Nickel-cadmium Batteries: Basic theory

and maintenance procedures

Article May 1, 2002

By Joe Escobar

Nickel-cadmium batteries, generally referred to as NiCad batteries, are in wide use in the
aviation industry. With proper maintenance, they can provide years of trouble-free service.
Let's take a look at the basic construction of these batteries as well as some maintenance
issues to keep in mind when working with them.

Construction

The cell is the basic unit of the NiCad battery. It consists of positive and negative plates,
separators, electrolyte, cell vent, and cell container. The positive plates are made from a
porous plaque on which nickel-hydroxide has been deposited. The negative plates are made
from similar plaques on which cadmium-hydroxide is deposited. In both cases the porous
plaque is obtained by sintering nickel powder nickel powder to a fine-mesh wire screen.
Sintering is a process which fuses together extremely small granules of powder at a high
temperature. After the active positive and negative materials are deposited on the plaque, it is
formed and cut into the proper plate size. A nickel tab is then welded to a corner of each plate
and the plates are assembled with the tabs welded to the proper terminals. The plates are
separated from each other by a continuous strip of porous plastic.

The electrolyte used in the NiCad battery is a 30 percent solution of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) in distilled water. The specific gravity of the electrolyte remains between 1.240 and
1.300 at room temperature. It must be noted that no appreciable changes occur in the
electrolyte during charge or discharge. Because of this, the battery charge cannot be
determined by a specific gravity check of the electrolyte. The electrolyte level should be
maintained just above the tops of the plates.

Charging NiCad batteries

When a charging current is applied to a NiCad battery, the negative plates lose oxygen and
begin forming metallic cadmium. The active material of the positive plates, nickel-hydroxide,
becomes more highly oxidized. This process continues while the charging current is applied
or until all the oxygen is removed from the negative plates and only cadmium remains.

Toward the end of the charging cycle the cells emit gas. This will also occur if the cells are
overcharged. This gas is caused by decomposition of the water in the electrolyte into
hydrogen at the negative plates and oxygen at the positive plates. The voltage used during
charging, as well as the temperature, determines when gassing will occur. To completely
charge a NiCad battery, some gassing, however slight, must take place; thus some water will
be used.

Discharge

The chemical action is reversed during discharge. The positive plates slowly give up oxygen,
which is regained by the negative plates. This process results in the conversion of the
chemical energy into electrical energy. During discharge the plates absorb a quantity of the
electrolyte. On recharge the level of the electrolyte rises and at full charge the electrolyte will
be at its highest level. Therefore, water should be added only when the battery is fully
charged.

Changing from lead-acid to NiCad

The NiCad battery is usually interchangeable with lead-acid batteries. When replacing a lead-
acid battery with a NiCad battery, the battery compartment must be clean, dry, and free of all
traces of acid from the old battery. The compartment must be washed out and neutralized
with ammonia or boric acid solution, allowed to dry thoroughly, and then painted with an
alkali-resisting varnish.

The pad in the battery sump jar should be saturated with a 3 percent (by weight) solution of
boric acid and water before the battery vent system is connected.

Servicing NiCad batteries

There are significant differences in the servicing methods required for the NiCad batteries
and those of the lead-acid batteries. The most important points to be observed are as follows.

A separate storage and maintenance area should be provided for NiCad batteries. The
electrolyte is chemically opposite to the sulphuric acid used in a lead-acid battery. Fumes
from a lead-acid battery can contaminate the electrolyte in a nickel-cadmium battery. This
precaution should include equipment such as hand tools and syringes used with lead-acid
batteries. Indeed, every possible precaution must be taken to keep anything containing acid
away from NiCad battery shops.

The potassium hydroxide electrolyte used in NiCad batteries is extremely corrosive.

Protective equipment such as goggles, rubber gloves, and rubber aprons should be used when
handling and servicing batteries. Suitable washing facilities need to be provided in case
electrolyte is spilled on clothing or the skin. Any such exposure to electrolyte should be
rinsed immediately with water or vinegar, lemon juice, or a boric acid solution. Remember,
when potassium hydroxide and distilled water are mixed to make the electrolyte, the
potassium hydroxide should be slowly added to the water, not vice versa.

Avoid using a wire brush to clean the battery. Severe arcing may result if a wire brush is
used. In addition, the vent plugs should be closed during the cleaning process and the battery
should never be cleaned with acids, solvents, or any chemical solution. Spilled electrolyte can
react with carbon dioxide to form crystals of potassium carbonate. These, which are non-
toxic and non-corrosive, can be loosened with a fiber brush and wiped off with a damp cloth.
When potassium carbonate forms on a properly serviced battery it may indicate the battery is
overcharging because the voltage regulator is out of adjustment.
Additional water should never be added to the battery earlier than three or four hours after it
has been fully charged. If you need to add water, only use distilled or demineralized water. In
addition, be careful not to overservice the battery with water. If you do and have to remove
some of the liquid, you will reduce the concentration of potassium hydroxide in the cell. This
will affect its operation.

Since the electrolyte does not react chemically with the cell plates, its specific gravity does
not change appreciably. Thus, it is not possible to determine the state of charge of a NiCad
battery with a hydrometer. In addition, a NiCad battery's charge cannot be determined by a
voltage test because the voltage of a NiCad battery remains constant during 90 percent of the
discharge cycle.

Servicing intervals

NiCad batteries should be serviced at regular intervals based on experience, since water
consumption varies with ambient temperature and operating methods. At greater intervals the
battery should be removed from the aircraft and given a bench check in the shop.

If a battery is completely discharged some cells can reach zero potential and charge in the
reverse direction. This could affect it in such a manner that it will not retain a full capacity
charge. If this happens, the battery should be discharged and each cell balanced before
recharging the battery. This is known as equalization.

Charging can be accomplished by either the constant-voltage or the constant-current method.

For the constant potential charging, maintain the charging voltage constant until the charging
current decays to 3 amperes or less assuring that the battery cell temperature does not exceed
100 degrees Fahrenheit and the voltage begins to decline.

Trickle charging

Trickle charging is the process of keeping a battery in active stand-by condition by

continuously charging the battery in an overcharge condition. Although some manufacturers
do not recommend this procedure for charging, some operators have chosen this method to
charge their NiCad batteries. Keep in mind that using a trickle charger will consume water
over time because of the gassing effect discussed earlier. You must adjust the electrolyte
level before placing the battery onboard the aircraft. If not, there is a risk of battery incident
because the cells may dry out before the normal end of the maintenance interval.

Safe handling

NiCad batteries are generally not dangerous during normal operation and are built sturdily
enough to withstand puncture from typical damage scenarios. However, if for some reason
they are ruptured, they can be quite hazardous. The potassium hydroxide in NiCad batteries is
an alkali solution that is dangerous and highly corrosive to skin. This fluid can be released in
the event of damage to the battery. If it comes in contact with the skin, it can cause burns.
Contact with the eyes can result in permanent eye damage. It is toxic if ingested. Avoid
breathing the fumes in a closed area since that can lead to irritation in the mouth, throat, and
lungs. Long-term exposure to potassium hydroxide fumes can cause liver and kidney
disorders, and it has been identified by OSHA as a possible carcinogen.
Anyone handling NiCad batteries should avoid contact with the inner components and wash
hands thoroughly after handling. If you have a spill, make sure to wear protective clothing
including vinyl or PVC gloves, eye goggles, and a face shield. Of course, never attempt to
clean up a hazardous material spill unless you have received proper training.

Shipment

Keep in mind that NiCad batteries contain hazardous materials and should be marked and
documented in accordance to current IATA regulations (UN2797 or UN2800 as applicable)
governing the shipment of vented NiCad batteries.

In the end, you can help ensure the long life of your NiCad batteries by good maintenance
practices. All personnel that maintain or even handle them should be trained on the proper
practices. Make sure to follow all manufacturer recommended procedures. If possible, take
advantage of any training available from the manufacturer or their distributors. In the end,
knowing the proper procedures can ensure a long, safe life of your battery.

Measuring Specific Gravity

Roll engineering battery

The most accurate and direct way to test the state of charge of a battery cell is to determine
the specific gravity of the battery electrolyte. The higher the specific gravity of the electrolyte
the higher the state of charge. The best way to truly monitor your system over it lifetime is to
regularly take and record specific gravity readings.

Unfortunately hydrometers are not easy to use. Testing can be time consuming, there are
possibilities for error and safety must be considered. For these reasons we present this
bulletin.

Hydrometer Types

Hydrometers come in many sizes and shapes. We recommend a hydrometer with a float,
contained in a glass vessel with a rubber bulb to draw the acid into the tube. Stay away from
floating colored balls as the extra inaccuracy results in very subjective testing. The
hydrometer should give you a numeric reading directly from the instrument. A good
hydrometer is accurate to +/- 0.005 points so 1.265 could read from 1.260-1.270. The
instrument accuracy should be known.
Checking Calibration

As with all measuring equipment drawing conclusions from the results is not worth the effort
if the equipment is not calibrated.

The correct way to check the calibration of a hydrometer is to test the hydrometer against a
known master that is accurate to one more decimal point. These hydrometers are; however,
very expensive ($100-150 USD) and can be easily broken.

The simplest and cheapest way, when facilities exist, is to measure out a volume of acid and
weigh it. A small graduated cylinder and an electronic balance are perfect. The specific
gravity is then calculated as follows:

SG = Mass (g) / Volume (ml)

The metric units must be used to convert to the specific gravity scale based on water. The
hydrometer is calibrated if it agrees with the sample within its manufacturing tolerance.

Method of Use

Exact procedures is instrument dependent and this is given as a general procedure and
assumes a hydrometer with glass float and body.

1. Put on eye protection and rubber gloves.

2. It is recommended to disconnect the battery especially if on a high rate of
charge / discharge.
3. Remove vent cap. Carefully insert the hydrometer into cell, not pushing down
on the top of the plates.
4. Carefully draw liquid into the hydrometer and avoid "bumping" the
hydrometer. Be careful the float is not flooded (too much liquid) or sticking to
the sides of the glass tube.
5. Obtain a reading by looking directly at the float.
6. Repeat steps 3-5 to reconfirm reading.
7. RECORD the cell number and result.
8. If it is very warm or very cold correct the specific gravity for temperature. If the
ambient temperature is fairly consistent and original gravities are taken when
the batteries are put into service temperature correction is not as critical and
only necessary if problems arise. Make sure electrolyte is not hot if just taken
out of service. Let it reach room temperature.

An easy procedure is to number the cells starting with the positive cell and move from cell to
cell towards the negative terminal. If this is part of a preventive maintenance program it is
helpful to number the batteries.

Temperature Correction

SG of acid is temperature dependent. If the temperature is very cold or very hot this can lead
to incorrect readings. To correct for temperature use the following equations the equations or
below 70ºF subtract points (0.03 per 10ºF) and above 70ºF add points.

 Correction factor = (0.331 x Cell Temp ºF - 23) / 1000 or 0.003 pts per 10 ºF
 Correction factor = (0.595 x Cell Temp ºC – 12.5) / 1000

This is valid for 0-130ºF or -17.8- 54.4ºC

The following shows the approximate state of charge at various specific gravities at 77ºF /
25ºC.

Charged Specific Gravity

100% 1.255-1.275

75% 1.215-1.235

50% 1.180-1.200

25% 1.155-1.165

0% 1.110-1.130

Hydrometers are at best accurate to +/-0.005 points. Voltage can be used to estimate state of
charge, however caution must be taken when interpreting voltage readings.