SELECTOR SWITCH (DSPL SEL)

The DSPL SEL switch has five positions to select data displayed on the ISDU.
TEST – Selects a display test that illuminates all display elements and keyboard cue lights
to allow inspection for possible malfunctions. The DSPL SEL switch is spring loaded and
must be help in this position.
TK/GS – Selects track angle in degrees on the left display and ground speed in knots on
the right.
PPOS – Selects the aircraft’s present position as latitude on the left display and longitude
on the right. Both latitude and longitude are displayed in degrees, minutes, and tenths of a
minute.
WIND – Selects wind direction in degrees on the left display and wind speed in knots on
the right display.
HDG/STS – Selects heading or alignment status for display, depending upon the current
IRU mode. Heading is displayed in degrees and tenths of degrees, and time-to-alignment
completion is displayed in minutes and tenths of minutes. In the alignment mode, the
ISDU displays alignment status (time to NAV ready) in the right display. In the NAV mode,
the ISDU displays true heading in the left display. In the attitude mode, the ISDU displays
magnetic heading in the left display and ATT in the right display.
DIMMER KNOB
The dimmer knob is mounted on, and operates independently of, the DSPL SEL switch.
As the dimmer knob is rotated clockwise, the display brightens.
Page 17-128
INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT (IRU)

The IRU is the main electronic assembly of the IRS. The IRU contains an inertial sensor
assembly, microprocessors, and power supplies and aircraft electronic interface.
Accelerometers and LRG in the inertial sensor assembly measure acceleration and
angular rates of the aircraft.
The IRU microprocessors performs computations required for:
Primary Attitude.
Present Position.
Inertial Velocity Vectors.
Magnetic and True North Reference.
Sensor Error Compensation.
Inertial Reference Unit
INTERFACE
TEST
The power supplies receive a.c. and d.c. power from the aircraft and back-up battery. It
supplies power to the IRS, and provides switching to primary a.c. and d.c. or backup
battery power
Page 17-129
The aircraft electronic interface converts ARINC inputs for use by the IRS. The electronic
interface also provides IRS outputs in ARINC formats for use by associated aircraft
equipment. A fault ball indicator and a manual “Interface Test” switch are mounted on the
front of the IRU and are visible when the IRU is mounted in an avionics rack.Inertial
Reference Unit
IRS ALIGNMENT MODE

During alignment the inertial reference system determines the local vertical and the
direction of true north.
GYROCOMPASS PROCESS
Inside the inertial reference unit, the three gyros sense angular rate of the aircraft. Since
the aircraft is stationary during alignment, the angular rate is due to earth rotation. The IRU
computer uses this angular rate to determine the direction of true north.
INITIAL LATITUDE
During the alignment period, the IRU computer has determined true north by sensing the
direction of the earth’s rotation. The magnitude of the earth’ rotation vector allows the IRU
computer to estimate latitude of the initial present position. This calculated latitude is
compared with the latitude entered by the operator during initialization.
IRS Block Schematic
Page 17-130
ALIGNMENT MODE
For the IRU to enter ALIGN mode, the mode select switch is set to either the ALIGN or
NAV position. The systems software performs a vertical leveling and determines aircraft
true heading and latitude.
The leveling operations bring the pitch and roll attitudes to within 1 accuracy (course
leveling), followed by fine leveling and heading determination. Initial latitude and longitude
data must be entered manually either via the IRS CDU or the Flight Management System
CDU.
Upon ALIGN completion, the IRS will enter NAV mode automatically if the mode select
switch was set to NAV during align. If the mode select switch was set to ALIGN, the
system will remain in align until NAV mode is selected. The alignment time is
approximately 10 minutes.
IRS Interface – Block Schematic
Page 17-131
17.6 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
GPS is a space based radio navigation system, which provides worldwide, highly accurate
three-dimensional position, velocity and time information. The overall system is divided
into three parts.
1. Space Segment.
2. Control Segment.
3. User Segment.
SPACE SEGMENT
Consists of 24 satellites (21 active + 3 spare), in six orbital planes with 4 satellites in each
orbit. They are orbiting the earth every 12 hours at an approximate altitude of between
11,000nm – 12,500nm. The orbits are such that a minimum of 6 satellites are in view from
any point on the earth. This provides redundancy, as only 4 satellites are required for
three-dimensional position.
GPS Space Segment
CONTROL SEGMENT
This is a ground station that controls all satellites and is made up of:
1. Master Control Station.
2. Monitor Stations.
Page 17-132
The Master Control Station is located at Colorado, USA, and is responsible for processing
satellite-tracking information received from the Monitor Stations. The Control Segments
monitor total system performance, corrects satellite position and re-calibrates the on-board
atomic time standards as necessary. The Monitor Stations are located to provide
continuous “ground” visibility of every satellite.
OPERATION
GPS operates by measuring the time it takes a signal to travel from a satellite to a receiver
on-board the aircraft. This time is multiplied by the speed of light to obtain the distance
measurement. This distance results in a Line Of Position (LOP).
LINE OF
POSITION
(LOP)
GPS Line of Sight (LOP)

The satellites transmit a signal pattern, which is computer generated, in a repeatable
random code. The receiver on the aircraft also generates the same code and the first step
in the process of using GPS data is to synchronies these two codes. The receiver will
receive the LOPs from three different satellites and uses this information to establish
synchronization. The receiver is programmed to receive signals that intersect the same
point, if they don’t, then the two codes are not synchronized. The receiver will now add or
subtract time from its code to establish the LOPs intersecting the same point and thus
synchronize its code with the one from the satellite.
Page 17-133
SIGNAL STRUCTURE
GPS satellites transmit on 2 frequencies in 2 modes in the UHF band. The 2 modes are:
 Precision Mode (P).
 Coarse/Acquisition Mode (C/A).

The p code is for military use only. Both codes transmit signals in a “pseudo random code”
at a certain rate.
TIME MEASUREMENTS
Once the GPS receiver has synchronized with the satellite code, it can then measure the
elapsed time since transmission by comparing the phase shift between the two codes.
The larger the phase shift, the longer the length of time since transmission. The length of
time since transmission times the speed of light equals distance.
Code Synchronization and Time Measurement
Page 17-134
POSITION FIXING
If we know our distance from a specific point in space (satellite), then it follows that we are
located somewhere on the surface of a sphere, with its radius of that distance. The
addition of a second satellite and a second distance measurement further refines the
position calculation as the two LOPs intersect each other. The addition of a third distance
measurement from a third satellite further refines the position calculation as we now have
three LOPs intersecting at a specific point in space. This point in space represents the
distance measured between the aircraft and the three satellites.
GPS Position Fixing
IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION ERROR

The ionosphere refracts UHF satellite transmission in the same way it refracts VLF, L.MF
and HF transmissions, only to a lesser degree. Since a refracted signal has a greater
distance to travel than a straight signal, it will arrive later in time, causing an error in the
distance measurement. The ionosphere refracts signals in an amount inversely
proportional to the square of their frequencies. This means that the higher the frequency,
the less the refraction and hence the less error induced in the distance measurement.
Since the GPS satellites transmit two different UHF frequencies (1575.42 MHz and
1227.60 MHz), each frequency will be affected by the ionosphere differently. By
comparing the phase shift between the two frequencies, the amount of ionosphere
distortion can be measured directly. By knowing the amount of distortion that is induced,
the exact correction factor can be entered into the computer and effectively cancel
ionosphere propagation error.
Page 17-135
DERIVED INFORMATION
Although the GPS is primarily a position determining system, it is possible to derive certain
data by the change in position over time. Actual track can be obtained by looking at
several position fixes. Ground speed can be calculated by measuring the distance
between two fixes. Drift angle can be obtained by comparing the aircraft’s heading with the
actual track of the aircraft. GPS is able to produce all the derived data commonly
associated with existing long-range navigation systems such as INS.
NAVIGATION MANAGEMENT
A typical GPS provides Great Circle navigation from its present Position direct to any
waypoint or via a prescribed flight plan. When necessary, a new route can be quickly
programmed in flight.
Up to 999 waypoints and up to 56 flight plans are retained by the GNS-X when power is
turned off or interrupted. Selection of waypoints or of the leg to be flown is not necessary
to determine aircraft position; however, when these are provided, the GNS-X computes
and displays on the Colour Control Display Unit all pertinent navigation data including:
Greenwich Date and Mean Time. Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA).
Present Position Coordinates. Wind Direction and Speed.
Magnetic Variation. Desired Track.
Stored Waypoint Coordinates. Drift Angle.
Stored Flight Plans. Ground Speed.
Departure Time/Time at last Waypoint. Track Angle.
Bearing to Waypoint. Crosstrack Distance.
Distance to Waypoint. HSI/CDI/RMI Course Display.
Estimated Time to Waypoint (ETE).
The computer determines the composite position based on sensor position/velocity.
Plotting multiple moving position points allows determination of Track Angle and the rate of
change of position equals groundspeed. Drift Angle becomes available with the Heading
input, and with a True Airspeed (TAS) input allows calculation of the Wind direction and
speed.
The computer is constantly processing all available inputs. The displays of Present
Position, Distance-to-Go, and Crosstrack as well as the displays of Track Angle, Drift
Angle, Groundspeed, Wind, and Estimated Time Enroute are updated at periodic intervals.
Page 17-136
GNX-X System Structure
Page 17-137
17.7 FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)
INTRODUCTION
A Flight Management System (FMS) is a computer-based flight control system and is

capable of four main functions:
 Automatic Flight Control.
 Performance Management.
 Navigation and Guidance.
 Status and Warning Displays.
The FMS utilizes two Flight Management Computers (FMCs) for redundancy purposes.
During normal operation both computers crosstalk; that is, they share and compare
information through the data bus. Each computer is capable of operating completely
independently in the event of one failed unit.
The FMC receives input data from four sub-system computers:
 Flight Control Computer (FCC).
 Thrust Management Computer (TMC).
 Digital Air Data Computer (DADC).
 Engine Indicating & Crew Alerting System (EICAS).
The communication between these computers is typically ARINC 429 data format. Other
parallel and serial data inputs are received from flight deck controls, navigation aids and
various airframe and engine sensors.
The FMC contains a large nonvolatile memory that stores performance and navigation
data along with the necessary operating programs. Portions of the nonvolatile memory are
used to store information concerning:
 Airports.
 Standard Flight Routes.
 Nav Aid Data.
Since this information changes, the FMS incorporates a “Data Loader”. The data loader is
either a tape or disk drive that can be plugged into the FMC. This data is updated
periodically every 28 days.
Page 17-138
REQUESTED INITIAL AIRLINE

ROUTE BASE & 28 DAY
LATERAL UPDATES
VERTICAL
ROLL AILERON
NAV DATA CHANNEL CONTROL
BASE
PITCH ELEVATOR
BUFFER
CHANNEL CONTROL
ATA
FD
PER
OPERATION
MODE THRUST
MEMORY STORAGE PROGRAM TARGET LEVER
16 BIT WORDS REQUESTS CONTROL
RAW DATA FOR DISPLAYS

STORAGE
COMPUTATIONS
FMC
FMC Memory Locations.

MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF FMS
The major functions of an FMS are as follows:-
 Storage of navigation, aerodynamic, and engine data with provisions for routine
updating of the navigation database on a 28-day cycle.
 Provision for automatic data entry for alignment of the inertial reference units.
 Means for entry, storage, and in-flight modification of a complete flight plan from
the departure runway to the destination runway via company routes, Standard
Instrument Departure (SID) and Standard Arrival Route (STAR) airways, and
named or pilot-defined waypoints.
 Means for entry of performance optimization and reference data including gross
weight, fuel on board, cruise temperature and wind, fuel reserves, cost index, and
computations of the optimum vertical profile utilizing this data plus the entered
route.
Page 17-139
 Transmission of data to generate a map of the route on the Navigation Display

(ND), including relative positions of pertinent points such as NAVAIDs, airports,
runways, etc.
 Calculation of the aircraft’s position and transmission of this information for display
on the ND map and Control and Display Unit (CDU).
 Capability to automatically tune or manually select VOR/DME stations that will

yield the most accurate estimate of airplane position and tune the receivers
automatically.
 Capability to transmit pitch, roll, and thrust commands to the autopilot,

Autothrottle, and flight director to fly an optimum vertical flight profile for climb,
cruise, descent, and approach while automatically controlling the lateral portion of
the flight plan.
 Capability for pilot input of up to 20 waypoints and 20 NAVAIDs into the navigation
database.
CONTROL AND DISPLAY UNIT (CDU)
The CDU is the interface between the pilot and the Flight Management Computer (FMC).
It provides the means for manually inserting system control parameters and selecting
modes of operation. In addition, it provides FMC readout capability as well as verification
of data entered into memory. Flight plan and advisory data is continuously available for
display on the CDU.
The CDU keyboard assembly provides a full alphanumeric keyboard combined with mode,
function, data entry, slew switches, and advisory annunciators. In addition, the keyboard
assembly contains two integral automatic light sensors and a manual knob to control
display brightness.
Page 17-140
TITLE FIELD
LINE LINE
SELECT DISPLAY SELECT
KEYS KEYS
SCRATCH PAD FIELD
NEXT
PPOS PHASE
PERF 1 2 3 NUMERIC
AIR
EXEC KEYS
DIR FUEL PORTS 4 5 6
HDG DATA FIX
SEL 7 8 9 MSG
FUNCTION
AND START
0 CLEAR
MODE KEYS BRILLIANCE
ENG
OUT
ADJUST
A B C D E F G
SPEC
F-PLN
H I J K L M N BRT
O P Q R S T U
ALPHA
V W X Y Z /
KEYS
FMS Control Display Unit CDU
OPERATION
During pre-flight the flight crew first enters all the flight plan information. The initial latitude
and longitude of the aircraft, navigational waypoints, destinations, alternates, and flight
altitudes are all entered and the FMC generates a flight plan for display on the CDU. The
flight crew checks the configuration and if correct it is confirmed to put the data into the
active memory.
Performance data is also selected in a similar way. This data contains takeoff, climb,
cruise and descent parameters. This function optimizes the aircraft’s vertical profile for
three pilot selected strategic flight modes:
 Economy (ECON).
 Minimum Fuel (MIN FUEL).
 Minimum Time (MIN TIME).
Page 17-141
Speed targets associated with these modes are:

ECON - The ECON climb, cruise and descent phase speed/mach targets are calculated to
obtain the minimum operating cost per mile traveled en route. Some factors considered in
these calculations include cost index, cruise flight level, gross weight, temperature, and
current or predicted winds.
Note; Cost index accounts for the cost of time in addition to fuel cost.
MIN FUEL – The MIN Fuel speed/mach targets are calculated with a cost index of zero,
thus ignoring the cost of time.
MIN TIME – The MIN TIME speed/mach targets are based on operation at maximum flight
envelope speeds.
During normal flight, the FMS sends navigational data to the (EFIS), which then displays a
route map on the EHSI. If the flight plan is altered during flight, then the EHSI map display
will automatically change to display the new route.
Since there are two CDUs in an FMS, during normal operation one unit is commonly used
to display performance data and the other is used to display navigational information.
Page 17-142
MODE CONTROL PANEL THRUST MODE
EFIS SELECT PANEL
EADI
SG
CONTROLS AND DISPLAYS
FMS
CDU
FLIGHT PACS
CONTROL
COMPUTER
Issue Oct. 2012

AUTOMATIC
EHSI CSEU FLIGHT
CONTROL
THRUST
AUTOTHROTTLE
MANAGEMENT
SERVO
FMS Block Schematic Diagram

YOKE COMPUTER
pilot is served by a separate system.
IRMP
RMI
CAT:B1/2
WX RADAR IRU FLIGHT
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER
AIR EICAS EICAS
VOR DME DATA COMPUTER CRT
COMPUTER
ADF ILS RA EICAS

WARNING CRT
ELECT
UNIT
ENGINES NAVIGATION/GUIDANCE AURAL
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT WARNING
AIRCRAFT AND FLIGHT PLANNING
CAUTION AND WARNING
SYSTEM SENSORS
FMS block schematic detailing system interface with other aircraft systems. Note; Each
Page 17-143
PERFORMANCE MODES
Performance modes are split into four phases:

1. Take-off Phase.
2. Climb Phase.
3. Cruise Phase.
4. Descent and Approach Phase.
TAKEOFF PHASE
The takeoff phase extends to the thrust reduction altitude where takeoff go around (TOGA)
thrust is reduced to climb thrust. If the FMS PROF mode is armed prior to takeoff, profile
coupling to the Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS) and Autothrottle System (ATS) for
thrust reduction will be automatic at the thrust reduction altitude.
If the FMS NAV mode is armed prior to takeoff, navigation coupling to the autopilot will be
automatic when the aircraft is more than 30 feet above origin altitude.
CLIMB PHASE
The climb phase extends from the thrust reduction altitude to the top of climb (T/C). The
climb mode will provide guidance for accelerating the aircraft when the aircraft climbs
above the terminal area speed restriction zone. The mode will observe speed/altitude
constraints that have been stored in the FMC database or have been inserted by the flight
crew. The FMC will provide speed targets to the AFCS during climb.
Generally speed is controlled by pitch, except where level off is required to observe
altitude constraints, in which case speed will be controlled through the throttles.
CRUISE PHASE
The cruise phase extends from the T/C point to the top of descent (T/D). Cruise could
include a step climb as well as a step descent. The FMC will calculate the optimum step
climb or descent point for the flight crew. Initiation of the step climb or step descent
requires a correct setting of a new altitude target on the Flight Mode Panel (FMP).
DESCENT & APPROACH PHASE
The descent and approach phases extend from the T/D to the destination airport. The
FMC will calculate the appropriate point for the start of the descent and will initiate the
descent automatically, provided the FMP altitude has been previously lowered and the
aircraft is coupled to the PROF mode.
Page 17-144
However, the flight crew may command an immediate descent, which defaults to 1000
ft/min and is changeable if required by ATC. FMS PROF guidance is terminated when the
ILS glide-slope is intercepted; automatic NAV guidance is terminated when ILS localizer is
intercepted.
NAVIGATION
Short-period position and velocity information from the Inertial Reference System (IRS) is
combined with long-period range and bearing information from VOR/DME stations to form
accurate and stable estimate of the aircraft’s position and ground speed (GS).
The primary mode of operation is to combine range from two DME stations as well as
position and ground speed information form the three Inertial Reference Units (IRU). If two
DME stations are not available, range and bearing from a single VOR/DME station is used
with the IRS data. As the aircraft progresses along its route, the FMC uses a current
estimate of the aircraft’s position and the inertial navigation database to tune the
VOR/DME receivers to the stations that will yield the most accurate estimate of position.
The FMC database contains information on the class and figure of merit of the available
navaids. The classes of a navaid are defined as VOR, DME, VOR/DME, VORTEC, or
LOC. The figure of merit is based on usable distance and altitude of the station relative to
the aircraft.
The criteria used for the FMC selection of navaids for the internal calculation of a radio-
derived aircraft position is shown below.
LBU
109.2
STR
115.6 TGO
112.5
AUG
115.9
HOC
113.2
TRA
114.7
FMC Navaid Autotune Function
Page 17-145
Three frequencies are being tuned by the FMC. These are TRA (114.70 MHz), STR
(115.60 MHz) and AUG (115.90 MHz). TRA is being used for displaying the bearing and
range to the next waypoint; STR and AUG are being used for FMC internal calculation of
the aircraft’s present position from DME data. The FMC has automatically selected STR
and AUG because these stations meet the figure of merit distance requirement.
The FMC also has the capability to tune stations for display on the EFIS, which do not
necessarily correspond to the stations being used internally by the FMC for aircraft
position determination.
Each FMC independently computes the IRS position as a weighted average of all three
IRUs. If, at any time, latitude or longitude data from one IRU differs from the previous
average by ½ or more, that IRU will not be used in the averaging process until the output
of that IRU is within ½ of the previous average. When only two valid IRUs are available,
each FMC will use one valid IRU for its independent calculation of the aircraft’s position.
Page 17-146
PERFORMANCE
The performance function includes the computation of optimal speeds; estimates of fuel
consumption and gross weight; and predictions of time, fuel and distances at all flight plan
waypoints. It also covers the computations of reference parameters such as optimum
altitude, maximum altitude, approach speed, data base recall and FMC calculation of the
operational speed envelope.
Flight path predictions are computed by the FMC using an origin to destination trajectory
along the lateral flight plan. The parameters used in this calculation include; gross weight,
cost index, predicted cruise winds, speed/altitude/time constraints at specific waypoints,
specified speed modes for climb, cruise and descent, allowances for takeoff, approach,
and acceleration/deceleration segments between the legs with different speed targets.
The predictions are updated periodically as the flight progresses incorporating aircraft
performance and groundspeed.
GUIDANCE
The guidance function implemented as part of the FMS provides commands for controlling
aircraft roll, pitch, speed and engine thrust. Fully automatic, perforamce-optimized
guidance along flight paths in two or three dimensions is available. This is achieved using
NAV/PROF modes of the FMS and AFCS controlled via the FMP. NAV and PROF may be
used separately or together. NAV provides lateral guidance, and PROF provides vertical
guidance and speed/thrust control.
LATERAL GUIDANCE
The primary flight plan provides lateral guidance with automatic route leg sequencing. The
NAV guidance function compares the aircraft’s actual position with the desired flight path
and generates steering commands to the autopilot and flight director systems. This
causes the aircraft to fly along the desired flight path. Direct guidance from the aircraft’s
present position to any waypoint is also available.
Figure below shows two lateral flight plans. These routes may be selected via the CDU by
inserting specific waypoints on the route, or by inserting a code for individual company
routes, which enhance all waypoints required.
Page 17-147
KPT
RTT
WIL ZUE
SI
D VIW ROUTE
FRI DOL 20441
GVA
(LSGG) MEL
SID
ROCCA OMA
SAR
TOP BUI
ELB
PEP
MKR (LGTS)
PNZ TSL
SOR
SKL
ROUTE
20440 CRO
TGR
BAMBI ARX ATH
(IGAT)
DDM STAR
FMS Lateral Flight Plans

VERTICAL GUIDANCE
The vertical guidance encompasses the climb, cruise and descent phases of the flight.
The flight planning capability of the FMS includes a means to enter publish departure,
arrival and approach segments and individual waypoints that include speed/altitude
constraints. These constraints, as well as the entered cruise altitude and cost index,
define the vertical profile for which FMS provides guidance.
Page 17-148
INITIAL CRUISE STEP CLIMB
on the FMP.
FLIGHT LEVEL POINT
IMMEDIATE
TOP OF DESCENT
CLIMB TOP OF
DESCENT
SPEED LIMIT
ALTITUDE INTERCEPT
CONSTRAINT DESCENT
PATH
SPEED LIMIT
ALTITUDE
Issue Oct. 2012

ACCELERATION CONSTRAINT
ALTITUDE
250 kts
THRUST
REDUCTION EXTEND
FMS Vertical Profile Performance

ALTITUDE FLAPS
DEFAULT
3000 ft
ORIGIN MAX CLIMB DESTINATION

V2 + 10
DEFAULT
1500 ft
CAT:B1/2
ROLL OUT PHASE
<60 kts
PRE-FLIGHT GROUNDSPEED
PHASE
TAKE OFF
TACTICAL CLIMB MODES TACTICAL CRIUSE MODES TACTICAL DESCENT MODE
PHASE LANDING PHASE
• MAXIMUM CLIMB • MAXIMUM ENDURANCE • MAXIMUM DESCENT
• MANUAL SPEED • MANUAL SPEED • MANUAL SPEED
STRATEGIC MODES - ECONOMY - MINIMUM FUEL - MINIMUM TIME

constraint, fly level until past the constraining waypoint and then resume the climb at climb
limit thrust. Automatic level off will also occur as a function of the clearance altitude setting
In the climb portion of the profile, the AFCS will control thrust and speed through PROF
thrust and pitch targets. The aircraft will climb at climb limit thrust to each altitude
Page 17-149
17.8 ARINC COMMUNICATIONS ADDRESSING AND REPORTING SYSTEM

(ACARS)
ACARS is a solution to an ever increasing. problem of overcrowded VHF communication
band. The domestic VHF system has all but run out of channels for operational control
around some high density airports, resulting in communications congestion and
accompanying problems. Furthermore, much of the voice communication time between
flight crew and flight operations control, is concerned with routine messages involving
aircraft status and departure/arrival times. The time required to orally report this
information is extensive.
ACARS is an addressable digital data link system which permits exchange of data and
messages between an aircraft and a ground based operations centre using the VHF
communications band.’
Downlink messages from the aircraft are transmitted in digital form to ARINC data link
ground stations along most routes. The data is then relayed to a central ARINC data link
control computer connected via land lines to the company communications control centre.
Downlink messages from the aircraft may consist of position updates, weather data
requests or details of aircraft system faults. Uplink messages from the ground network
may consist of weather data, flight plan or other information for the flight crew.
Downlink messages contain the aircraft’s registration and flight number in order to identify
the source of the message. Similarly uplink messages are addressed to a specific aircraft
registration, the airborne processor ignoring messages which are not addressed to the
aircraft to which the equipment is fitted.
Page 17-150
Management Unit (MU)

The management unit provides control of airborne data and transmits downlink data to the
ground through the VHF transceiver. It also accepts uplink data from the VHF transceiver
and controls the distribution and display of data.
The MU provides monitoring of the aircraft OUT/OFF/ON/IN sensors and labels these as
OOOI events. , When an OOOI event occurs, the system generated GMT is automatically
entered into the MU OOOI event memory and is available for recall and visual display any
time after the event occurs. The OOOI times are automatically transmitted to the ground
station at specified times in accordance with the system memory program. The OOOI logic
is based on air/ground, parking brake and passenger door discretes.
The UOOI times are those at which the aircraft goes OUT of the gate at pushback, goes
OFF the ground on take off, back ON the ground at landing, and back IN the gate.
ACARS Display Unit and Printer

The display unit is an interactive display unit that uses an infra-red LED matrix to detect
touches on the screen. The display unit provides interface between the pilot and ACARS.
Page 17-151
The printer provides automatic printouts of certain uplink messages and manually initiated
printouts of uplink messages selected from the ACARS display unit:
System Operation
A message may be initiated by crew action or may be generated as the result of a
predetermined event or series of events.
The ACARS MU monitors the RF channel for traffic before the start of any transmission. In
the event the channel is not clear, the system waits until the channel is clear before
beginning any transmissions.
When the MU is first powered up it does not have data communications established with
the ground network. This condition is known as “NOCOM”. In order to establish a
communication link the MU selects the first VHF frequency in its data frequency table and
tunes its associated VHF transceiver to it. The MU then listens on the frequency for valid
uplink messages. If, having listened for 2.1 minutes on a frequency and no uplink
messages have been detected, the MU will remain in “NOCOM” and move on to the next
frequency in its table.
The MU never transmits on a frequency unless it has received a valid ACARS uplink traffic
on that frequency within 2.1 minutes.
On detecting uplink traffic the MU transmits a link test message in an attempt to establish
contact. In the event that the MU receives no acknowledgement (ACK) from the ground
station to this link test, the MU retransmits the message a total of six times. If no “ACK”
reply is received after the sixth attempt, no further attempts are made on that frequency. A
“NOCOM” message is displayed on the ACARS display unit and the MU moves on to the
next frequency in its table and repeats the process.
When valid uplink traffic is detected and the MU receives a link test “ACK” from the ground
station, the MU remains on that frequency and clears the “NOCOM” message.
Having established a good frequency for communications, the MU will continue to use the
frequency until such time it fails to maintain contact. The MU will enter a “NOCOM”
condition and the frequency selection process starts once again.
The MU detects ACARS messages for and from all ACARS equipped aircraft in the
vicinity. All uplink messages are checked for address (aircraft registration) and validity.
Uplinks addressed to other aircraft are ignored by the MU.
17.9 FLY BY WIRE
The following notes are taken from an article in the Airbus ‘FAST’ magazine, number 20:
For those pilots unfamiliar with the Airbus Industrie cockpit and system design philosophy, it is
appropriate to look at a few issues which are perceived to be significant and may cause
uncertainty. The sources for these notes are broad, and include feedback from more than 60
operators of A319s, A320s, A321s, A330s and A340s.
Page 17-152
Pilots tend to be rather conservative in their outlook; a healthy quality in aviation. Because Airbus
Industrie's fly-by-wire technology represents a significant new step in design philosophy, pilots
have sometimes taken a cynical view of the new concepts involved, especially when not all the
facts are available to them. The adjustments which were necessary with the advent of jet and
swept wing transports are now a matter of history. The Airbus fly-by-wire family represents another
step forward, requiring similar changes of outlook
Fly-by-wire aircraft from Airbus Industrie have now been in airline service for more than seven
years and over 700 are currently in service. More than 10,000 pilots from over 60 operators
worldwide have followed the relevant training courses of Airbus Training for the airlines. In the
meantime, over seven million flight hours and over four million flight cycles have been reached.
The experience gained in the process of conversion to this technology has been well analysed.
Examples of A320 folklore include stories of incidents such as "stuck-in-the-hold" and "unable to
descend". Extensive research has been carried out with many A320 operators which reveals no
recorded evidence that these incidents ever occurred. Indeed, from a technical point of view, it is
impossible to understand how either incident could have occurred because the basic modes,
Heading and Vertical Speed, are always available. However, these unsubstantiated stories
continue to circulate freely (Lufthansa has even seen fit to establish a folder entitled "Specially
Heard Insider Talk", the initials of which summarise the content to some extent!).
Page 17-153
The new generation Flight Deck
Page 17-154
DESIGN OBJECTIVES
Airbus Industrie has set new standards in fuel-efficiency, performance, manufacturing quality,
durability, ease of maintenance, environmental friendliness and comfort. While advanced
aerodynamics could achieve some of these objectives, the brilliant speed and accuracy of the
computer was harnessed wherever possible. Exact performance matching of power plants with
airframe was critical for the A340 in order to avoid carrying extra weight generated by engines
which provide excess thrust. (The twins have different design objectives, and considerable
excess thrust to cover loss of 50% of it following an engine failure.) The use of lighter materials,
load alleviation and flight envelope protection, were also advances which have been applied.
Airbus Industrie has an outstanding reputation for building solid and durable airframes. The
structures have been thoroughly ground tested and the data validated on flight test aircraft.
They have the most efficient corrosion protection and their content of totally corrosion-free
composites is the highest in the industry.
For passenger comfort, the "soft EPR/N1" cruise mode, minimises thrust fluctuations. On
A330/A340, turbulence is damped by the CIT (control in turbulence) mode which uses elevator
and rudder deflection to minimise the effects of an unstable atmosphere, and the MLA
(manoeuvre load alleviation) function which uses ailerons and spoilers to minimise wing
deflection under load. Cabin air is passed through an optional ozone converter to reduce "red-
eye" on ultra long range flights, and the A340 engine/ airframe combination produces the
quietest cockpit and cabin in the sky.
COCKPIT GENERAL DESIGN
Airbus Industrie has entrusted world famous industrial designers with the objective of providing
the flight crew with a pleasant, comfortable and modern working place. The cockpit colour
scheme, light blue for panels, dark blue for linings and working surfaces, black for handles such
as sidestick, thrust levers, flap handle etc. and grey for knobs and rotary selectors has been de-
veloped according to ergonomic criteria and applied throughout.
Page 17-155
Special attention has been given to cockpit lighting. Halogen type bulbs are used, dimmable in
steps or stepless, where appropriate. Large surface dome lights comprising several bulbs and
integrated emergency lights provide shadow-free general illumination. Console lights and lighting
below the pilots' seats illuminate the floor area. The pilot seats have been equally redesigned
with optional headrests and multiple adjustment facilities. The seat cover tissue is the same
material as used in Porsche cars.
Air-conditioning flow has been carefully studied. The air is provided through various outlets that
can be controlled according to any demand, with a draft-free airflow.
Fasteners, nuts and bolts normally visible on the instrument panels have been covered by
lightweight molded sheet material for a clean, calm and homogeneous aspect.
The pull-out folding table is very convenient for paperwork or when eating a meal. Ample
stowage space is provided for coats and on-board documentation with space to be customised
for company items.
Turning now to the instrument panels, several design principles have been applied throughout:
 Lights-out concept.
 Adherence to colour coding (white, blue, amber, red, green, magenta).
 Need to show concept (ECAM normal mode).
 Paperless aircraft (ECAM abnormal mode).
THE COMPUTERS
As is well known, transport aircraft preceding A319/A320/A321/A330/A340 fly-by-wire aircraft,

used computers to drive FMS, EFIS, autopilot, manage navigation, and enable automatic ap-
proaches to be flown safely. Such technology was to some extent "add-on", rather than "built-in",
as the rest of the aircraft usually functioned conventionally.
The designers of Airbus Industrie fly-by-wire aircraft have taken the use of computers a step
further by internetting the computers and systems. Deliberately, different manufacturers,
different hardware and different software formats have been employed in order to eliminate
the potential for common faults. Software development follows well established international
rules and Airworthiness Regulations including rigorous testing and modification tracking
procedures.
Page 17-156
When studying the aircraft, it will become apparent that every major system has some sort of
interaction with other systems or flight situations (e.g. changes to the condition of the hydraulic
and electrical systems directly affect flight control laws).
FLIGHT PHASES
Performance and vertical and lateral navigation obviously depend on the
phase of flight. The Flight Management and Guidance System (FMGS) computers respond to
changes of flight phase automatically, altering performance /speed targets to fit with th e phase of
flight. ECAM information is presented in a pre-set sequence from start-up to shut-down, as a
function of each flight phase. Crew awareness of what flight phase the computers are in is
important.
THE SIDESTICK FLY-BY-WIRE
History
From the early days of aviation until the times of the Stratocruiser and Super Guppy, flying an
airplane was often hard physical work. Battling against the elements, pilots had to navigate their
flying machines by manually operating control cables that were connected to the surfaces of
flaps, ailerons, elevators and rudders. Larger and faster aircraft required more than human
strength to control them. Powerful hydraulic systems which the pilot operated via the controls,
cables and pulleys were introduced.
Page 17-157
In the early 1980s, however, secondary flight control design began to utilise electrical signals from
the control lever via computers to the hydraulic actuators of the surfaces. The new fly-by-wire
system extended this technology to primary flight controls. The conventional yoke was no longer
needed because the flight deck commands were transmitted electronically. It was replaced by a
smaller lever, the sidestick. The new system reduced the aircraft's weight, the mechanical com-
plexity and cut costs. For the pilot, the system enhances advantages mainly in terms of precision,
safety and ergonomy.
Through the mediating role of the computers which know the full scope of the technical and
aerodynamic capabilities of the aircraft, the pilot can exploit these to the full without the risk of ex-
ceeding the flight envelope. The envelope part of the fly-by-wire computers is pre-programmed to
limit aircraft attitudes (in Normal Law) to 67 degrees of bank (2.5G in level flight) and usually +30 to
-15 degrees of pitch. Violations of speed limits (Vmo/Mmo, low speeds), are also protected against,
regardless of pilot sidestick input.
Page 17-158
Technical
Of all alternatives, thought of or tried out in a long development process, the designers, together
with experienced airline and test-pilots, retained the sidestick as it is today. The sidestick provides
no direct feedback through the grip. Feedback is indirect via the results of the application. The
sidestick is moved against spring pressure and damping elements. The designers wanted to avoid
complex back-driven feedback systems, sidestick linking, jam or feedback monitoring devices, and
control-splitting systems, all of which increase friction, weight, complexity and cost and finally
reduce system reliability.
The sidestick has no direct mechanical connection to the control surface. The means of
transmission from sidestick to computers to control surfaces is via shielded low impedance electric
cables. As part of the A320 European and US certification process, the system was bombarded by
radiation from military radars and the aircraft was deliberately flown into multiple lightning strikes.
There are no recorded cases in airline service where electromagnetic interference has affected the
A319, A320, A321, A330 or A340 fly-by-wire systems. In fact, it is understood that the US FAA
electromagnetic protection standards for fly-by-wire transports have now been reduced.
If an incapacitated pilot should freeze his sidestick into full deflection, the other pilot simply presses
his instinctive take-over pushbutton on his sidestick and immediately takes control. After holding
the button depressed for 30 seconds, he can lock out the other sidestick completely. However, the
last pilot to press and hold this button always takes control.
If both pilots make a sidestick input together, the result is the algebraic sum of both inputs. It is,
therefore, important in the training environment to give priority to the other cues which measure
trainee inputs, such as the visual cues used in the past. It is important for pilots to be clear about
the allocation of control.
Control in Pitch
Control is via the computers. Throughout the flight, the elevators move under the control of the
flight computers with no pilot input needed to maintain a 1.0G flight.
In normal or alternate law the sidestick does not select a control deflection or attitude directly, as
would be the case with a conventional aircraft, and the elevator deflection is not proportional to
sidestick movement. A fore or aft sidestick application selects "G". If a pitch input is made and
held, the aircraft will pitch at a constant G until the flight envelope limits are met.
Page 17-159
Moving the sidestick back creates a demand greater than 1.0G, and forward creates a demand
less than 1.0G. When the sidestick is released (stickfree), the demand fed to the computers is to
maintain flight at 1.0G (relative to the earth). One can, therefore, consider a selected input as a
selected vector through space, which the computers will maintain, even through turbulence. There
is no need to ride the sidestick as may be done with conventional controls.
In normal law there is no requirement to trim. Without autotrim, the flyby-wire aircraft would be no
different from a conventional aircraft in that as it slows down, it would try to maintain its in-trim
speed, and as a result would pitch nose down, losing altitude. However, in normal law, the flight
control computers now detect a pitch-down tendency as a G less than 1.0G and so cause the
elevators to move up, returning the aircraft to flight at 1.0G. As a result, the aircraft will decelerate
in level flight with no pilot input, maintaining 1.0G to the earth and continuously adjusting the trim
until it reaches the flight envelope protection.
Control in Roll
In normal law in roll, the sidestick demands roll rate. If the sidestick input in roll is held, the aircraft
will roll until the flight envelope limits are met. This is apparent during a crosswind take-off, if a
normal control input is made into wind and held after rotation. While on the runway, the sidestick
applies aileron directly, and then when airborne as the flight control laws blend in, the aircraft will
roll into the crosswind at a rate proportional to the sidestick deflection. Up to 33 degrees of bank,
the aircraft is automatically trimmed and maintains level flight (no nose drop). Above 33 degrees
bank, when releasing the stick, it returns to 33 degrees. To perform a steep turn at 45 degrees or
60 degrees of bank, the stick must be held into the turn and pulled in order to maintain level flight.
In alternate law in roll, the sidestick commands control surfaces directly, which is virtually the
same as a conventional aircraft. It may be found that alternate law roll is rather more sensitive than
normal law.
The Sidestick – practical
It takes most pilots 10 minutes (i.e. one traffic pattern) to get used to it. It enables the aircraft to be
flown more precisely, and requires less effort.
The lack of "through-stick" feedback is a much more minor issue in practice than might be
expected. Alternative feedback cues are abundant and are quickly substituted for the traditional
feel.
The automatic trim function is a delight once experienced and further improves precision flying.
Page 17-160
THRUST MANAGEMENT
FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) driven engines need electrical signals for thrust
control. With this, the weak points of conventional autothrottles could be eliminated (GO-levers,
backdrives, clutches with spurious engine retards on take-offs, jams or runaways). In manual
thrust, the pilot moves the thrust levers between idle and full thrust as usual. In autothrust, the
thrust levers are set to a fixed position which defines the maximum thrust available. No thrust
rating panel is required. Whether in manual or autothrust, speed and power changes are monitored
via N1, indicated speed and speed trend as on any aircraft. Compared to the old system, this new
system has a reliability which is increased by an order of magnitude.
It may take a few minutes to get used to the thrust levers. It is a training issue and experience
shows all pilots master the thrust levers after some practice in the simulator.
THRUST LEVERS
In manual thrust, the thrust levers are handled as on any other aircraft. They can be set to 4 gates.
These gates define the maximum thrust available up to that gate (TOGA, FLEX/MCT, CLIMB
(CLB) and IDLE).
Automatic thrust is armed when the thrust levers are moved forward of the CLB gate (TOGA or
FLEX on take-off with Flight Director on).
Page 17-161
At thrust reduction to CLB (i.e. when the thrust levers are pulled back from TOGA or FLEX to the
CLB gate), autothrust mode engages.
In autothrust, the cue of thrust lever movement is not available. Engine indications, indicated
speed and speed trend are used as unambiguous thrust cues.
Noise cues are of limited value except at high thrust settings (the A340 is especially quiet).
These aircraft are extremely visual (see later paragraph on FMGS). The whole package of cues
needs to be monitored. Once this becomes familiar, and the cues presented are understood, the
thrust management task is a simple one.
Manual thrust is always available.
With autothrust engaged, and the thrust levers at a gate, disconnection of the autothrust would
signal the FADEC to provide the thrust equivalent to the thrust lever angle (TLA).
Pushing the thrust levers fully forward to the stop (TOGA gate) always provides maximum thrust
available.
ALPHA FLOOR
Alpha Floor is a low speed protection (in normal law) which is purely an autothrust mode. When
activated, it provides TOGA thrust. As the aircraft decelerates into the alpha protection range,
the Alpha Floor is activated, even if the autothrust is disengaged. Activation is roughly
proportional to the rate of deceleration.
Alpha Floor is inhibited :
 below 100 feet radio Altitude,
 if autothrust unserviceable,
 following double engine failure on an A340 (or one engine out on the twins),
 following certain system/auto flight failures,
 above Mach 0.53.
Subject to the above, at low speeds, if a rapid avoidance manoeuvre is required to avoid terrain,
windshear or another aircraft, it is safe to rapidly pull the sidestick fully aft and/or bank and
hold it there. The aircraft will pitch up to max Alpha, engage TOGA thrust and climb away.
Such precise manoeuvring around the low speed edge of the flight envelope is virtually not
possible in any conventional aircraft
Page 17-162
ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE FLIGHT

If an engine fails, the triangle at the top of the PFD horizon will divide. The lower resulting
trapezoid changes to blue and will move out in a similar sense to a conventional slip ball,
indicating pilot rudder demand in exactly the same way. However, the function is significantly
different from the ball in that the centering of the trapezoid (Beta Target) will provide maximum
performance with minimum drag.
If no rudder action is taken to centre the Beta Target, like a conventional aircraft, roll will occur
towards the dead engine. However, unlike a conventional aircraft, with stick free (no sidestick roll
input), the flight control laws will detect the roll and apply aileron and spoiler to stop the roll. The
rate of roll will depend on the severity of the thrust loss. In the worst case, the roll will stabilise
between 7-9 degrees bank angle, leading to a slow heading drift of about 0.5 degree per second,
without any sidestick roll input or rudder input.
Page 17-163
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT AND GUIDANCE SYSTEM

Honeywell programme the Multipurpose Control and Display Unit (MCDU) to operate the Flight
Management and Guidance System (FMGS) to differing aircraft manufacturer requirements. The
Airbus design philosophy of MCDU management differs in some significant ways from other fits,
such as the B747 or MD 11.
A pilot not having used a Flight Management System before should not attach excessive
importance to it. It is important, as a long-term (planning) management tool for performance, lat-
eral and vertical navigation; but short term changes are made on the Flight Control Unit (FCU)
on the glareshield panel, where the basic modes of Heading and Vertical Speed are set at any
time, as with any other autopilot. The FMGS focuses many tasks, which traditionally were
scattered, via the keyboard and screen (MCDU) into the computers and autopilot. It represents a
major pilot interface with the aircraft, but it is not vital and must not become too dominant in pilot
activities, especially in terminal areas. The MCDU is a compelling tool, however in flight, only
one pilot at a time should be working (head down) on the keyboard. Strict adherence to task
sharing and crew resource management principles are essential. The continued monitoring of
raw data (needles and DME) is always a protection from inaccurate information.
In order to help the pilot to see what the computers are instructing the aircraft to do, there is a
Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) on the top part of the Primary Flight Display (PFD), and targets
indicated on ALT, SPEED and HEADING scales. From the beginning, these should be thought of
as essential instrument scan targets. The FMA is the feedback from the computers, it closes the
loop and will display the paramount feedback. To maintain total awareness, the scan should
continue from the FMA to cover the Navigation Display (ND), and the upper display (ECAM)
memo area.
Page 17-164
CONCLUSION
As can be seen from these notes, changing to the A319/A320/A321 or A330 from other types
(other than A340) will require some change of operational philosophy. These aircraft can be flown
precisely and smoothly with little effort, and can, therefore, create a sense of considerable
satisfaction. However, under extreme conditions when, for example, severe weather and
abnormalities combine, it is most important to be aware of the differences. Under stress, reversion
to certain well-ingrained pilot instincts, such as riding the controls, is not helpful in any fly-by-wire
aircraft. In order to establish the new skills necessary, it is important to unlearn some traditional
ones. Understanding the importance of this, and maintaining an open mind, are important attitudes
to bring to training courses.
Airbus aircraft are products of large commitments of research, development and testing by some of
the best aeronautical designers and engineers from four countries. The new generation aircraft
(A319 through A330/A340) have now accumulated large amounts of in-service experience over
seven million flight hours. They are quality products. Pilots flying these aircraft will find that they
have embarked on a most enjoyable and professionally rewarding part of their aviation
Page 17-165

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CY.147.

1. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS ......................................................... 1-5

4. LOGIC GATES ............................................................................. 4-37

Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 1-1

4.4 ADDERS ............................................................................... 4-43

9. DATA BUSES - ARINC ............................................................. ………9-1

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9.3.4 Bus protocol ........................................................... 9-13

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14. ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE SENSITIVE DEVICES..............14-54

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1.2 INSTRUMENT PANELS

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1.2.1 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

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Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 1-11

2. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

2.1.1 ELECTRONIC ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR

A modern EADI will display, or is capable of displaying:

2.1.2 ELECTRONIC HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 2-13

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2.2 Engine indicating & crew alerting

2.2 DISPLAY PRODUCTION

2.2.1 SYMBOL GENERATORS

2.2.2 COMPARATOR SYSTEMS

Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 2-15

2.2.4 COMPOSITE DISPLAY ON EADI OR EHSI

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• A 3 bit word can represent 8 numbers; i.e:

Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 3-18

3.1 DECIMAL SYSTEM OF NUMERATION

(3  102) + (6  101) + (8  100)

102 101 100

Example 2: Decimal 452.64 is really:

(4  102) + (5  101) + (2  100) + (6  10-1) + (4  10-2)

102 101 100 10-1 10-2

Ten is known as the base or radix of the decimal system.

Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 3-19

3.2 BINARY SYSTEM OF NUMERATION

(1  25) + (0  24) + (1  23) + (1  22) + (0  21) + (1  20)

(1  22) + (1  21) + (0  20) + (1  2-1) + (1  2-2)

Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 3-20

3.3 CONVERSION FROM DECIMAL TO BINARY

3.3.1 NUMBERS GREATER THAN 1

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3.3.2 NUMBER LESS THAN 1

Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 3-22

3.4 CONVERSION FROM BINARY TO DECIMAL

3.4.1 NUMBERS GREATER AND LESS THAN 1

1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 05 025 0125 00625 003125

This is equivalent to:

This is equivalent to:

3.4.2 BINARY ADDITION

The rules for addition are:

Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 3-23

Examples in both decimal and binary form:

Examples in both decimal and binary form:

Issue Oct.2012 Cat:B1/2 Page 3-24