Austenitic Stainless Steels, Problems-Failures-Difficulties

Austenitic Stainless Steels : Problems, Failures, Difficulties By JGC Annamalai
1.Chapters:
Pg.1.1
(1). Chapters / Topics
(2). Introduction to Austenitic Stainless Steels
(3). Austenitic Stainless Steel Family
(4). Galling or Seizing or Freezing up or Jamming of Threads of SS Fasteners
(5). Cold Work on SS, increases tensile stress, hardness & Brittleness and reduces ductility
(6). Sensitization , Weld Decay, Knifeline Attack
(7). Attack of Chlorine Ion, HCL or Sea water on Stainless Steels
(8). Delta Ferrites, in Stainless Steel Welds and Base Metal
(9). Formation of Brittle Sigma Phase
(10). Large Thermal Expansion and Poor Heat Conduction of Stainless Steels
(11). Contamination or Pollution on Stainless Steel Surface
(12). Zinc Poisoning of Stainless Steels
(13). Stainless Steel Weld HAZ Area is Colored or Tinted
(14). Stainless Steel Manufacturing: Casting, Machining, Forming, Cutting, Welding, HT
(15). Annexure
Annexure-(i), Pickling & Passivation of Stainless Steel Products
Annexure-(ii) , Solution Annealing of Stainless Steel Products
Annexure-(iii), Advances in Stainless Steel Making.
Annexure-(iv), Chronology, Events & Mile-Stone Developments of Stainless Steel
Annexure-(v), ASTM List of Stainless Steel & Literatures for Further Reading.
Annexure-(vi), Time-Temperature-Transfermation Diagram for Sensitization of Stainless Steel
Annexure-(vii), Galvanic Tables for Metals.
Annexure-(viii), ACI, Cast Stainless and Heat Resisting Steels, Grades.
Annexure-(ix), Monuments made of Stainless Steels
2. Introduction
Pg.2.1
Stainless Steel(SS) was discovered in 1913 by Sheffield Metallurgist, Harry
Brearley. There were also claims, from Germany, France, Poland, Sweeden and
Russia as first to invent SS, in the same period. Established record shows, in 1912
Maurer and Strauss, Krupp Works, Germany, found Austenitic alloy, containing
20%Cr and 7% Ni(similar to today 18-8 alloy or SS type 304).
In metallurgy, stainless steel, (inox steel in French), is a steel alloy with a
minimum/threshold limit of 10.5% chromium content by mass. Normally, 12% Cr
is fixed as min. for commercial stainless steel. Some SS has as high as 30% Cr.
Chromium produces a thin transparent passive layer of Chromium Oxide(1 to 5 x
10-6 mm or 1 to 5 nm, thick) on the surface of the SS. Increasing the amount of
Chromium and Nickel gives higher passive layer thickness and increased
resistance to corrosion. An announcement as it appeared in 1915 New
York Times, on the Development of Stainless Steel
Aus. SS are face-centered cubic structure. Though generally very weldable, ductile and easily formable, some grades
can be prone to sensitization of the weld heat-affected zone and weld metal hot cracking, due to service condition.
Alloy Temper Tensile Yield StrengthMin. Elongation in 2" Melting Density Specific Modulus of
StrengthMin. 0.2% offset Min.(%) Point Gravity Elasticity in
304L Annealed 70000 psi 25000 psi 40% 2550-2590° F 0.285 lb/in³ 7.90 29 X 106 psi
482 MPa 172 MPa 1399-1421° C 7.90 g/cm³ 200 GPa
Alloy C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo Cu N
Thermal Expansion , Cu : CS : SS = 1.5 : 1 : 1.45
304L 0.03 2 0.045 0.03 1 18.00- 8.00- 0.75 0.75 0.1
Thermal Conduction, Cu : CS : SS = 8 : 1 : 0.25 20.00 12.00
Mild steel(MS or CS) is the most commonly used material in metal fabrication. However, the corrosion resistance, high
strength-to-weight ratio, thermal properties, and aesthetics of stainless steel and aluminum alloys make these
materials attractive for many applications.
Earlier to 1950, process vessels were mostly made of CS. Due to corrosion etc, SS are prefered. But considering cost,
people go for coating/lining, Ni-Cr Plating or clading or Weld overlay with SS or on CS to withstand corrosion.
Due to space limitations, Service Related Problems, Failures, Difficulties (Problems, Causes for failure, Remedy) of Aus
SS like Type-304 and 316 & their family, are discussed here. Ferritic SS, Martensitic SS, PH SS and Duplex SS are not
discussed. Common Defects related to welding (like slag, porosity, LP etc)/ casting(like segrigation, gas hole etc) /
forming (like cold shuts, flakes, wrinkles, spring back etc) are not generally discussed, here.
By JGC Annamalai
2. Introduction
Stainless Steel Family : Stainless steels contain typically 10-30 % chromium besides other elements like C, Mn, Si, S
etc. Chromium gives corrosion resistance to steel. Varying amounts of other alloying elements like Ni, Mo, V, Ti, Ni,
etc may be added to obtain certain specific property. There are different types of stainless steels like
F Austenitic stainless steels: which contain 18% Cr, 8% Ni, and C is in between 0.03-0.15%
Pg.2.2
F Ferritic stainless steels: which contain 12% to 30% Cr and 0.08% to 0.12%C.
F Martensitic stainless steels: which contain around 13% Cr and C varying in between 0.15% to 0.25%.
Certain grades contain C 0.6% to 0.95%.
F Duplex stainless steels: in which Cr is around 25%.
F Precipitation hardenable stainless steel: contain 18-20% Cr, 8 to 10 % Ni and copper, Titanium, Aluminum.
Advantage of using Austinitic Statainless Steel (ASS):
(1). It is Shining & corrosive resistance :
Carbon Steel is called Black Steel or Mild Steel, as it is often seen, as rusty and black or dark brown rust color.
Stainless steels, is a steel having stain free , non-rusting and ever shining surface and has over 10.5% chrome . It is not
rusting easily. It is generally shinning even in rain and light sea breeze. Stainless steel is corrosion and oxidation
resistance, due to the presence of Chromium.
The stainless steel shining, is due to a thin chromium oxide film(passive layer), on the surface of stainless steel. This
passive layer forms, immediately if it is damaged or just after machining etc. The layer is stable in many environments ,
but damaged and corroding if oxygen is not sufficient to form chromium oxide or the chemical is strong and reducing
(like aquous chlorine, HCL acid or like). It is used for decorative and architectural fittings. It is used on most of the
oxidising environments.
Passive Layer : SS surface has normally, 1-5 nanometres (i.e. 1-5 x 10-9 metres)thickness of passive layer. Mechanically
polished surface has an oxide layer that is approximately 2 nm thick. The 30 minute passivation treatment(in Nitric
Acid) yields an oxide layer that is about 19 nm thick; the 60 minute treatment produces a 50 nm oxide layer. Higher
Chromium and Nickel content in the alloy gives thicker passive layer. Higher the O2, higher the passive layer.
Passivation processes are generally controlled by industry standards, the most popular among them today is ASTM A
967 and AMS 2700.
Application: SS, due to its corrosion resistance, it finds in Food Industry, Chemical and Oil & Gas Industry & in
household utencils and hand rails, stairs, decorative frames etc. (it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity,
or when it is contaminated).Due to its exceptional toughness qualities, it is used in Cryo Services. High Chromium -
high nickel SS makes them, as oxidation resistance and used in high temperature and flare services. SS material has
favorable degassing qualities(prevents permeation of air/gas through SS material) and used for ultra high vacuum
services. It is used in Nuclear field due to its, high corrosion resistance and high strength. Radition has little effect on
Impact Strength and Ductility. Due to irradiation, Carbon steel, losses impact strength and effect: asititbecomes
An announcement appeared in brittle.
1915 New
York Times, on the Development of Stainless Steel
Stainless steels is not affected by Citric Acid and vinegars and acids in the vegitables . All most all kitchen hardwares/
tablewares and vessels and tools to store or handle food related items use stainless steel material. The practice started
from 1920s. Stainless steel are not rusting and not affected by body fluids and fairly maintenance free. It has hygienic
surfaceAlloy Temperin surgery
and so used Tensile Yield StrengthMin.
tools. Stainless Elongation
steel, cost Melting
in 2" 5 to 10
around times the costDensity
of CS. Specific Modulus of
StrengthMin. 0.2% offset Min.(%) Point Gravity Elasticity in
(2). It is stronger than CS: 2550-2590° F 0.285 lb/in³ 7.90 29 X 106 psi
304L Annealed 70000 psi 25000 psi 40%
The mechanical tensile strength, yield strength are more than CS. Where-ever, 1399-1421° weight
C ratio
7.90 g/cm³of SS to CS is lesser200 GPaand
482 MPa 172 MPa
preferred, SS is used, like airplane structures. Stainless steel is scale resistance upto 1000°C, wheras scales are found
Alloy C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo Cu N
onThermal
CS around Expansion , CuSS: CS
600°C. So, : SS =in1.5
is used : 1 : 1.45
boiler, heaters, flare stack supports and similar applications. Aus SS is face
304L 0.03 2 0.045 0.03 1 18.00- 8.00- 0.75 0.75 0.1
Thermaland
centered Conduction, Cu : CSstrength,
has high impact : SS = 8 : at
1 :low
0.25and cryo temperatures, so, SS is used for components
20.00 in low and cryo
12.00
-6
services. The grains are compact and de-gas resistance at ultra high vacuum (<10 torr), SS is used. During accidents,
SS components absorb more impact energy and the damages are not severe, comparing to similar CS components.
(3). No Phase Change: Unlike carbon and low alloy steels the austenitic stainless steels undergo no big phase changes
as they cool from melting temperatures. Welding and Heat Treatment do not increase hardness. Cold (hydrogen
induced) cracking is therefore not a problem and preheat for welding is not necessary, irrespective of component
thickness. Strength and hardness cannot be improved by Heat Treatment. Cold work on Aus SS can give higher
strength and hardness . For limited distortion control, PWHT can be conducted below 400°C. Over 400°C ,
sensitization occurs, so PWHT is not followed.
(4). Aus SS is easy to Weld:
AnnealedAus SS has 40% elangation and easy to form. It can be welded by most of the welding processes.
By JGC Annamalai
2. Introduction
Some more metallurgical properties of Austenitic Stainless Steels:
Pg.2.3
Stainless Steel, 300 series. Effect of Nickel and Carbon on a 18% Chrome Steel. Gamma, "γ" , representing
austenitic SS loop expands as Nickel % is increased. Delta ferrite is almost invisible, for 8% Nickel and above.
(1). As Nickel % increases, alpha (α) region is suppressed and gamma(γ) loop is expanded. At room temperature,
only austenite and carbides are present, for all Carbon percentage. At room temperature, no hardenable Alpha
ferrite or no martensite , is present.
(2). For corrosion applications, the carbon content, should be controlled. Say, for SS304, Carbon is 0.08%C
maximum. For welding, the carbon should be further lowered. Say for SS304L, the Carbon is 0.03%C maximum.
(3). For Extra Low Carbon,"L or ELC" grades, lowering the carbon(say from 0.08 to 0.03%), will decrease the
mechanical strength. Stabilizing elements, Titanium, (Ti, in SS321) or Colombium or Niobium (Cb or Nb in
SS347) have more affinity to Carbon and these stabilzing elements are added, to form their carbides, thus
freeing Chromium. Chromium will stay in solid solution and give corrosion resistance and Carbon will give
(4). Higher carbon will increase the mechanical strength. 0.25% C is allowed in SS310 and 0.2 to 0.6%C is allowed in
HK high temperature steels. Here corrosion is considered , as second priority.
(5). Heat Treatment: Nickel stabilizes the austenite at room temperature or further below. There is no phase
An announcement as it appeared in 1915 New
change. So, austenitic stainless steel cannot be quenched and hardened or heat treatment
York Times, cannot improve
on the Development of Stainless Steel
mech. properties. There is no formation of martensite(the hardening component), due to temperatures .
Further, no heat treatment is done above 450°C as there is a possibility of Relative Prices of some of the Alloys Relative or metals:
Name of the alloy or Metal
forming Sensitization. So, normally, Heat Treatment is not Price
Alloy Temper Tensile Yield StrengthMin. Elongation in 2" Melting Density Specific Modulus of
Stainless Steel, 304 1
recommended. Sometime,StrengthMin. Stress relieving
0.2% offset is done below
Min.(%) 450°C. This way
Point 90/10 Cupro Nickel Gravity Elasticity
1.07in
6
only 20Annealed
304L to 30% of residual
70000 psistresses25000are removed.
psi 40% 2550-2590° F 18C-2Mo-Ti
0.285 lb/in³ 7.90 29 X 10 1.1 psi
(6). PWHT: Normally, PWHT 482 MPais not done.172Reason,
MPa same as for Heat 1399-1421° C Type 7.90316L
Type 430
g/cm³ 2001.46
GPa
1.63
Treatment. Sometime, PWHT is applief or thicker Alloy SSCor CS Mncladded
P with S SS. Si26Cr-1M0-Ti
Cr Ni Mo Cu1.91
N
Thermal Expansion , Cu : CS : SS = 1.5
(7). Preheating, before welding: Normally Carbon
: 1 : 1.45 26Cr-1M0-Ti (High Purity) 2.36
Steel,0.03
304L over 3/4"(20mm)
2 0.045 0.03or 129Cr-1Mo
18.00- 8.00- 0.75 0.75 2.88 0.1
Thermal Conduction,
low alloys requireCu : CS : SS = 8as: 1welding
preheating, : 0.25 heat spread to the (far away) Titanium20.00 12.00
Ti-50A(Gr-2 3.06
Incoloy Alloy 825 3.45
lower temperature area, at a faster rate. This type of high speed cooling Inconel Alloy 600 3.54
normally increases the formation of martensite or cementite. These are Carpenter 20 Cb-3 3.88
Hastelloy Alloy G 4.55
hard material/compounds and may produce fissures or cracks. Preheat Inconel Alloy 625 6.84
retards the speed. In Aus SS, there is no phase change or there is no hard Hasetlloy Alloy C-276 8.23
material formed because of fast rate of cooling. So no preheat is required.

However, to drive away the moisture, often, the base material is heated to
hand warm temperature.
Often, for thick carbon steel and low alloy steel, minimum preheat &
interpass temperatures, are mentioned. For SS304 Aus SS, maximum
preheat and interpass temperatures (250°C) are mentioned.
(8). Wrought Aus SS, is normally non-magnetic.
3. Austenitic Stainless Steel (304) Family
Pg.3.1
Al Aluminum Co Cobalt N Nitrogen Se Selenium
C Carbon Cu Copper Ni Nickel Si Silicon
Cr Chromium Mn Manganese P Phosphorus Ta Tantalum
Cb Columbium Mo Molybdenum S Sulfur Ti Titanium
Austenitic Stainless Steel : Problems , Failures , Difficulties By JGC Annamalai
4. Thread Galling (Friction or Cold Weld) Remedies
(1). Galling or Seizing or Freezing up or Jamming of Threads of SS Fasteners : a). Apply slow rotation of
nuts, on bolt.
Pg.2.2
(b). Heat is catalyst for
cold weld. Avoid faster
rotation of nut during
Area of Contact, Cr Oxide Sheared / bolt tightening or have
before Failure galled material pocked Flange Bolt & Nut,
/surface cold welded jammed and Air Fin-Fan, Cooler Header Box SS Plug. Thread the bolting work in
shank sheared jammed and removed by thread shearing
shaded area or assemble
Definition: During bolting, rubbing movement of SS parts, like bolt thread takes place. Top in Air conditioned area.
layers of the objects(threads), got sheared .Solids got clogged in the voids . As the surface Avoid to use motorized
crest with passive layer is chopped off due to pressure and there is less or no oxygen or air operated
available for immediate self healing(no passive layer formed), the surfaces are got bonded wrench.
/ friction welded together. This causes the two surfaces cold welded, non-separable and it (c). Use anti-seize thread
said as “seized”. lubricants (eg.moly coat
Problem: We often see the threads of SS bolts and nut assembly, used in flanged joints, grease).
tray supports, various supports and brackets are jammed and it is often impossible to open (d). Use different
the bolts and nuts. When we apply more torque for tightening or for loosening, we see materials for bolt and
either nut is damaged or the bolt is sheared or the tool is broken. nut. (say Austenitic bolt
with martensitic or
Theory: It is established that during tightening workmen give faster nut rotation or over ferritic nut)
torquing than required. As the nut turns on the bolt, if there is no lubrication, there is some (e). Check possibilities of
friction at the male-female thread surfaces, causing the Chromium oxide (passive) film to chromium oxide passive
peel off, resulting in virgin SS bolt material & virgin SS nut material to contact and cold layer, immediately, after
weld/friction weld . Cut section analysis of the bonded & failed bolt-nut joint showed, virgin the passive layer is
SS surface , cold weld(friction weld) with bolting pressure and heat. Once cold welded , it is removed.
near impossible to open the bolt-nut joint . To break, we need to cut the shank of the bolt (f). Use strain hardened
or use extra-force to make thread to shear off and break. bolt threads and normal
solution annealed nuts or
Wear and galling problems are also noticed in stainless steel Bush and chain belt joint, link vice-versa.
on chain belt, bushing and chain joint, rod end bearing joint, valve stem joint and they (g). Use Surface
happen when joint lubrication failed. treatment like
Aluminizing or
kolsterizing for higher
surface hardness
(h). Low-temperature
carburizing is another
option that virtually
eliminates galling.
(5). Cold working on SS reduces Ductility, increases hardness and material become Brittle Remedies
Cold work is necessary to get different shapes Sress Relieving: SS is
by cold machining, forging, rolling, drawing, Sensitized in the range,
forming, extruding, wire drawing, embossing etc 425 to 900 ˚C. So this
Pg.5.1
operation. range should be
Problem : As SS materials are cold worked, avoided. So, the stress
during metal processing or fabrication or during relieving below 400 ˚C
service, the following are increased: the , can be followed.
hardness , tensile stress, brittleness, However, only 10 to
magnetism and the following are reduced: 30% residual stresses
ductility , corrosion resistance etc due to are only relieved.
formation of some martensite/ elangated grains.
To return to original
Fully annealed Aus SS has micro fissures on weld annealed condition:
bend test , even if it is strained to 20%. Further To have full stress
cold work on the SS object, leads to cracking. relief and return to
Cold worked SS will have lower general annealed condition,
corrosion resistance . It is prone to SCC attack. It grain dislocations are
is partially magnetic. removed, hardness is
Theory: During Cold Working deformation, reduced, high tensile
atomic bonds within the crystals get stressed and yield strength are
and results in resistance to further deformation. reduced, the object
Dislocations pile up along the grain boundaries. should be full solution
As % Cold Work increases, Hardness and tensile annealed (heated to
and yield strength increases, % elangation 1050 ˚C to 1250 ˚C &
decreases. But ductility decreases. Plastic rapid cooled ) and
deformation is difficult and requires expessive made soft before
power. Often, on repeatedly cold worked taking next step of
objects, cracking and rupture happen. production.
Effect of Cold Work on Mech. Properties of SS-316

Property SS-316 SS-316
(fully annealed/ (After cold
softened) working)
8
Yield Strength (N/m2) 2.4 to 3.0x108 7.0 to 8.0 x109
2 8 8
Ultimate Strength (N/m ) 6.0 to 7.0 x 10 10.0 x 10
Ductility (Elangation) % 35 to 55 7 to 10
Youngs's Modulus (N/m2) 2.0 x 1011 2.0 x 1011
Hardness (VPN) 170 to 200 300 to 350
Fatique Limit (N/m2) 2.6 to 2.8 x 108 3.0 x 108
Magnetism Non-Magnetic Low Magnetic
Effect of Cold Wor

Purposely Hardened : SS cannot be hardened by Heat Treatment. So, SS (like Property
precipitation SS, strain hardened SS) are cold worked to increase the strength and
hardness. Yield Strength (N/
Ultimate Strength
Ductility (Elangati
Youngs's Modulus
The austenitic, ferritic and duplex stainless steels can be readily formed in all of the Hardness (VPN)
conventional cold forming equipment. Property SS-316 SS-316 Fatique Limit (N/m
Magnetism
The austenitic stainless steels, with their high ductility, can be pressed or formed into
softened) working)
complex shapes. Yield Strength (N/m ) 2

2.4 to 3.0x10
2
8
8
7.0 to8.0 x10
8
9
Ultimate Strength (N/m ) 6.0 to 7.0x10 10.0x10

Careful selection of lubricants and attention to the extraDuctility
power(Elangation)
require-ments
% will
35 result in 7 to 10
to 55
2 11 11
Youngs's Modulus (N/m ) 2.x10 2.0x10
the achievement of uniform, high quality products. Hardness (VPN) 170 to 200 300 to 350
2 8 8
Till now, there is no break through to stop or to reduce work hardening/coldNon-Magnetic
Fatique Limit (N/m )
Magnetism
work effect Low3.0x10
2.6 to 2.8x10
Magnetic
on Stainless Steel. However, the total power required to do the cold work(drawing,
spinning, forming(flanging, swaging, embossing, wire drawing etc) works, can be reduced
and also the surface finish can be controlled by use of suitable lubricants.
(5). Cold working on SS reduces Ductility, increases hardness and material become Brittle Remedies
(1). Some Austenitic stainless steels(like Type-301) are more difficult to form as the nickel
Pg.5.2
(Ni) content decreases, as in grade 301 (approximately 6.5% Ni). (2). The presence of
stabilising elements such as titanium (Ti), niobium (Nb) and tantalum (Ta) as well as higher
carbon (C) contents have an adverse effect on the forming characteristics of the stabilised
grades. This is due to the formation of second phase particles in the microstructure such as
titanium carbides, carbo-nitrides etc. Forming of Grades 321 and 347 is thus less favourable
than Grades 302, 304 and 305.
Comparing to CS, the forces required to deform or to machine stainless steel, is increasing
as the % work hardening / Cold work hardening effect, increases.
Due to cold work hardening effect , larger machining forces are required.
Due to cold work hardening effect, the bending, rolling, extrusion etc are difficult and
require additional energy to deform.

Property SS-316 SS-316
softened) working)
Yield Strength (N/m2) 2.4 to 3.0x108 7.0 to 8.0 x109
Ultimate Strength (N/m2) 6.0 to 7.0 x 108 10.0 x 108
Youngs's Modulus (N/m2) 2.0 x 1011 2.0 x 1011
Fatique Limit (N/m2) 2.6 to 2.8 x 108 3.0 x 108
Effect of Cold Wor

Property
Yield Strength (N/

Ultimate Strength
Ductility (Elangati
Youngs's Modulus
Hardness (VPN)
Property SS-316 SS-316 Fatique Limit (N/m
(fully annealed/ (After cold Magnetism
softened) working)
Yield Strength (N/m2) 2.4 to 3.0x108 7.0 to8.0 x109
Ultimate Strength (N/m2) 6.0 to 7.0x108 10.0x108
Youngs's Modulus (N/m2) 2.x1011 2.0x1011
Fatique Limit (N/m2) 2.6 to 2.8x108 3.0x108
6. Sensitization, Weld Decay, Knifeline Attack Remedies
Effect of Sensitization:
Pg.6.1
Austenitic SS often has service related failures like: Stress corrosion cracking(SCC), Intergranular corrosion(IGC).
Min.12% Chromium is necessary for corrosion resistance and for maintaining the mechanical strength. Carbon in SS
have more affinity to Chromium and forms Chromium Carbides at the grain boundries. During the process, if the
Chromium level in the boundries go below 10.5% (the threshold limit for Stainless Steel) and the surface or the grain
boudries are in touch with corrosive media, corrosion forms at the grain boundries. At a later stage, the grains will
fall out, leaving a void, creating micro crack or a larger crack or Stress Corrosion Crack and metal failure.
(2a). Sensitization : - What Happens -
Grains
Fallen out
Grains Fallen
out
Schematic Representation Etched Photo Micrograph Etched Photo Micrograph Corroded Test Piece To Achieve:
To make the
Precipitation of Chromium Carbide(Fe,Cr)23C6 at the Corrosion attack , mostly reducing acids, at the
grain boundaries during sensitization in stainless steel. Grain Boundries and the grains fallen out
(1). SS cast product, soft for
machining,
Definition: Inside the SS Grain, the carbon is able to diffuse/move around and to (2). hot worked products &
grain boundries. Chrome does not diffuse. When austenitic stainless steels are cold worked products to have
heated or cooled or kept through the temperature range 800 to 1650°F(430 to residual stress free & to have
900°C), the chromium along grain boundries tends to combine with carbon to form desired strength and to have
chromium carbides and precipites in the grain boundry. This is called Carbide desired hardness and safely
Precipitation or Sensitization). This effect of depletion of chromium results in move to next stage of process,
lowering of corrosion resistance in areas adjacent to Grain Boundries. (3). stainless steel free of
Problem: Chromium (10.5% min.) is the threshold limit to have passive layer. If chromium carbides at the grain
Chromium is depleted at the grains below 10.5%, causes the stainless steel or alloy boundries , (4). to bring back
grain boundries to become susceptible to Intergranular corrosion like SCC attack. chromium into solid solution :
Sensitization and its Control: object should be solution
T=10((-47.92*C)+3.96) T=10^((-47.92*C)+3.96)
annealed (heated to 1050 ºC
T, Sensitization Incubation Time , in minute
Derived Formula to 1250 ºC & rapid cooled ) .
C, % Carbon in Stainless Steel (like 0.08)
Sensitization is proportional 0.02% is min. threshold limit for Carbon in Fe-C steel solid solution.
to Carbon (SS-304 has (1). Extra Low Carbon SS: Use base metal and weld metal containing, as min.carbon as possible like
0.08%C. It has high 304L, 316L (ASTM specify 0.03%C, but some Vendors give 0.02%C)
Control
Carbon
sensitization & SS-304L has (2). Stabilized SS: Use Titanium stabilized, SS-321 or , Niobium / Columbium or Tantalum stabilized,
0.03%C; has low SS-347 as they have more affinity towards Carbon and they immediately form their carbides,
sensitization) leaving Chromium free. Chromium forms chromium oxide(passive film) and make the SS corrosion
resistance.
Sensitization is proportional Keep the SS material, for a minimum time in the sensitizing temperature zone, during welding,
to Dwelling Time (normally heating for rolling, forging, tube bending etc. Or take the temperature above sensitizing
spot welding of thin sheet, in temperature (say above 950°C). Most of the rolling, forging, hot bending etc operations are done
Dwell Time
Control
0.001 sec, has no above 950°C. Cooling below 950°C, after rolling, forging, tube bending etc are rapid water quench
sensitization; Multilayer, to reach black hot 400°C. Normal thick SS welding: Use heat sink, close to weld. Welding Heat is =
High Energy Welding, Heat IR2t Joules. Have intermittant welding. Often, allow weld to cool or skip welding or back step
Treatment etc. has high welding. Spot welds of SS thin sheets, current flows in milli seconds. No sensitization or corrosion is
sensitization) noticed for several years. Incubation time is inversely proportional to Carbon %
Sensitization is proprotional Stainless steel is sensitized at temperature , 425 - 950°C. So, plan to avoid this temperature range,
Temperature
to Temperature (normally SS- during fabrication, construction and in plant operation. For forging, rolling, hot bending etc
Control
304 has low sensitization operations, heat the piece, above 900°C and work. Do not stress relieve, in the sensitizing range.
around 450°C and high For SS, Stress relieving is not preferred, but may be done, below 450°C (relieves residual stresses
sensitization around 850°C) 30 to 40%)
Tempera
Contr
sensitization around 850°C) 30 to 40%) By JGC Annamalai
Preventive Measures:
Pg.6.1
Pg.6.2
(1). Reducing the carbon
content;
(2). Adding stabilizers such as
niobium or titanium;
(3). Reducing the time of
exposure in the temperature
range 450 to 900°C .
Incubation Time
Time: For SS-304, Sensitization starts, just after 40 sec, when the material temperature is 800°C.
Faster Cooling: Cooling from 900 to 400°C, within 2 Minute will produce negligible sensitization.
For SS-304L, Sensitization starts, after 8 hours, when the material temp. reaches 500 to 660°C
Measure of Sensitization: Susceptibility Test of SS to intergranular attack are described in ASTM A262 / E
Recovery: Solution Annealing: Sensitization is removed or chromium is brought back to its original condition by
solution annealing heat treatment, carried out mostly at 1040°C or above. But this annealing should be done, before
the grain separation.
Corrosion: The grains are protected by passive film (1 to 5 x 10-6 mm(1 to 5 nm) thick) whereas the grain boundries
are not protected. Corrosive media may enter and corrode the grain boundry area, where Cr is depleted. Further the
grains and grain boundries have potional difference and this will set up a corrosive galvanic cell and accelerate the
corrosion.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC): It is the cracking induced from the combined influence of
(1). tensile stresses and/or residual stresses (applied stresses or residual stresses (from fabrication etc))
(2). a corrosive environment
(3). a flaw in the material.
Control
Carbon
SCC Corrosion is mostly

sensitization from
& SS-304L hasSensitization.
(2). Stabilized SS: Use Titanium stabilized, SS-321 or , Niobium / Columbium or Tantalum stabilized,
(2b). Weld Decay on SS Welds : Cooling:
resistance.
(1). Keep copper bands/plates,
° on the sides
Sensitization is proportional Keep the SS material, for a minimum time in the sensitizing temperature zone,of the weld
during so that
welding,
the plate
to Dwelling Time (normally heating for rolling, forging, tube bending etc. Or take the temperature willsensitizing
above act as heat sink
spot welding of thin sheet, in temperature (say above 950°C). Most of the rolling, forging, hot(2). Without
bending affectingare
etc operations thedone
Dwell Time
Control
0.001 sec, has no above 950°C. Cooling below 950°C, after rolling, forging, tube bending etc aregroove.
weld/weld rapid water quench
Cool the
sensitization; Multilayer, to reach black hot 400°C. Normal thick SS welding: Use heat sink, close to weld. Welding Heat
area adjacent to weld by other is =
means like keeping water
sensitization) soaked sponge.
noticed for several years. Incubation time is inversely proportional to Carbon %
(6). Hot Rolling & Hot Forging
are done around 1100°C : After
Temperature
hot rolling or hot forging , do
Control
around 450°C and high
°
For SS, Stress relieving is not preferred, but may be done, below Solution annealing
450°C (relieves at 1050
residual to
stresses
sensitization around 850°C) 30 to 40%) 475°C Embrittlement 1260°C ).
Pg.6.3
By JGC Annamalai
Pg.6.1
Pg.6.3
Definition: Weld Decay is Sensitization of Preventive Measures:
Stainless Steel, during welding. (1). Reducing the carbon
When unstabilized SS(304, 316) are heated or content;
cooled or in continuous service in Sensitizing (2). Adding stabilizers such as
Zone (425 °C to 870 °C ), carbon at the grain niobium or titanium;
boundaries combines with chromium and forms (3). Reducing the time of
chromium rich carbide (M23C6). Chromium exposure in the temperature
depleted band(10.5%Cr), next to grain boundry, range 450 to 900°C .
exhibits little corrosion resistance. Under certain (Under some condition, even
corrosive conditions intergranular corrosion the low carbon and stabilized
attack takes place. This is called weld decay. grades of austenitic stainless
steels can be sensitized and
Double V Weld joint: Heavy sensitization.
Corrosion had occured at the root therefore susceptible to
side, because pipe was carrying interranular corrosion.
corrosive fluid inside. Face side of weld
has no corrosive fluid and has no
corrosion marks, so far.
Sensitization is proportional
0.02% is min. threshold limit for Carbon in Fe-C steel solid solution.
Control
Carbon
sensitization & SS-304L has(2). Stabilized SS: Use Titanium stabilized, SS-321 or , Niobium / Columbium or Tantalum stabilized,
resistance.
A filtering basket(SS304)
spot welding in theinPickling
of thin sheet, temperature (say above 950°C). Most of the rolling, forging, hot bending etc operations are done
Dwell Time
Tank0.001
area sec,
is found severely corroded
Control
has no above 950°C. Cooling below 950°C, after rolling, forging, tube bending etc are rapid water quench
& broken atMultilayer,
sensitization; the weld joint to reach black hot 400°C. Normal thick SS welding: Use heat sink, close to weld. Welding Heat is =
HAZ,High
connecting the rim and
Energy Welding, Heatthe IRwire
2
t Joules. Have intermittant welding. Often, allow weld to cool or skip welding or back step
mesh
sensitization) Weld to
noticed for several years. Incubation time is inversely proportional Decay
Carbon& its
% preventions
SS304 -Sensitized. Acid etched. 4 different panels were joined by
Sensitization is proprotional Stainless steel is sensitized
Shows at temperature
corrosion in Weld HAZ, 425 - 950°C. So, plan to avoid this temperature range,
welding and then exposed to a hot
Temperature
to Temperature (normally SS- during fabrication, construction and in plant operation. For forging,ofrolling,
solution nitric/hot bending etcacids.
hydrofluoric
Control
304 has low sensitization operations, heat the piece, above 900°C and work. Do notWeld stressdecay,
relieve,such
in theassensitizing
shown inrange.
the
around 450°C and high For SS, Stress relieving is not preferred, but may be done,SS304,
below 450°C (relieves residual
is prevented by reduction stresses
of
sensitization around 850°C) 30 to 40%) carbon conten(SS304) or stabilization
with Titanium(SS321) or biobium(SS347)
By JGC Annamalai
SS304 welding: If a welding technique is used that assures rapid cooling and avoid the temperature range 450 to
Pg.6.1
Pg.6.4
900◦C at shorter time, there would be no sufficient time for carbides to form and sensitization will not happen.
Sensitized welds and unsensitized welds look alike untill it is attacked by a corrosive medium or acid etched.
Welders unfamiliar with sensitization due to heating and SS304 corrosion, do not produce sophisticated and reliable
welds. Such cases low carbon grades(SS304L, 316L) are specified to minimize the sensitization risk.
Low carbon SS and SS electrodes: SS304L(C=0.03%) is considered low enough to prevent sensitization. C=0.04% is
max allowed for coated electrodes. If carbon is 0.02% or less, carbide precipitation happens, only after 10 hours in
the temperature range 450 to 900◦C.
(2c). Knifeline Attack: Remedy-to use low Carbon SS,

avoid heating to high temp.
Knife Line Attack (KLA), is a kind of
Control - to Solution Anneal
intergranular corrosion(due to
between 1000 to 1100 °C .
Sensitization) , razar sharp, about 200 µm
Cooling after Solution
(0.2 mm) wide, is found in SS welding,
Annealing and rapid cool.
along fusion line. It happens in Titanium,
Sometime, Niobium carbide is
Niobium stabilized SS(321,347). Titanium
found in solution annealed SS,
, Niobium and their carbides dissolve in
at grain boundries in room
steel at very high temperatures. At some
temperature.
cooling regimes (depending on the rate
of cooling), niobium carbide does not precipitate when cooling to room Use of Columbium, instead of
temperature and free niobiam is not available and the stainless steel then behaves Niobium in SS-347, was
like unstabilized SS , forming chromium carbide instead of Niobium carbide. suggested .
(2d). 475°C Embrittlement: High straight Chromium ferritic stainless steels and The effect of embrittlement is
Duplex Stainless Steels are susceptable to embrittlement(loss of toughness), after reversed, if we heat the
prolonged exposure in the temperature range, 370 to 510°C. The embrittlement is affected steel to a temperature
caused by the decomposition of the alloy to chromium-rich phase, α' and iron-rich well above the upper
phase, α. This phenomenon is referred to as 475°C Embrittlement and is related to temperature at which the
precipitation of microscopic chromium-rich phase. Maximum precipitation happens embrittlement had occured.
at 475°C and so, it is called 475°C Embrittlement. Similar type of Embrittlement has
been reported on Aus SS, weld metal containing over 10% ferrite.
Control
Carbon
sensitization & SS-304L has (2). Stabilized SS: Use Titanium stabilized, SS-321 or , Niobium / Columbium or Tantalum stabilized,
resistance.
spot welding of thin sheet, in temperature (say above 950°C). Most of the rolling, forging, hot bending etc operations are done
Dwell Time
Control
0.001 sec, has no above 950°C. Cooling below 950°C, after rolling, forging, tube bending etc are rapid water quench
sensitization; Multilayer, to reach black hot 400°C. Normal thick SS welding: Use heat sink, close to weld. Welding Heat is =
sensitization) noticed for several years. Incubation time is inversely proportional to Carbon %
Temperature
Control
sensitization around 850°C) 30 to 40%)
(7). Attack of Chloride Ion, Chlorine, HCl, Seawater on SS Remedies
We have services using
Problem: Stainless Steel, is often has Pittings & Chlorine, HCL and Sea
Duplex SS
Pg.7.1
corrosion at the Crevices, in chlorine, sea water Water. So, these
service. Immersion in sea water for few years, SS- cannot be avoided.
304 showed severe pittings . If these are produced
Theory: Chlorine readily forms chlorides when in as by-product
contact with gases such as methane, hydrogen (unwanted), the
sulphide and ammonia. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) formation should be
can also be formed by these reactions. Chlorine prevented or drained
dissolves readily in water forming hydrochloric out immediately, from
and hypochlorous (HOCl) acids, which is very the source point.
corrosive mixture. Chlorine can also assist in the If it is necessary to use
oxidation of dissolved gasses, such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), forming sulphuric and Cl, HCL and Sea Water:
hydrochloric acid in water. It is these oxidising properties that make chlorine an aggressive the following methods
component in waters. Chlorine is very aggressive to stainless SS Pipe are used:
steels. The Nickel Institute guidelines for continuous Pitted (a). Better material
exposure at ambient temperatures (~20˚C) and neutral pH (~ selection: Use Duplex
pH7), are that 304 can cope with 2ppm chlorine and 316 with SS, Monel, Titanium,
~5ppm chlorine. Cu-Ni, Ni-Cu, rubber,
For Sea Water: SS-304 is not good for Sea water corrosion. SS- plastics, FRP or lining/
316 may be used inside boat and inside building, inside the SS Pipe Severely cladding of material
coastal areas. Contact with Sea water, SS-316 will start Pitted & Cracked which has less
corroding. corrosion at the
Mechanism: service environment.
Metallurgy is extraction of ore, separation, purificaiton and (b). Inhibitors: If Cl,
refining of Metals. The metals, have high energy and ores are HCL or Sea Water or
neutral or exhausted and have low energy. service fluids
An alloy is a mixture of metals(like Brass) or a mixture of a metal containing any of these
and another element(non-metal, like Carbon). An alloy may be a compounds, are
solid solution of metal elements (a single phase) or a mixture of flowing in a cirulated
metallic phases (two or more solutions). Intermetallic compounds loop, corrosion
are alloys with a defined stoichiometry and crystal structure. inhibitors can be used.
Corrosion is reverse process of Metallurgy. Metals always want to Or if the service fluid
return to their stable state(as ores). Corrosion is one way of enters into another
returning to ore. The metals with the environments, change to equipment of safe
oxides, sulfides, sulfates, their compounds etc. i.e. to the low Sweat Pitting Corrosion material, the inhibitors
energy and stay as stable as possible. on Watch Case can be drained, off
Pitting Corrosion Theory way, if possible.
Pitting Corrosion : Cl and HCL are found easily
(c). Cathodic
breaking the Chromium Oxide passive layer and
Protection(CP): In
entering into the grains and attacking them. Tiny
addition to the above
sulphur-rich impurity particles, about 10
2 controls, CP may be
millionths of a metre in diameter, solidify at a
used, to control the
lower temperature than the SS (Sulfur
corrosion of the pipes,
compounds has low melting temp), remain as
vessels, rigs,
molten for a time after the SS metal has
equipments, ships etc.
solidified and later it "suck" chromium from the
SS, around them. Corrosion of this layer, just
one 10 millionth of a metre thick, is the virus
that triggers the main attack.
Pitting corrosion involves local dissolution
followed by the formation of cavities on metals
Pg.7.2
surfaces coated with a passive film, when
exposed to an aqueous solution containing
aggressive anions, such as chloride and sulfate.
Pitting is one of the most destructive forms of
corrosion, as it causes potential failure of metals
and alloys due to perforation/ penetration.
Stainless steel corrosion is highly localised and
apparently random. Tiny holes called pits can
drill through a substantial thickness of steel in a
relatively short time. The pits can cause leaks or
act as points from which cracks can initiate. Surfaces coated with a passive film, when
exposed to an aqueous solution containing aggressive anions, such as chloride and sulfate,
can penetrate through the passive layer and cause corrosion. Pitting is one of the most
destructive forms of corrosion, as it causes potential failure of metals and alloys due to
perforation/ penetration. Stainless steel corrosion is highly localised and apparently
random. Tiny holes called pits can drill through a substantial thickness of steel in a relatively
short time. The pits can cause leaks or act as points from where cracks can initiate.
Researchers found, during the pitting corrosion process of austenitic stainless steel in
chloride environment, hydrogen development occurs inside the pit, even under anodic
polarization conditions in a basic environment. The hydrogen diffuses in the austenitic steel
around the pit and causes:
(1) An increased anodic reactivity,

(2) Transformations of the austenite into martensite and ferrite,
(3) An embrittlement of the metal around the pit, and
(4) A buildup of internal stresses in the metal.
Researchers reported that hydrogen can pin mobile dislocations which apparently initiate
the secondary pits. The growing gas bubbles at the bottom of the pit cause an additional
potential drop. Although the hydrogen development inside the pit is not of primary
importance in the pitting corrosion process, it has significant importance in the mechanism
of stress corrosion cracking. Finally, the factors which control the pitting corrosion are the
concentrations of “H and Cl" ions in the pit electrolyte.
Chloride Ion-induced corrosion is not bulk corrosion. We are all familiar with one of the
most common forms of bulk corrosion: rust. When iron rusts, the attack is fairly uniform
over the surface exposed to the corrosive environment. Chloride attack of stainless steel is
exactly the opposite crevices . Pits form and grow perpendicularly to the surface being
attacked, rather than spreading out evenly as rust does. Some areas may appear essentially
untouched by the corrosion, while others will be severely attacked. This means that if
pitting corrosion starts on thicker tubes and pipes, it will sometime make deep hole and
leak through first. Thinner metal area without pits, will have no evidence of corrosion or
may not leak first.
Harsh pitting corrosion is a localized damage where pits are formed in stainless steel. The
corrosion is caused by chloride ion, at elevated temperatures and exposed for extended
amounts of time, or lack of oxygen to the surface. Pitting is one of the most detrimental
corrosive types. The only sure way to avoid it is to keep the steel away from prolonged
exposure to these dangers.
Crevice Corrosion: Avoid dead ends and
Pg.7.3
no flow locations.
When ever, dead ends
are identified, remove
them.
If Socket welds are
involved, the void
between the pipe and
flange/fitting can be
filled by appropriate
material. Or, instead
of socket weld, butt
Crevice Corrosion: Crevice Formation: Crevice corrosion usually starts in gaps a few welds can be used.
micrometres wide, (less than 1/10,000 of an inch). The passive film requires oxygen from
the surrounding sea water to rebuild and repair this protective oxide film wherever gaps or
scratches occur. metal ions present or entering the moist environment of the tiny crevice
hydrolyze, eliminating the hydroxyl (OH-) ions thus dropping the PH so that the crevice
becomes very acidic as well as positively charged . With low pH, Chlorine ion concentration
is high enough (very Salty) the chemical breakdown of the protective film covering the
stainless steel will begin. For stainless steels this critical point will vary by the composition
of the metal for example type 304 will breakdown at a PH drop to 2.1 or less with a
Chlorine concentration of 1.8 times normal sea water while type 316L remains resistant
until the ph drops down further below 1.65 and the Chlorine concentration in the crevice
rises to about 7.5 times normal sea water concentrations.
After the initiation process has passed the critical point for the particular stainless steel in
use the shielded crevice becomes anodic (acts like a tiny anode) with the remaining bulk of
the stainless steel acting as the cathode and traditional galvanic corrosion is underway.
Material Selection:
For dry Chlorine or dry HCL, SS-304 or SS-316 are OK. However, for aqueous(say with
water) Chlorine, HCL and sea water service, better selection is Duplex SS 2205 & 2507, Cu-
Ni materials, Monel, Titanium , rubber and plastics.
SS-304 is not suitable for sea water. SS-316, is little better. SS-316 can be used in water
service, where chlorine is injected for bacteria killing etc. If temperature is involved, like
heat exchangers, special studies / test are necessary to select suitable material.
SS316 is not suitable for immersion service or not for continuous service in sea water.
(8). Delta Ferrite in SS Welds and Base Metals Remedies
Definition: For Steel, in the iron-carbon Delta Ferrite, in SS has both
ANSI B31.1, Table A-3, Foot Note-26
Pg.8.1
Stainless Steels
phase diagram, Delta Ferrite lies in the left Delta Ferrite,
At the ferrite levels below, these materials will
have significant reductions in Charpy V-notch
advantages and
side, top portion, around 1500 ºC . The delta FN toughness values at room temperature and disadvantages. For
45 below following service exposure at the
ferrite dissolves and form as "α" Ferrite in 40 indicated temperatures. This reduction acceptance, related Client
35 indicates the potential for brittle fracture with
room temperature. For SS, Phase Diagram, high rate loading in the presence of sharp Spec or standards should
30
notches or cracks, particularly at room
Delta Ferrite , lies around 1500 ºC, and it is 25 max.limit temperature or below. be followed.
20
retained in solid solution in the room 15
Delta Ferrite Within welds and welds to
temperature and it exists as "δ" ferrite. 10 weld, using same WPS, the
5
Advantages: Ferrite is known to be very 0
FN is found to vary.
Operating Temp, C
beneficial in reducing the tendency for hot 0 200 400 600 800
cracking or fissuring in weld metals(if it is ≤ To increase the Ferrite

10FN). Number: (1). At the
Disadvantages: Foundry, within ASTM
(1). Higher the Ferrite , lower the corrosion resistance in some environments (hot and Limits, increase the Ferrite
oxidizing acids). Formers or reduce the
(2). The material with delta ferrite is having high strength and it is very difficult to forge Austinitite formers . (2).
or to roll or to do any hot work. Vendor Shops like low Ferrite SS. Use high ferrite electrodes.
(3). It is also generally regarded as detrimental to toughness in cryogenic service and
also in high-temperature service where it can transform into the brittle sigma phase For same Heat Number,
. For cryo services (below -150 ºC and for high temperatures (above +450 ºC), delta Castings having higher
ferrite is not recommended. thickness are found to have
(4). It can lead to embrittlement of welds due to Sigma phase formation when exposed higher FN. Lower thickness,
to elevated temperatures, 565-952°C. Upon aging or in service and depending on has lower FN.
the temperature range, the unstable ferrite may undergo a variety of solid state
transformations. These phase will cause creep-rupture and change Charpy impact Heat Treatment/ Solution
properties. Annealing does not change
(5). Cold work on low Nickel Aus SS, inscrease the formation of martensite & reduction the FN, much.
of ductility. Welds: Ferrite number is
(6). Ferrite is magnetic. For some instrument application, some cases, ferrite is required also adjusted by weld
and some cases, no ferrite is required. Due to cold work, the Aus SS changes slightly cooling rate.
to magnetic.
Common Stainless Steel Materials and ferrite with them, in the base material.
Aus SS Composition wt% Microstructure
ASTM C (max) Si Mn Cr Ni Mo Others
No. (max) (max) Austenite - A
(type) Ferrite - F
304 0.08 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - - A+2/8%F
304L 0.035 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - - A + 2/8%F
304H 0.04 - 0.10 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - - A + 2/8%F
304N 0.08 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - 0.1 to 0.16N A + 2/8%F
316 0.08 0.75 2 16 to 18 11 to 14 2 to 3 - A + 3/10%F
347 0.08 0.75 2 17 to 20 9 to 12 - Nb : 10xC A + 4/12%F
321 0.08 0.75 2 17 to 19 9 to 12 - Ti: 5xC A + 4/12%F
310 0.15 0.75 2 24 to 26 19 to 22 - - 100% A
309 0.08 1 2 22 to 24 12 to 15 - - A + 8/15%F
308L 0.03 1 2 19 to 21 10 to 12 A + 4/12%F
Micro fissures: : Fully austenitic stainless steel weld deposits have a tendency to develop small fissures(less than
1/16"(<1.5mm), even under conditions of minimal restraint. Countless tons of fissured weld deposits performed
satisfactorily under very severe conditions.
(1). Mechanism of fissuring is believed to be the result of intergranular liquid films of low melting constituents (1090
to 1200ºC) rupturing during the contraction that takes place when the wholly austenitic weld cools from its melting
point(1425 to 1450ºC). The 270 to 330ºC difference produces tension strains when the weld is highly restrained and
explains the association with red heat.
(2). The presence of a small quantity of ferrite provides a number of remedies.
(a). It increases the amount of grain boundry area available, thus reducing the concentration of harmful
By JGC Annamalai
impurities that remain within the boundries.
Pg.8.2
Stainless Steels ANSI B31.1, Table A-3, Foot Note-26
(b). It dissolves relatively large quantities of harmful phosphorus Athave
Delta Ferrite, and sulfur,
the ferrite further
levels below, reducing
these materials
significant reductions in Charpy V-notch
will the influence of
FN
impurities and also act as a weak, high temperature constituent that will give or stretch while the stronger austenite
toughness values at room temperature and
is contracting. 40 indicated temperatures. This reduction
35 indicates the potential for brittle fracture with
high rate loading in the presence of sharp
30
Large cracks: Excessive delta ferrite , however , can have adverse effects on weld metal properties. The greater the
max.limit
25 temperature or below.
amount of delta ferrite, the lower will be the weld metal ductility and toughness. Delta
20 ferrite is also not preferred on
Delta Ferrite
15
some corrosive environments like urea. Extended exposure to temperatures in the range 480 to 930◦C ferrite tends
10
to transform in part to a brittle intermetalllic compound (sigma phase) that severely embrittles the weldment.
5
0 Operating Temp, C
Ferrite Meters: Magnetic type of instruments like,0 TwinCity
200 Ferritescope,
400 600 Severn
800 Gage, Magne-Gage are used to
measure ferrites in weld metal and in basemetal.
Ferrite Accepted-j : To eliminate fissuring in weld metal, the following are followed: earlier ANSI codes, limited the
delta ferrite to max. 6FN (6%). Nuclear codes, allowed upto 5FN. Similarly, to avoid fissures during welding, FN for
each electrode is recommended (see the table)
Ferrite Accepted-k :2% to 5% delta ferrite makes the stainless steel, to resist hot cracking. Generally, more ferrite
means stronger the stainless steels.
Ferrite, above 3% is reducing the toughness values and also reduces the corrosion resistance in some
environment/media. Stainless steels, with high in delta ferrite is prone to IGSCC.
Ferrite Accepted-l : It is common to see "as cast" 304 castings (CF8) to contain 8 -20% ferrite. The cast ingot
composition of wrought 304 stainless is also balanced to have 1 -6% ferrite since this reduces the chance of cracking
during forging or hot working, or welding.
In the annealed condition stainless materials like 304/L and 316/L have an austenitic microstructure and are non-
magnetic and have little or no ferrite. That is, in the annealed condition they are essentially free of ferrite. (Ferrite is
magnetic). Solution annealing will dissolve most of the ferrite that was retained as a result of the ingot solidification.
Cast products of these alloys typically have some ferrite present. Some ferrite is formed when they are cold worked
or work hardened.
Ferrite Number is often fixed by the User or their Design Engineer(to their need: soft ? strong ? Corrosion Resistance?
Factors affecting the ferrite content during welding:
Other than Chemistry of Electrode and Basemetal, Cooling rate of weld metal, is the major one that controls the
ferrite number in austenitic stainless steel weld deposits. Slow basemetal/weld metal cooling brings more ferrite. So
the selection of electrode diameters, arc length, amperages (current) and heat treatments are the controlling
parameters ASTM C (max) Si Mn Cr Ni Mo Others
that influenceNo. the ferrite number.
(max) As we know the common practice is to select the Austenite - A
(max)
(type) Ferrite - F
welding current
304
according
0.08
to0.75
the electrode
2
diameter.8 Right
18 to 20 to 11
selection
-
of all- above A+2/8%F
mentioned304L parameters0.035 assists in achieving
0.75 2 controlled
18 to 20 8 cooling
to 11 rate
- . Controlled
- coolingA + 2/8%F
rate will give
304Hdesired
0.04 -Ferrite
0.10 content.
0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - - A + 2/8%F
304N 0.08 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - 0.1 to 0.16N A + 2/8%F
Adjustment316of Ferrite/Ferrite
0.08 Number
0.75 2 in SS:
16 to 18 11 to 14 2 to 3 - A + 3/10%F
(1). Ferrite Number(FN) is adjusted by2 adjusting
347 0.08 0.75 the Ferrite
17 to 20 9 to 12 formers(Cr
- etc)
Nb and Austenite
: 10xC A + 4/12%F
321 0.08 0.75 2 17 to 19 9 to 12 - Ti: 5xC A + 4/12%F
formers(Ni etc) in the Foundry. Electrodes with Optional
310 0.15 0.75 2 24 to 26 19 to 22 - - 100% A
(2). During 309
welding, 0.08
ferrite content is 2modified by metal cooling- rate, weld- arc length Aand FN (listed above) , is
1 22 to 24 12 to 15 + 8/15%F
available in the Market
atmospheric contaminants
308L 0.03 like1 Nitrogen
2 and
19 using
to 21 Speficied
10 to 12 Welding Electrode with fixed FN.
A + 4/12%F
Ferrite Number(FN) Measurement :

(1). Earlier days, cut and etched sample bars were used to calculate the volume/area of ferrite and austenite.
Stainless Steel test coupens were cut and micro etched. The ferrite and austenite areas were identified and area
counted. The percentage area of Ferrite to the overall area is the Ferrite percentage.
Due to magnetic ferrite meter availability, now , no body follows this method. (Details are found : Point
counting(by ASTM E562) and by automated image analysis (by ASTM E1245)
(2). Ferrite is measured using magnetic type Ferrite meter. (Magne-Gage or Severn Gage). Calibration Details are
found in ANSI/AWS A2.91
(3). Sometime, FN is found by calculating % wt of elements and checking at Schaeffler , Delong or WRC-1992
By JGC Annamalai
(4). Ferrite Content can also be measured by X-Ray Defraction methods.
Pg.8.3
Stainless Steels ANSI B31.1, Table A-3, Foot Note-26
(5). Latest: Simulation Modeling: Bayesian Neural Network (BNN)
Delta Ferrite, model
At the ferrite levelsisbelow,
thethese
latest
materials will
have significant reductions in Charpy V-notch
method to determine FN. FN toughness values at room temperature and
Measurement of Ferrite Number by Diagram : 40 indicated temperatures. This reduction
indicates the potential for brittle fracture with
35
(1). In 1949, Improved Schaeffler diagram was 30 high rate loading in the presence of sharp
published . The diagram had used the term, Ferrite25 max.limit temperature or below.
20 Delta Ferrite
Content(Ferrite
Cr (eq) = Cr%)
+ Mo + (1.5 x Si) + (0.5 x Nb) 15
10
Ni (eq) = Ni + (30 x C) + (0.5 x Mn) 5
0 Operating Temp, C
0 200 400 600 800
(2). In 1974 DeLong Diagram was published. The
Diagram had used, Ferrite Number("FN") .
Cr (eq) = Cr + Mo + (1.5 x Si) + (0.5 x Nb)
Ni (eq) = Ni + (30 x C) + (30 x N)+ (0.5 x Mn)
(3). In 1988 and 1992, Welding Research Council

"WRC" used the above two diagrams as basis
for developing and WRC Diagram is the
extension of the Schaeffler and De Long
Cr (eq) = Cr + Mo + (0.7 x Nb)
Ni (eq) = Ni + (35 x C) +(20N)+(0.25 x Cu)
(4). Schoefer Diagram (Modified Schaeffler Diagram)

Foundries were using Schoefer Diagram for Ferrite A
A
Content. Limitations are: Cr-16 to 26%, Ni-6 to 14%, Mo-
4% max, Nb-1%max, C-0.2%max, N-0.19%max, Mn-
2%max, Si-2%max.
Cr(eq)=Cr+1.5Si+1.4Mo+1Nb-4.99
Ni(eq)=Ni+30C+0.5Mn+26(N-0.02)+2.77
Role of Delta
ASTM
No.
Ferrite in Stainless
C (max) Si
(max)
Steel
Mn Weld Deposits.
(max)
Cr Austenitic
Ni Mo Others
Austenite - A
welds are frequently
(type) used to join various ferrous alloys. It is Ferrite - F
established that If hot cracking
304 0.08 0.75is to be
2 minimized
18 to 20 it is necessary
8 to 11 - to - A+2/8%F
304L 0.035 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - - A + 2/8%F
have austenitic weld should solidify as primary ferrite, also known as
304H 0.04 - 0.10 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - - A + 2/8%F
a δ ferrite.304N
The amount 0.08 and form
0.75 of ferrite
2 in the
18 to 20 weld8 tometal
11 can- be 0.1 to 0.16N A + 2/8%F
controlled by 316 0.08 0.75 2 16 to 18 11 to 14 2 to 3 - A + 3/10%F
347
(1). selecting a filler 0.08 0.75
metal(electrode) 2 17 to 20
with the 9 to 12
appropriate -
chromium Nb : 10xC A + 4/12%F
321 0.08 0.75 2 17 to 19 9 to 12 - Ti: 5xC A + 4/12%F
and nickel equivalent
310 0.15 0.75 2 24 to 26 19 to 22 - - 100% A
(2). Welding309electrode 0.08manuverability,
1 2 22 to 24 12 to 15 - - A + 8/15%F
(3). Cooling308L
Rate. 0.03 1 2 19 to 21 10 to 12 A + 4/12%F
A high chromium/nickel ratio favors primary ferrite formation, whereas a low

ratio promotes primary austenite. An optimum condition can be attained for
ferrite contents between 3 and 8 by vol% in the weld deposit. Ferrite contents
above 3 vol% usually guarantee primary ferrite formation and thus reduce hot
cracking susceptibility. However, ferrite above 10 vol% can degrade
mechanical properties at low- or high-temperature service. At low
temperatures, excess ferrite can promote crack paths when the temperature
is below the ductile-brittle transition temperature. At high temperatures,
continuous brittle sigma phase may form at the interface between the
austenite and the ferrite.
(09). Formation of Brittle Sigma Phase, Controls: Remedies
Definition: Sigma (σ) phase (iron-chromium compound) is a hard-brittle intermetallic On Stainless Steel, Ferritic
phase and it is hard and fragile and its formation causes loss of toughness and cracking. Steel, DSS, we experience
The precipitation of the σ phase, which is often observed in various series of stainless in high temperature range
steels, is one of the main reasons for the deterioration of stainless steels’ properties, for (Sigma Phase Range) in
Boilers, Direct Fired
Pg.9.1
example, mechanical property, corrosion resistance, and weldability. The σ phase can be
precipitated under an elevated temperature environment, for example, casting, rolling, Heaters, Process Heaters,
welding, forging, and aging. It is difficult to prevent the precipitation of the σ phase when Flares, FCC Regenerators,
the Cr content is above a certain level (above 20 wt.%) in stainless steels. The addition of a Fired Equipments. etc :
strong ferrite stabilizer into the stainless steels (Cr, Si, or Mo) rapidly leads to the Avoid this temperature
formation of the σ phase. This means that the transformation from δ-ferrite to the σ phase range in service or
can be accelerated when the Cr, Si, or Mo diffuse efficiently in δ-ferrite. specifically avoid the
exposure for longer time.
The σ phase is a tetragonal crystal structure, and its precipitation temperature is between Sigma Phase formation is
600°C and 1000°C extensive above 900°C. No
danger(brittle effect) is
noticed, when the
operation is extended for
the Sigma Phase formed
components till the
temperature is brought
Fired Heater, Cast Tubes
down to 250°C or below
with Crack due to Sigma Phase Fired Heater, Header Fitting or at room at temperature.
with Crack due to Sigma Phase
It is difficult to transform
Problem: Sigma phase has a direct effect on the mechanical properties of the metal. It can the Sigma formed
form, when service temperature is within 565-952°C. The upper limit for sigma phase components to safe
formation varies from 870 to 980°C. For example, embrittlement in 304SS usually occurs operation. Normally, the
slowly. Say, after 10 years service at 650°C only about 2 to 3% sigma phase will show in its micro cracked and open
macrostructure . After 900 °C, it forms within a couple of minutes. cracked components, due
When Sigma Phase is formed, it consumes chromium and molybdenum present within the to sigma phase formations,
matrix, which leads to the depletion in these elements It is usually not detrimental at high are scrapped.
temperature, but if cooled below 260°C, it will result in almost complete loss of toughness. Decreasing % delta ferrite
When the phase is continuous in some parts of the material, it is serious. or ferrite forming
elements, decreases the
Most susceptable to Sigma Phase is 25Cr-20Ni Cast Furnace Tubes. Formation of Sigma sigma phase formation.
Phase increases the room temperature tensile strength and hardness, decreases ductility
to the value, near to brittleness. Cracks appear, if the material is cooled from operating
temp to room temp.
On (a). SS-304,316, max. Sigma forms around 640°C and
(b). on SS-309,310 max. Sigma forms around 760°C
Intergranular corrosion will result in selective attack of this phase Iron-base alloys with
high chromium contents 18 to 25 wt% are generally prone to brittle sigma-phase
formation during prolonged exposures above 650°C. Alloys with nickel contents greater
than 30% are less prone to sigma-formation but are more susceptible to corrosion in high
temperature environments. The precipitation of Fe-Cr sigma phase, which occurs max. at
grain boundaries in the alloy, can lead to considerable reduction in creep ductility at
elevated temperatures and loss of fracture toughness when the components are cooled to
room temperature
Stable Austenite: As cast HK40 (0.4%C,25%Cr,20%Ni,1.75%Si) alloy, used in Boiler and Direct fired Heater supports,
doors etc, is stable as austenitic, over its entire temperature range of application. SS310 also a fully austenitic SS.
Formation of sigma phase in HK alloy can occur from austenite in the range760 to 871°C.
By JGC Annamalai
The formation of sigma phase affects the corrosion resistance as well as the mechanical properties. Small fractions of
Sigma phase (~1 %) could drastically lower the impact toughness and resistance to pitting corrosion. Molibdenum and
Columbium speed up the formation of Sigma. Nickel controls the maximum temperature, the sigma forms.
Increasing the ferrite to have higher strength has limitations. Above 12% ferrite can be detrimental to corrosion
resistance and mechanical properties. At 730°C, sigma phase will form quite rapidly. At lower temperature, sigma
formation, takes long time. Variation in chemical composition, will change the rate of sigmatization and starting point
of sigma formation. Molybdenum and columbium will speed up the sigma formation. As nickel percentage increases,
increases the max. temperature at which Sigma is present.
It is noted, Iron will dissolve large large amounts of chromium. Due to microsegrigation, ferrite present in austenitic
welds, will usually contain enough chromium to convert to Sigma with a minimum amount of diffusion. Once Sigma
formed, to revert back to ferrite structure or SS in sold solution, there is only one alternative present - solution
annealing at 1010°C. Fissured or cracked objects, due to Sigma formation are often scrapped.
Pg.9.2
By JGC Annamalai
Pg.9.3
Sigma Phase formation on SS Welds and Base Metals :

Exposure of austenitic stainless steel welds to elevated temperatures can lead to extensive changes in the
microstructural features of the weld metal. The welds normally contain a duplex (ϒ+δ) microstructure. On exposure to
elevated temperatures over a long period of time, a continuous network of M23C6 carbide forms at the
austenite/ferrite interface. Often the network has been observed to be interconnected. The formation of the network
of carbides has been found to reduce the elevated temperature creep-rupture properties of the type-308 stainless
steel welds. The ferrite in type-308 austenitic stainless steel welds has been found to be unstable and upon aging at
temperatures between 550 to 850°C it transforms to sigma phase. All of these phase changes have been found to
influence the creep-rupture properties of the weld metal. At temperatures below 550°C the ferrite has been found to
decompose spinodally into (α & α') phases.
By JGC Annamalai
Research and Development on Sigma Phase of Stainless Steel
(1)In 1907, Treitschke and Tammann found that the б phase in the Fe-Cr binary system was an intermetallic compound
Pg.9.4
of 30 wt.% Cr~50 wt.% Cr
(2)In 1927, Bain and Griffiths observed the successful б phase in the Fe-Cr-Ni ternary system. They found that the б
phase was a very hard and brittle compound which impacted the toughness of the steels. At that time, the б phase was
called the “B constituent”
(3)In 1936, this Fe-Cr compound was called the “б phase” by Jett and Foote, which became its official name
(4)In 1951, the crystal structure of the б phase in the Fe-Cr binary system was examined by Yano and Abiko They
pointed out that the б phase exhibited slower precipitation kinetics in the Fe-Cr alloy system than in the Fe-Cr-Mo and
Fe-Cr-Si ternary systems
(5)In 1966, the б phase was observed by Hattersley and Hume-Rothery and Hall and Algie in austenitic stainless steels.
(6)By 1966, the б phase had been found in over 50 transition alloys , including Cr-Ni, Fe-Cr-Ni, Fe-Cr-Mo, Fe-Cr-Mn, Fe-
Cr-Ni-Mo, Fe-Cr-Si, Fe-V, Re-Cr, Mo-Re, Ta-Al, W-Te, Ta-V, Zr-Ir, Nb-Pd, Ti-Mn, and Nb-Fe.
TTT Diagram of some of the common Alloys which suffer due to Sigma Phase.
(10). Large Thermal Expansion and Poor Heat Conduction of SS Remedies
Pg.10.1
Thermal Properties of some Common Metals:
Metals Aus Stainless Steel Aus Stainless Steel Ferri & Marte SS Steel Copper Aluminum Gold Invar
(at room Temperature, 20 °C) 304,304L,321,347 316,316L,317, 410,416,420,431
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expan, mm / mm / °C 16x10-6 17x10-6 10.5x10-6 11x10-6 16.7x10-6 24x10-6 0.9x10-6
Thermal Conductivity, watt/m/ °C 17 16 30 43 386 24 315
Electrical Resistivity, Ω mm2/m 0.82 0.82 0.5 9.8 1.68 2.76 2.21
Definition: These thermal properties like coefficient of thermal expan, heat conduction etc If Austenitic SS material
are much used by Heat Exchanger Design Engineers, designing HeatTransfer Equipments. is selected for a
Problem: Due to high (1.5 times) thermal expansion and lower thermal conductivity (0.372 particular purpose,
times) and high electrical resistance (4.25 times) , comparing to Steel, Aus.SS do not equipment has to be
conduct heat and heats up the material fast, without heat conduction. This makes the SS designed to take
Therm al Expansion of som e Com m on M etals: Units : m m / m m /°C
material to bend/buckle/warp.
M etals Aus Stainless Aus Stainless Steel Ferri & M arte SS Steel Copper Alum inum Invar
care of excess expansion
Precaution : Assembled CS and SS Steel
object 316,316L,317, 410.416,420,431
will have-6 distortion,-6 if the object is-6heated up. -6 and poor thermal
-6 -6 -6
Coefficient of Linear Therm al Expan, m m / m m / °C 304,304L,321,347
16x10 16.5x10 10.5x10 11x10 16.7x10 24x10 0.9x10
Take suitable counter measures to void the ill effects of these properties. conduction problem.
During Furnace heating
Welding Electrode: Big problem is welding electrode. Normally, the SS welding electrode is of stainless steel for
about 40% shorter than normal CS welding electrode length, to compansate for higher forging, solution
thermal expansion and low thermal conductivity (electrode flux falls off/spalls, if the annealing etc,
electrode is heated up). Normally MS Electrodes are 450 mm long and SS Electrodes are
(1). provision should be
only 300 mm long, for the similar electrode dia size.
made for thermal
Furnace Heating : During furnace heating, the operator should have allowance for thermal growth due to
expansion and have suitable supports to the sagging pipes/equipments while at high expansion
temperatures and also stacking of equipments inside the Furnace should be reviewed. The (2). the dead loads over
equipment inside the furnace, being heated/treated / solution annealed should be them should be
supported propertly to control distortion. checked, for the heated
material, to get
Welding Heat : Welding Heat is calculated from the Formula, E=IR2t or E=VIt, here, E is
pressed/deformed.
Energy, in Watt Sec; I is , Eectric Current, in Amps; R, is Electrical Resistance , in Ohms; t
is time, in Sec; V is Electric Potential(Volts), in Volts. (1 Watt-Sec is 1 Joule)
During welding(thicker material) SS gets heated up at the HAZ and making it to sensitize. If
the equipment/piping is not Solution Annealed, extra low carbon electrode or Ti or Co/Nb
Stabilized electrode should be selected or a suitable method to drain away the chokked up
heat should be provided. If the piping is large or having fixed ends and / or having no
flexibility, thinner SS pipes, immediately next to weld, used to bulge/kink to accomodate
the thermal expansion.
(11). Contamination / Pollusion on Stainless Steel Surfaces, Causes & Controls
Why Stainless Steel Corrode :
Pg.11.1
Stainless steel does not readily corrode or rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does.
However, its surface is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity environments or if
The chain is SS-304 material. During fabrication/welding the

it is contaminated.
fabricator had used CS forging dies and tools. So, after the
For Formation and maintenance of the passive layer, it is necessary, the steel surface must
chain got wet, rust had formed on SS surface

be exposed to oxygen. Corrosion resistance is greatest when the steel is boldly exposed
and the surface is maintained free of deposits. If passivity is destroyed under conditions
that do not permit restoration of the passive film, then stainless steel will corrode much
like a carbon or low-alloy steel. For example, covering a portion of the surface – say,
biofouling, painting, or installing a gasket – produces an oxygen-depleted region under the
covered region. The oxygen-depleted region is anodic relative to the well-aerated &
exposed surface, possibly resulting in the corrosion of the covered region.
To have SS optimum corrosion resistance, stainless steel surfaces must be clean and have
an adequate supply of oxygen to maintain their passive surface layer.
Rust staining can occur and has been reported as anything from a slight brown 'bloom' on
the surface to severe surface pitting or rusty scour marks on items such as handrails. These
effects are usually due to surface contamination from contact with non-stainless steel
items.
Consequence of Iron contamination is costly to remedy . It is avoidable. Please control.
Controls: While working on SS, use

tools and other contacting material Ways or source of Iron/Fe Contamination on
from SS. If it is difficult to use SS
contacting material, the contact
Stainless Steel Surface
may be SS weld overlaid or SS Shim (Some of the Shop Bad Practices)
sleeving can be made. Worst case,
use isolating materials like masking
tape/paper tape, plastics , gasket as
a temporary measure. Steel
Lifting Hook
-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o--
Flying Steel Dust/Cloud

(from Steel Grinding/Steel grit blasting)
Steel
Assembly Steel
Fixure Hand
Tools
Steel
Lifting Chain Use Handtools, ls,
dtoo less
Steel made Han StSS. ain Ifls aSS re
Use from
tools d fromused
eare S S toon
o
t el,
eCS
Roller/die a e s
Steel m f th on tool,
el. I n carbthe
please
Ste edclean o n th tool
e
,
Support forusthe cleadust t e tc
ssteel
e dus etc, S
plea r steel e on S
before f o using
re u
son SS
Steel b e fo
Steel Chuck
Fork Jaw
Contamination of Stainless Steel Surface by Free Iron and Iron Oxide:

There are many ways, Stainless Steel surface is contaminated and stained. It happens in the Iron & Steel making Industry, in
transport, in the Fabrication Shop or during Installation or in Operation. The side walls of this equipment(below)
(1). Contamination happens like this: (1). Stages: Steel (Fe) is contacting with SS surface. is made of SS-304 material. Due to poor
fabrication practices and poor Fe dust
(2). (3). SS surface picks up Fe. (4). Fe changes to Iron red oxide powder. (5). When control , the Fe dust had deposited the
wetness causes brownish / red film and forms a stain on the surface. walls. After getting wet, stain marks had
developed.
(2). Source of Contamination:
(a). (a). Steel Dust primarily from grinding and Fe pick up from steel contact points on SS
Pg.11.1
Pg.11.2
surface forms, iron oxide product. Also, oxide dust from blasting area, iron oxide
from the rust areas are flown to the SS surface and deposits on it . Iron oxide form a
stain on the SS surface, when the surface is wet.
(b). (b). Other deposits like oil, grease, organic substances etc on the SS surface block
the SS surface to the atmosphere/oxygen. In case of scratch or damage to the passive
film, the surface is prevented from vergin Chromium to form Chromium Oxide and
Contamination of stainless steel by Iron: the
preventing the passive layer. Any damage to the thin Chromium Oxide layer, example, here displayed is typical case of Iron
contamination caused by the mixed use of
protecting the interior, is exposed and this will lead to corrosion and surface damage. iron (or steel) and stainless steel in the same
shop, without proper materials segregation. In
the process of decontamination, it is important
that traces of Iron are really removed and not
(c). (c). There are cases, continuous contacting of iron/steel material on SS surface(as in just spared.
supports, rollers, dies in the forming industry), found to corrode fast and form a dent
or a lake, even leak through holes. Carbon pick up from CS is possible in high temp or
longer time contact.
Case Studies:
(1). Lime & white Cement: Often we notice, white washed walls(with lime) and white
cement used to join tiles etc are getting reddish/brownish. This is due to Fe or Iron
oxide present in the lime/cement powder. These powers are made using, crushers,
sleeves etc made of CS. Fe from these machineries and CS Trovel (used during mason
work)causes Fe contamination at lime/cement . Later we find color changes white to
brownish or red color . The flange is SS-304L material. The
fabricator had used CS dies to forge the
Remedy, the Fe/Fe oxide should be removed at the Factory or before use, using flange. It was shining at the Shop. But,
magnets. after the surface got wet, the stain
marks had appeared on the SS surface.
(2). No oxygen to regenerate/self-repair the passive layer: It also has steel dust corrosion.
If the SS plates are stacked or there is a stack of other material on SS and there is
some organic material(grease/cloth, paint, food item and it is wet), present in
between the stacks, corrosion used to occur at the organic dirt location due to the
attack of organic acid from decayed organic material or mechanical break and
insufficient oxygen at the dirt place
(3). Wrong Material Selection or Mix up: Galvanic Corrosion.

Sometime, SS and CS or other material are mixed up or wrong material is selected at The SS Blade was wrapped with Plastic
the design stage or at the assembly stage. Comparing SS and CS , SS is more noble sheet and a paper(organic) wrap over
that. Water drop on the paper had decay
and CS is less noble. In the Galvanic Series, the energy levels of some and sent organic acid to blade. Corrosion
materials/metals like gold, silver, titanium etc are high. Some materials like happend due to lack of Oxygen and acid.
zinc, aluminum have low energy. In the same environment, the low
energy material corrode fast, comparing to high energy material. CS
starts corrosion fast, comparing to SS.
Remedy: The design and engg should not mix different grade
material. At Shop, Segrigate/ separate SS and CS and move with
separate bins and with tags till assembly. Use PMI check at different Use Handtools, ,
tools s
and tainles re
stages to control mix up. mades e
U rom
Hfrom S SS. If aSS
tools el,
tools e f eused SS non
mad are f t h o steCSl,
el. I n carbthe
please to o
Ste edcleano n t hetool
a
e cle l dust e tc ,
forusthe a ssteel d ust etc, S
(4). Iron and Carbon Pick up During Welding: ple r stee e on S
before fo using son SS
re u
b e fo
Iron and Carbon Pick up During Welding are often noticed when SS welding and CS grinding are happening near by. Rust marks
are found on SS welds due to Fe pick up.
Failing to clean weld edge or failing to clean organic materials, paint etc on weld edge also have weld defects like porosity, high
carbon pick ups and cracks.
Detection & Removal : On SS, free iron or iron oxide is detected by Iron Detection Solution and tested per ASTM-A380:
Spray the above solution, on SS surface, suspected with Iron 3
Distilled water 94 weight % 1000 cm
contaminaiton. Appearance of bluish stain, is the proof for Iron presence. 3
The test area should be cleaned immediately, using acitic acid or plenty of Nitric acid 3 weight % 20 cm
water. Potassium ferricyanide 3 weight % 30 grams
Potassium ferricyanide 3 weight % 30 grams

Controls & Prevention:
Pg.11.3Pg.11.1
(1). Use Stainless Steel hand tools while working on SS surfaces . Have contact isolator(plastic, paper, SS Shim Plate, Dry Wood,
wherever possible, for supports/clamps etc.
(2). Have separate Shop for SS and for CS
(3). Have curtains and walls to separate, grinding & welding area and blasting & painting to contain dust & sparks.
(4). Use SS weld overlay on Steel roller , die surfaces, hammer surfaces, claws, jaws at CS-SS contact surfaces.
(5). If SS hand tools are used on CS, clean the dust etc, before using on SS
(6). All fastners, having contact on SS surface, should be made from SS or have suitable isolators .
(7). Follow Pickling & passivation before dispatch
Floating steel particle-cloud/Fe/Iron Oxide is primarily produced by Vendor should follow all
Grinding, grit blasting, cleaning process, welding , arc-air gouging, preventive measures to
Control Contamination
.
gas cutting etc. To control the dust and spatter and the like, these
though the Vendor
operations should be done in separate buildings. Within this
does Pickling & Passivation
building, the cabins with blinds and curtains and partitions should
at the end
be made to contain, the dust producing source. Dust catchers /
vacuum pullers should be installed where-ever possible.
Store materials, on plastic or dry wooden pallets. Use rubber mats for soft seating, on pallets and on Floors.
Removal of Stains:
(a). Light Stains: Generally, sweat type contamination, can be soap solution/detergent washed and cleaned.
(b). Medium Stains: Stain removing solvents like , acetone, methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, methyl ethyl ketone, benzene, isopropyl
alcohol, toluene, mineral spirits, and turpentine . 30% Nitric Acid also used for medium stain removal.
(c). Strong Stains: Pickling: Effective Removal of Stains: Nitric acid or nitric acid+ hydrofluoric acid preparations are the most
effective way for dissolving Free Iron and Iron oxide and stains and removing them and returning to Stainless Steel Surface . This
process may cause surface etching(matt finish), which may be unacceptable for few people, on the restored item. To return to
original SS, the pickled SS surface should be passivated by applying Nitric Acid solution on the surface.
Maintenance: When stainless steel was first discovered, it was claimed that it is Stainless, Rustless, Ever-Shining. As with all other
Structures and Objects, the stainless steel objects also need periodical cleaning or maintenance to keep the surface stainless or
rustless or ever-shining.
1 The sculpture , The Cloud Gate or The Bean (looking like a very large
mercury drop) in Chicago, was made in 2006, using 10mm thick, 304
stainless steel plates(168 numbers), welded together and top cap
flushground and polished. The inside structural members are also
SS.
Outside surface has mirror like finish. Even now, people visiting The
Bean (Cloud Gate) are mesmarized to see their faces clearly, their
full body , the neighbourhoods around , the buildings and the floor
around the Could Gate .
Contamination / Damage :
Use Handtools, ls,
Each and everybody, thousands of people visit the monuments, touch and feel the effect. Their sweating dtoo less make the
made Hanfingers ain Ifls aSS
re
Use from
ro m StSS.
too el,
surface dull. Their breath wax the surface. There is also pollution by air around. Additionally, bird droppings
tools e f eused
mad are t h SS wereonsteCS also seen. In
n
f
el. I n carbthe
please
o tool,
2009, some body had etched their names(1" tall letters), on the Sculpture. Ste edclean
o hetool
a n t t e tc ,
u s c le s
for thessteele dust
u etc, d S
plea teel nS
e o SS
for susing
before re u
son
Maintenance: b e fo
Daily: The lower 6 feet (1.8 m) of Cloud Gate is wiped down twice a day by hand. The
daily cleanings use a Windex-like solution.
Annual: The entire sculpture is cleaned twice a year , wih 150 L of liquid
detergent(Tide). In 2009 , two names were found, etched by the Visitor(s), letters
about 1 inch (25 mm) tall . The damage was removed by repeated polishing.
For Further study - please read ASTM A380, Cleaning, Descaling(Pickling),

Passivation of SS
(12). Zinc Poisoning of SS Remedies
(1). Avoid SS material
Pg.12.1
SS poisoning by Zinc , this effect is also called Zinc Attach or Zinkification of SS: contacting Zinc or
Below Zinc melting point (419 ºC), Zinc is solid and the reaction rate is slow. No galvanized material, if
embrittlement the service
experiences
temperature, above
419 ºC.
(2). Most of the Oil &
Gas Plant, fire hazards
are imminent, HAZOP
Group do not allow SS
contacting Zinc metal
or Galvanized material.
Liquid Zinc metal diffusion into the austenitic stainless steel can cause singnificant
problem above 750 ºC. The diffused Zinc reacts with nickel in stainless steel matrix to form
nickel-zinc intermetallic compounds (having low melting point) , along the grain boundaries.
The Nickel depleted areas transform from austenite to ferrite . Ferrite is BCC and Austenite
is FCC and the grains are having different sizes. The grain size difference causes increased
internal stress. The internal stress due to change of grain size, flame temperature and
residual and applied loads, may lead to line rupture.
In case of Plant or Refinery fire, zinc attack may happen. Failure Analysis Studies at the
Refinery Fires showed ruptured pipes and vessels dumped flamable Oil & Gas into the
Refinery Fire and this accelerated the fire and lead to catastrophe/ disaster.
Zinc may be in galvanized angle or hanger or galvanized bolt and nut or similar or in paint.
It is also noticed that when liquid zinc comes in contact with hot and tensile loaded
Austenitic SS, between 750 ºC to 904 ºC intergranular cracking may occur.
PIP, Process Industry Practices : PIP VESV1002, Vessel/S&T Heat Exchanger Fabrication
Specification, ASME Code Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2
Special Notes 2. says: (This note should be included in the Shop Dwg), Stainless Steel or
Nickel-Alloy Vessels - the following note: “Zinc-coated (galvanized or painted) components
shall not be in contact (welded, bolted, or loose) with any alloy parts of the vessel.”
(13). After Welding, HAZ is Colored or Tinted Remedies
(9). After welding, HAZ, fusion line or near by area is colored/tinted : (1). Protect the weld
Pg.13.1
Definition: After welding (mostly GTAW), we see, color bands, on the base metal, in the zone and near by
HAZ, next to fusion line: area/band length
(band length having
temperature 300 ºC
Heat Tint on SS Welds / HAZ

and 1500ºC, from weld
fusion line with wider
shielding gas and / or
inert gas purging.
(2). Do Strong rubbing
or grinding or blasting,
(3). Do Pickling &
Heat Tint on CS Welds / HAZ passivation of HAZ and
near by area to
remove the
coloring/tint.
Heat Tint or coloring on Welds & HAZ

Problem:
Immediately after welding, the welds do not show any problem. The welding, HAZ, near by
area have high temperatures (above 300 ºC to melting point and exposed for long time.
(The welding arc temperature is between 3000 to 5000 ºC) The elements in the base metal,
mainly Chromium, is not protected properly by purging or by shielding. The elements are
get oxidized and the prime elements like Chromium get depleted from the surface. Oxides
of other elements are also formed during welding. If passivation is not done, there is
possibility of corrosion at the oxidized band, at later stage.
Theory: HAZ is colored or Tinted :

Coloring or Tint, happens mainly due to Chemical oxidation of alloying elements and also
formation of salts of impurities in the environment , at temperatures from 300 ºC to 1500
ºC
(14). Manufacturing of SS Products (by Machining, Forging, Forming, Cutting, Welding etc.), problems & difficulties
Pg.14.1
SS Machining, Forming, Cutting, Welding
(A). SS Machining :
(1). Tensile strength(Breaking Strength) of SS is more than CI and CS. So it is
difficult to machine/cut than CS. Need higher HP motor . Machine tool , tool post
etc. should be sturdy. Increase the Power to 125 to 150%. Cold work also
happens during machining and it increases the tensile & yield strengths and
hardness and makes difficult to machine and increases the power requirements.
(2). The spread between Tensile Strength and Yield Strength is more for SS, than
CS, the energy is more(toughness). It takes long time for failure after yield point.
This causes gumminess / chip is not breaking and Galling during machining,
resulting in build up on tool tip, poor finish, excessive heat build up and short
tool life. The chips are longer . Need chip breaker/chip-curler at the cutting point. Chip, is not breaking and have
very long helical coil
(3). SS has poor thermal conduction than CS(Cu:CS:SS=32:4:1). So heat builds up Gummy Tip SS
at the tip and leads to tool failure. The finish is rough. Use liberal Cutting oil /
Coolant fluid at the tip, as necessary to wash away the heat which is building up
at the tip. Cooled chip will break away easy; Coolded tool edge will increase the
life of cutting tool. Cooled SS metal will reduce burr and will have good finish . SS, has poor heat
Conduction. Heat
(4). Avoid CS contamination. High Speed Steel or Carbide Tipped cutting tools builds up at the
should be used. Clean steel dust etc, if the tool was used to cut CS earlier. tool tip
Use Coated carbide tools(titanium nitride (TiN), titanium aluminum nitride (TiAlN), titanium carbo nitride (TiCN) and
alumina oxide (Al203), applied by Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) or Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) process.
(5). Aus SS is work hardened at the tip, during machining. It increases the cutting forces. Tripod punch is used instead
of center punch to reduce work hardening.
(6). Take large depths-of-cut & aggressive feed rates. Comparing to CS, heavier feeds and slow speeds are used on SS
materials to counter work hardening effect
(7). Drilling: Drill bits: CS normally has 118º included angle. For SS, 135º to 140º included angle is preferred. For easy
removal of chip, higher helix angle is preferred.
Addition of Sulfur: Free machining SS: On the jobs where welding, corrosion resistance, ductility etc. are not an
issue, small amount of sulfur additions will have a substantial effect on the machinability of the stainless steels.
Addition of 0.005% of Sulfur, can increase machinability by 50 percent or ASM Recommendations
more, eg. SS type 303.

(B). SS Forming: Forming processes are particular manufacturing
processes which make use of suitable stresses (like compression,
tension, shear or combined stresses), these stresses cause plastic
deformation of the materials to produce required shapes. During
forming processes no material is removed, i.e. they are deformed and
displaced to a new place..
Some of the Forming Process are:
Forging, Extrusion , Rolling, Sheet metal working, Rotary swaging, Thread rolling, Explosive forming,
Electromagnetic forming, Spinning, Upsetting, Progressive Pressing(bumping) etc
SS Forging:
Type 304 is forged between 2300 ºF and 1700 ºF
Forging Temperature,
(1260ºC and 930 ºC) and air cooled
ºF(ºC)
Some Forging Type
Severe reductions (ingot breakdown, roll forging,
2300 (1260)
drawing, blocking, and backward extrusion)
Moderate reductions (finish forging and upsetting) 2200 (1200)
Slight reductions (coining, restriking and end
2050 (1120)
upsetting)
g.14.2
2050 (1120) By JGC Annamalai
upsetting)
(1). For any forging work, whether it is cold or hot, the forces required to deform Aus SS is greater than CS(say 30 to
Pg.14.1
Pg.14.2
50%). Spring back also more than CS.
(2). Hot forging is done around 2000ºF(1093ºC). Due to large forces and high temperature for SS, the die life is
shorter by 30 to 50%.
(3). Cold Work: SS-304 & 316: As delta ferrite in the Aus SS, gives higher tensile and yield strength and this increases
the forging forceses . On cold work, hardening is also an issue.
(4). High Temperature, forging around 1093 ºC : SS-304 & 316-the delta ferrite dissolves at near forging temperature
and the solid solution contains mostly austenitic, hot forging is comparitively comfortable.
(5). Shearing presses/press breaks should have tight clearance ( ≤5%), as larger clearance will allow the plate or sheet
to bend and work harden and that will increase the shearing forces.
SS-304 &316 All Aus SS(except Extra low Carbon SS, Stabilized SS), should be
Chip, is not breaking and have
forged and finished above sensitizing range (900 to 1500F; 480ºC
to 815ºC) and rapid cooled from 1950F(1065ºC) toGummyblack Tipheat.
SS
SS-304L &316L Extra Low carbon stainless steels SS-304L &316L have little
ferrites and does not need extra forces to forge.
SS-321 & 347 Stabilized steels SS-321 & 347 have Titanium Carbides and
Niobium/Columbium Carbides
SS, has poor heat
SS-309, 310,314 These SS, depending on their chemical composition, mayConduction.
form Heat
appreciable amounts of delta ferrite, which adversely affect theup at the
builds
forgeability. They are also susceptable to hot tearing and sigma tool tip
phase.
Other Forming Processes :

High strength of SS and thick sections impose heavy stresses on the Forming Equipments. One of the method to
soften the material and to reduce forming stresses, by Heating. Hot spinning and hot pressing use this heating
Processes to soften the material. Aus SS may be worked between 1900 to 2100ºF (1040 to 1150ºC) range. Working
below 1700ºF (930ºC) will loose ductility and may cause cracking, i.e., worked between 1500 to 1100ºF (815 to
593ºC). Further Sigma phase, Sensitization etc will happen, if the material is heated and worked below 1700ºF
(930ºC). Aus SS has lower thermal conductivity and high expansion, comparing to CS. Suitable correction is
necessary, on closed forging tools, for low thermal conductivity and high thermal expansion.
After hot forming, the object should be solution annealed.
Before taking up cold forming, the Aus SS material should have fully annealed. As cold work, increases the strength ,
increases the hardness and the material changes to less ductile, possibility of cracking is high. So, before taking up
next cold work, the material should be solution annealed and pickled .
(C ). Difficulties with Stainless Steel at Casting Manufacture:

(1). In a normal Foundry, stainless steel or special alloy pouring/usage is not much, It is impractical to have large size
furnaces to melt . Normally fundries have 2 or 3 small size furnaces (usually ≈ 1000kg) to meet the demand.
Often, SS casting loads or special alloy category demand is less comparing to furnace capacity and the Foundry is
waiting to have adequate commercial weight of SS or special alloy to melt and to pour.
(2). Refining (removing unwanted elements like Carbon, Sulfur, phosphorous etc) or adjusting the chemistry is not
possible / not easy when using induction furnaces. Chemistry is adjusted by using / selecting suitable raw material /
scrap or ferro-alloys.Type
Low304 is forged
carbon betweenare
ferro-alloys 2300 ºF and
often 1700 Low
costlier. ºF carbon raw material were also costlier to stock
and to use. ºF(ºC)
Some Forging Type
(3). As refining or adjusting the chemistry
Severe reductions at the furnace
(ingot breakdown, roll or at the ladle is not possible, at the Foundries, Foundries
forging,
2300 (1260)
were buying and maintaining properand
drawing, blocking, rawbackward
materialextrusion)
and group and store them, without mix up.
(4). Cast stainless steels generally have equivalent corrosion resistance to their wrought equivalents, but they can
become less corrosion resistant due to localized contamination, micro-segregation,
upsetting)
or lack of homogeneity. For
2050 (1120)
example, mold quality may cause superficial compositional changes that influence performance, and carbon pick-up
from mold release agents can affect corrosion resistance.
Cost in US$ per Ton
.14.3
By JGC Annamalai
Pg.14.1
Cost in US$ per Ton
Pg.14.3
(4). Nickel price in October 2001 – was under $5,000/ton and it peaked in May 2007 at US$50,000/ton. In 2011, the
Nickel price was around $20,000/ton. very long helical coil
Around 2007, the Nickel was having shortage and Foundries were buying Nickel / ferro-nickel at exorbitant price,
Gummy Tip SS
for their use. Almost all Stainless Steel foundries did not have AOD or VOD Furnace to refine. Though Nitrogen and
manganese were established as an alternative to Nickel to maintain Austenitic structure, Users specifications were
rigid and the users did not agree to replace nickel by nitrogen or manganese, when there was Nickel shortage.
SS, has
(5). Steel mills or stainless steel mills normally have continuous casting unit and the cast product is poor heat
immediately
Conduction. Heat
rolled into different sections or plates/strips. But stainless steel foundries have different shapes, different thicknesses
builds up at the
and often the product is hollow. Each product needs study (better methoding) before pouring. Normally tool tip 50 to 100%
extra liquid stainless steel metal is poured to account for raisers, feeders, runners, pads etc(which are cut &
scrapped).
(6). Further if sections of the casting are restrained, the shrinkage stresses can cause hot tears, particularly at changes
of section size and profile. So, to avoid hot tears, foundries often go for (a). a gradual change of cross section, (b).
Large radii at change of profile , (c). Inducing directional cooling, by providing chillers.
(7). To compensate the loss of some elements by oxidation (melting, pouring etc operations are slow and surface
area at the furnace, at the ladle and at the mould are large and open to atmosphere, the critical elements tend to
oxidize) during the casting process, modification of the furnace mix or addition of additional quantities of chromium,
nickel are necessary.
( D) . SS Metal Cutting / Parting
The following cutting processes are used to cut Aus SS: (1). Traditional Cutting, (2). Non Traditional Cutting.
[1]. Traditional(Old): Machine Cutting: (a). Shear and Press Brake cutting, Abrasive Grinding Wheel cutting, Band Saw
& Power Saw cutting, Cutting by m/c tools(like lathe, milling & planning m/c), (b). Thermal Cutting: Carbon Arc-Air
Gouging, Oxygen Lance Cutting, O2 Oxy Acetylene flame with Iron Powder or Iron Powder + Aluminum Powder
Injection Cutting & Flux Injection Cutting.
[2]. Non-Traditional(Recent) : Water Jet Cutting, Laser Cutting, Plasma cutting, EDM
Traditional Cutting:
(A1). Shop Entry cutting : At the entry of the Shop process, most of the workshop, have Band Sawing or Power
Hacksawing or Abrasive wheel Cutting machines, to cut stocks to be used in the Shop. These machines can cut Aus
SS.
(A3). Sawing of Austenitic grades (300 Series) is made more difficult due to their tendency to work harden. In cutting
these grades the cut must be initiated without any riding of the saw on the work, a positive feed pressure must be
maintained, and no pressure, drag or slip should occur on the return stroke.
(A4). Shear or Press Type
Brake: SSisplates
304 forgedof thickness
between below
2300 6 mm
ºF and 1700are
ºF shear cut. The die and punch tools should
produce minimum gap so that due and
(1260ºC to bending, notairmuch
930 ºC) and work hardening takes place.
cooled
ºF(ºC)
(A5). Oxy-Acetylene flame can be Some Forging Type
used to cut mild steel in the 3–1000 mm thickness range, cutting speeds are 5–15
cm/min.. The equipment is light and easy to set up. roll forging,
Severe reductions (ingot breakdown,
2300 (1260)
Heavy cutting(300 mm to 1525mm) on Steel, is possible using Heavy Duty Oxy-Acetylene cutting torches. Always, do
experiment and do trial runs before starting "First time works".
Oxy-Acetylene flame cannot cut Stainless Steel , Aluminum etc refractory oxide
upsetting)
producing materials, as the refractory
2050 (1120)
does not melt by Oxy-Acetylene flame temperature.
Chemical Reaction Equations for Iron(Steel) and oxygen, happening at the kerf zone:
g.14.4
By JGC Annamalai
1 Fe + O → FeO + heat (267 KJ) (1 gm Fe produces, 4.78 KJ of heat)
Pg.14.1
Pg.14.4
2 2Fe +1.5O2 →Fe2O3+heat (825 KJ) (1 gm Fe produces, 7.39 KJ of heat)
3 3Fe + 2O2 →Fe3O4 + heat (1120KJ) (1 gm Fe produces, 6.68KJ of heat)
But, Stainless steel, aluminum and other non-ferrous metals Fuel Flame Temp
cannot usually be cut using this process, owing to the formation of Propane/air flame 1,980 °C; 3,590 °F
refractory chrome oxides with melting points higher than the torch Propane/oxygen flame 2,253 °C; 4,087 °F
temperature(Melting point 2,435 °C ). This refractory effectively
Hydrogen /oxygen flame 2,800 °C; 5,072 °F
protects/shields the metal from further attack, from flame and
Acetylene/oxygen flame 3,500 °C; 6,332 °F
oxygen.
(A5.0). Modified Oxy-Acetylene Torch Cutting to Cut SS :
(A5.1). Powder Injection: Iron or iron+aluminum powder in a
flowing mixture can be introduced at the torch nozzle to increase Chip, is not breaking and have
the flame temperature (through the thermite reaction) sufficiently very long helical coil
to melt the refractory oxides and permit the cutting of SS & non- Gummy Tip SS
ferrous metals.
The metal powder reacts chemically with the refractory oxides
produced in the kerf and increases their fluidity. The resultant
molten slags are washed out of the reaction zone by the oxygen SS, has poor heat
jet. Fresh metal surfaces are continuously exposed to the oxygen Conduction. Heat
builds up at the
jet and powder. Iron powder and mixtures of metallic powders,
tool tip
such as iron and aluminum, are used. The cutting of oxidation-
resistant steels using the metal powder cutting method can be
performed at approximately the same speeds as oxyfuel gas Flux-normally Calcium
cutting of carbon steel of equivalent thicknesses. The cutting Carbonate(CaCO3)
oxygen flow must be slightly higher with the metal powder
process. Except for stabilized types, stainless steels degrade under
the heat of metal powder or chemical flux processes. Carbide
precipitation occurs in the HAZ about 3 mm ( in.) from the edge.
This process is not really suitable for cutting stainless steel as it
severely contaminates the cut edge. This process has been largely
replaced by the plasma arc cutting.
(A5.2). Fluxing Injection : Fluxing agent can also be injected into
the cut. The fluxing agent, will react and continously expose fresh
surfaces. Flux cutting is an oxygen cutting process that uses the
heat from an oxy-fuel gas flame with a flux added to the flame to
aid in making the cut. This process is primarily intended for the
cutting of stainless steels. The flux is designed to react with oxides
of alloying elements, such as chromium and nickel, to produce
compounds with melting points approximating those of iron
oxides(iron oxide melts around 900ºC). Now, it has largely been
replaced by the plasma arc cutting process.
(A5.3). Carbon Arc Air Gouging: also called Air Carbon Arc
Gouging and Cutting (CACA): Gouging is to scoop out the metal
Type 304
(partial thickness). Cutting is forged
is slicing in between
to two or2300many.ºF and 1700Arc
Carbon ºF
is a physical means of metal removal in contrast
Some Forging Type
to the oxidation ºF(ºC)
reaction in oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC). In the CAC-A, the intense heat
of the arc betweendrawing,
the carbon electrode and the extrusion)
work piece melts 2300 (1260)
blocking, and backward
a portion of the workpiece. Simultaneously,
Moderate reductions (finish aforging
jet of air
andisupsetting)
passed 2200 (1200)
parallel to the arc Slight
and isreductions
of sufficient volume and velocity
(coining, restriking and end to blow
away the molten material. 2050 (1120)
upsetting)The exposed solid metal is then melted
by the heat of the arc, and the sequence continues.
.14.5
By JGC Annamalai
CAC-A does not depend on oxidation to maintain the cut, so it is capable of cutting metals that OFC will not cut.
Pg.14.1
Pg.14.5
The process is used successfully on carbon steel, stainless steel, many copper alloys, and cast irons. The melting rate
is a function of current. The metal removal rate is dependent upon the melting rate and the efficiency of the air jet
in removing the molten metal. The air must be capable of lifting the molten metal out and clear of the arc region
before resolidification.
It finds variety of applications, (1). All Fab Shops, use Carbon Arc air Gouging to remove the defect on CS, SS and
other metal welds and to open the root side of double V joints, (2). to chop off rivet heads, (3) Shops in metal
fabrication, (4). casting/fettling shop to cut and to remove metal at the pads etc, (5). cutting & finishing operation in
chemical and petroleum technology, construction, mining industry, (6). general repair, and maintenance.

Advantage: This is similar to SMAW welding unit, except torch and additional Air supply and verycarbon Electrode.
long helical coil It is
easy to use. Most of the welders, doing SMAW can do the gouging / cutting job also. Gummy Tip SS
Disadvantage: (1). Cutting thicker plate is limited by access of the electrode tip and visibility at the arc area. (2). It
creates lot of noise, gas and dust and spilling of washed out liquid metal. (3). A thin layer of higher carbon content
material will be produced along the cutting edge; this should be removed, normally 3 mm thick, burnt material is
removed by grinding, before joining or weld filling.
SS, has poor heat
Conduction. Heat line. Just
(A5.4). Waste Plate / Waste Rod : On SS plate to cut, carbon steel plate or rod is fixed, along the SS cutting
after starting the torch, SS metal is heated to white hot and then the wast steel plate/rod is melted andthe
builds up at burnt. This
tool tip
gives sufficient heat to melt the Chromium Oxide film. The flame is taken to the kerf area and SS is melted and
washed away.
The cuts are irregular . Contamination of the edges with Carbon steel, is noticed. Need dressing the cut edges.
Normally, 3mm to 6 mm thick metal on the edge is removed to get vergin SS. Normally used to cut scrap cutting and
for rough work.
(A5.5). Oxygen Lance Cutting
Consumable
Lance Pipe
2Fe +1.5O2 →Fe2O3+heat (825 KJ) 1gm of Iron burning gives out 7.4 KJ of heat
Cutting a Steel mass , a Cast Iron Pipe, using O2 Lance. (Similarly, SS and other materials, inlcuding, bricks and Concrete can be cut)
Oxygen lance cutting (OLC) is an oxygen cutting process that uses oxygen supplied through a consumable steel pipe
(also called a lance) to produce the cut. The preheat required to start the cutting operation is obtained by other
means(heat from oxy-acetylene torch or welding on a scrap). With O2 supply, the steel pipe start to burn. Later the
heating torch/welding is withdrawn. The Lance can melt / cut cast iron, stainless, concrete etc. Oxygen lance cutting
is used, mostly in Steel Mill and Foundries to cut refractory brick and mortar and remove slag. It has also been used
to open furnace tap holes and to remove solidified material from vessels, ladles, and molds and large casting risers,
feeders etc. StainlessType
Steel,304cast iron other
is forged refractory
between 2300 ºFmaterials
and 1700 are
ºF also cut using Oxygen lance cutting. Finish is poor.
Min. 3mm dressing is required.(1260ºC and 930 ºC) and air cooled
ºF(ºC)
Modified lance involves a number Some Forging Type
of low-carbon steel wires packed into the steel tube. Tube is 3.2 m (10-1/2 ft) long
and 16 mm (0.625Severe
in.) in reductions
diameter. (ingot breakdown,
Available tubes areroll forging,3 and 6 m long, and 1/2”, 3/8” and 1/4” in diameter.
typically 2300 (1260)
For efficient operation, Cross Section, Tube to wire to oxygen proportion should be 1.2 : 1 : 0.7.
Lance can cut , Steel thickness tk - 100 to 300 mm (some people report they had cut 2m thick steel ingots)
More commonly used 2050
to cut steel slab/ingots/blooms in continuous casting (1120)
steel mills and in demolishion work of
upsetting)
concrete and steel structure.
Ignition temperature, white metal, 1200°C, Melting temperature 2000…2700°C, Oxygen pressure -8…15 bar
By JGC Annamalai
Other than, low cost(consumption is only oxygen and lance pipe). Equipment is less costly and mobile. Comparing to
Pg.14.1
Pg.14.6
powder cutting and flux cutting, Lance cutting has : -Low noise level (only 70Db (A) in 10 m distance);
(1). vibrationless; (2). low dust level , (3). mobile; (4). bulky sections produced for ease of transportation.
Due to sparks, dust, smoke, distance etc the cutting location is not clearly visible to the operator. Need to experiment
before actual work starts.
Comparison of Traditional Cutting Methods of SS
Method Process Material Thickness
1 Lathe,milling,plannin Machine Tools, can also be used to All material Depends on machines
g cutting cut/part the material
2 Shear cutting Breaks the material by shear force All material Max 1/2"
3 Abrasive Cutting Grinding wheel All material Grinding wheel dia, 26"
4 Saw cutting (power Sawing All material Chip,
36" diabreaking and have
is not
hack saw, band saw) very long helical coil
5 Oxy-Acetylene Not possible to cut stainless steel, as the oxy-acetylene produces chromium oxide
Gummy Tip SS
Cutting refractory material. The temperature is not enough to melt & cut SS refractory.
6 Oxy-Acetylene, with Similar to oxy-acetylene cutting, but Stainless Steel, normally 8" thick SS
Powder cutting aluminum or iron powder is added to the Aluminum
kerf area, to get more exothermic heat, so SS, has poor heat
that the refractory material is melted. Conduction. Heat
7 Oxy-Acetylene, with Similar to oxy-acetylene cutting, but flux is Stainless Steel, normally builds 8"
up thick
at the
tool tip
flux cutting added to dissolve the refractory material, Aluminum
at the kerf.
8 Carbon-Arc Air Carbon electrode produces arc and melts Carbon steel, 15 mm dia electrode, 2000A
cutting, gouging. the steel or stainless steel. A powerful Air is stainless steel foundry grade torch can
blown on the liquid metal to wash away and any cut/gouge 3/4" width &
the liquid metal. Wider kerf is necessary for electrically depth. Electrode stick out is
the operator to see the cutting location conductive maximum 7" long to
and to avoid electrode short-circuiting. materials maintain adequate air
pressure at the flame.
9 Oxygen Lance Long steel tube, with clustered steel rods All material, 1.6m (5'3") thick steel /
Cutting inside, used as electrode. Oxygen flows including stainless steel or concrete
through the voides, inside the tube. stainless steel, can be cut
concrete.
(B1). Water Jet Cutting: An ultrahigh-pressure pump generates a stream of water
with pressure rated up to 94,000 psi (6,480 bar). This pressure is converted into Water Jet Cutting
velocity via a tiny jewel orifice, creating a stream as small as a human hair which
can cut soft materials.
To increase cutting power by 1,000 times, garnet is added into the supersonic
waterjet stream. Water and garnet exit the cutting head at nearly four times the
speed of sound(Mach-4), capable of cutting steel over one foot thick.
There are two types of waterjet: (1). Pure and the other is (2). Abrasive.
Combined, these two technologies can cut virtually any material, any shape, at
any thickness. Ideal to cut Column/reactor stainless steel tray components
Pure waterjet cuts soft materials like gasket, foam, plastic, paper, disposable
diapers, insulation, cement(1260ºC
board, and
automotive interiors,
930 ºC) and carpet, food.Forging Temperature,
air cooled
ºF(ºC)
Some Forging Type
(B2). Laser Cutting: Commercial carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers can emit
many hundreds of watts in a single spatial mode which can be 2300 (1260)
concentrated into a tiny spot. This emission is in the thermal infrared
at 10.6 µm; such lasers are regularly used in industry for cutting and
welding. LASER cutting utilises the vast amount of heat liberated when 2050 (1120)
upsetting)
a Laser Beam (intense monochromatic light) strikes the work piece.
The heat is sufficient to melt or vaporise even the most heat resistant
refractory materials.
By JGC Annamalai
Recent improvements in beam quality has extended the capability of
Pg.14.1
Pg.14.7
lasers, to that of fast high quality precision cutting up to 20mm thick stainless steel. These high speeds are attained
via high powered (8Kw) laser systems which generate beam temperatures in excess of 35 000°C.
Laser cutting has the advantages of very high speeds, narrow kerf
widths, high quality cut edges, low heat inputs and minimal workpiece
distortion. The process can cut any material and can easily cut
stainless steels. It can only be automated and thus integrated into a
programme controlled system for optimal use.
Manufacturers claim CO2 Laser and Yag laser can cut SS plates,
with thickness 0.1 mm to 20 mm.
Advantage: The Laser can cut material with very accurate
dimensions and special shapes and repeat works, very easily. The
cut edges are true square and ready to use finish.
Gummy Tip SS
Disadvantage: The present technology, is limiting the material
thickness to max 20 mm (though some experiment claims over 25
mm). The work is fixed on table and programmed and cutting is
SS, has poor heat
automatic. Conduction. Heat
(B3). Plasma Arc Cutting: builds up at the
tool tip
Plasma Arc Cutting is a metal cutting process that uses a high
temperature stream of ionised gas through a water-cooled nozzle
at very high velocity. An arc is formed between the electrode and
the workpiece, which is constricted by a fine bore copper nozzle.
Oxygen oxidises the workpiece material, and it is melted by the
exothermic reaction. The melted metal is then blown away from
the line of cut. Temperatures can reach up to 20,000˚C. Manual
(portable) or automated systems are common.
Plasma forming gases are constricted and passed through an arc
chamber, the arc supplying a large amount of electrical energy. The
electrical engergy ionizes the gases and they exit as a plasma, a
mixture of free electrons, positively charged ions and neutral
atoms.
The plasma gases include argon, hydrogen, nitrogen and mixtures,
plus air and oxygen.
Manual cutting, thickness up to 50mm is possible. Higher
thicknesses, up to 150mm thick can be cut using, heavy/CNC
Equipment
The operating voltage to sustain the plasma is typically 50 to 60V.
The open circuit voltage needed to initiate the arc can be up to
400V DC. Shielding gas is argon, argon-H2 or nitrogen for the
For
method with the tungsten electrode. Pilot Arc
Produces high noise levels.The heat potentially causes toxic fumes
& smoke.
Typeto304
Plasma cut can be used cutisall
forged between
electrical 2300 ºF materials,
conducting and 1700 ºF
including SS and aluminum. Some Forging Type
ºF(ºC)

2300 (1260)
2050 (1120)
upsetting)
.14.8
By JGC Annamalai
Pg.14.1
Pg.14.8
Disadvantages of Using Plasma Arc Machines:
(1). The cutters electrode and Nozzle sometimes require frequent
replacement which adds to the cost of operation.
(2). Non-conductive material such as wood or plastic cannot be cut
with plasma cutters with transferred arc type.
(3). Another minor drawback is that the plasma arc typically leaves
a 4˚ to 6˚ bevel on the cut edge, although this angle is almost
invisible on thinner materials. It is noticeable on thicker pieces.

(B4). EDM Cutting(Spark Erosion machine): very long helical coil
Wire electrical discharge machining (EDM) uses spark erosion to remove material from electrically conductive
Gummy Tip
materials. The wire is negative and the work piece is positive. Direct-current electric pulses are generated between
SS
the wire electrode and the work piece. During cutting, material is melted away by the lightning bolt and flushed out
of the kerf area by the dielectric solution. Wire-cut EDM is typically used to cut plates(any plate, electrical conducting-
SS, Aluminum etc. ) as thick as 300mm. They are CNC machines and not yet portable.
SS, has poor heat
Comparison of Non-Traditional (recent) cutting: Conduction. Heat
builds up at the
Non- tool tip
Accurac
Traditional Primary Process Secondary Process Material Thickness Cost
y
Cutting
Waterjet Erosion, Using Usually none. Waterjet is a cold- Virtually any Up to 24 Up to $60k–$
high speed liquid cutting process that leaves a satin material. inches, .001 300k +
sandpaper. smooth edge. virtually any inch
material.
Plasma Burning/Melting, Typically yes. Slag grinding for Primarily steel, Up to 2–3 Up to $60k–$
Using a high removal of HAZ (heat affected stainless steel inches, .010 300k +
temperature zone) & flattening to eliminate and aluminum. depending on inch
ionized gas arc. distortion from heat. Assist gas the material.
used impacts depth of HAZ.
Laser Melting, Using a Sometimes yes. Removal of A variety of 1 inch or less, Up to $200k–
concentrated oxidized edge and HAZ. Gases used materials, but depending on .001 $1M +
laser light beam. impact depth of HAZ. primarily steel, the material. inch
stainless steel
EDM Erosion, Using an Usually none. Very shallow HAZ and aluminum.
Conductive 12 inches or Up to $100k–
electrical imparted materials. less .001 $400k +
discharge inch
Manual opearation of the Torch is not recommended. Manual cutting is difficult or the cut surface is not uniform or
there is risk and need careful operation . Most of the cuts are by CNC and work is on Table Top.
(E). SS Welding:
The 200 and 300 series are the most weldable of stainless steels. The problems that arise relate mainly to
sensitization in the heat affected zone, which can be minimized by using the low carbon or stabilized grades.
Preheating is not required; postheating
Type 304 is necessary
is forged between 2300 ºFonly
andto redissove
1700 ºF the precipitated carbides and to stress relive
components that are to be used in environments that may cause stress corrosion ºF(ºC)cracking. The coefficient of
Some Forging Type
expansion of austenitic types is higher than that of carbon steels; hence thermal contraction is greater. Precautions
Severe
are necessary to avoid reductions
bead cracking (ingot
and breakdown,
to minimizeroll forging, such as sound fixtures, tack welding, skip welding,
distortion, 2300 (1260)
copper chill bars, low heat input and small weld passes. (Oxy-Acetylene welding is not preferred due to high carbon
pick up at the weld pool).
2050 (1120)
It is generally said,upsetting)
annealed SS is ductile (30%) and thin sheets are easy to form. Generally welding is easy and
simple. However, we have many problems, failures and difficulties on welding. Some of them are:
(1). SS has High thermal Expansion and low thermal conduction:
14.9
CS Thermal Expansion = 100% CS Thermal Conduction, @100˚C=100% CS Thermal Conduction, @650˚C=100%

By JGC Annamalai
Pg.14.1
Pg.14.9
CS Thermal Expansion = 100% CS Thermal Conduction, @100˚C=100% CS Thermal Conduction, @650˚C=100%
SS Thermal Expansion=150% SS Thermal Conduction, @100˚C=28% SS Thermal Conduction, @650˚C=66%
(2). During welding, Cr, Ni metals are oxidized at the weld arc temperature(≈5000°C) and leaves with slag. To
compensate this, additional metals are added in the electrodes.
(a). Heat : (1). Due to current flow, the electrode is heated and the electrode length is increased. The covered flux is
peeling off, if the electrode is long and continuously welded. The SMAW SS electordes are normally short(SS
electrodes are 300 mm long. MS electrodes are 450mm long).
Distortion: Thin members / structures normally warp, during or after welding or thermally treated. Due to poor
conduction, the welding heat is used to stay at or near the welding and causes metallurgical changes.
Control: During welding or immediately after welding, often, the nearby area to SS welding is force cooled to drain
off the excess heat. Stainless steel welding heat does not change the grain structure or does not change the
hardness. To avoid metallurgical damages, SS welding are not stress relieved(PWHT) after welding,
Chip, is unless
not breaking specifically
and have
very long helical
necessary. When Stress relieving is necessary, often extrea low carbon or stabilized basemetal and electrodes arecoil
selected. (more info is found on Chapter-10) Gummy Tip SS
(b). Metallurgical Changes in SS, due to heating: Chrome elements have more affinity to Carbon and Chromium
Carbide is formed during heating or welding, when the temperature is 450 to 850˚C. The Chromium carbide normally
moves to grain boundries. Passive Oxide forming Chromium is lost and sometime the chromium level crosses below
threshold limit of 10.5% Cr, along grain boundries. This is called Sensitization. Corrosion occursSS, has
at poor heat
the grain
boundries and the grains fall off and this leads to corrosion pitting or crack. Conduction. Heat
builds up at the
There are also brittle Sigma phase or Chi phase , tool tip
forming in the range 800 to 950˚C. Controls:
Temperature should be limited or the dwelling
time/exposure duration should be limited to
control the Sigma and Chi phases. (more info is
found on Chapter-9)
The neighboring pipe spool fabrication set up

shows a critical pipe welding for a Nuclear Power
Plant. The Nuclear component pipe assembly set
up was similar to a lathe machine. The pipes are
5" & 4" OD with wall thickness 10mm. Base
metal is SS 304 and welded with SS 308L welding
rod. The pipe spool assembly is 20 feet long. The
Welding and assembly related informations are
provided in the figure. Welding process is
automatic GTAW. The root was made using
consumable welding insert and 8 additional thin
beads, to control limited welding heat. The joint
was argon gas purged and argon gas shielded.
After completion of root pass and another 2
stabilization passes, additional welding of the
pipe was cooled inside, by water flow for
dimentional control and for sensitization control.
The stright line alignment requirement of the pipe
assembly was 0.75mm over 20 ft length. Forging Temperature,
ºF(ºC)
Some Forging Type
2300 (1260)
2050 (1120)
upsetting)
4.10
By JGC Annamalai
(F). Importance of Surface Finish in the Supply of Stainless Steel structures and facades.
Pg.14.1
Pg.14.10
It has long been recognised that the surface finish
on stainless steel has an important effect on its
corrosion resistance. The mere specification of
1.4401 (316) type stainless steel for exterior
architectural applications is not in itself sufficient.
Why Surface Finish is Important .
Directional ‘dull’ polished finishes are often
specified for external architectural applications
but this type of sur-face finish can exhibit a wide
range of surface roughness dependent upon the
type of belt and polishing grit that has been used.
Coarse polished finishes, with transverse Ra values very long helical coil
> 1 micron, will exhibit deep grooves where Gummy Tip SS
chloride ions can accumulate and destroy the
passive film, thereby initiating corrosion attack.
In contrast, fine polished finishes with Ra values <

0.5 micron will generally exhibit clean-cut SS, has poor heat
Conduction. Heat
surfaces, with few sites where chloride ions can
builds up at the
accumulate. If a directional polished finish is tool tip
required, in a coastal/marine situation, it is
important that the specification should include a
‘maximum’ transverse surface roughness re-
quirement of 0.5 microns Ra .(e.g. a 2K surface
finish in EN10088-2). A simple description, such as
satin polish, is not sufficient for good corrosion
resistance.
The design of external architectural applications
should avoid introducing features such as ledges,
horizontal grooves and perforations. All of these
features will increase the effective surface area
that is available for harmful species to accumulate
consequently, the natural washing-off by rainwater will be minimised
Surface Reflectivity In terms of reflectivity, a ‘smooth’ polished finish will produce a more reflective surface and this
could give significant and unacceptable dazzle, in bright sunlight, if large flat areas are part of the architectural design.
For this type of situation, it may be more appropriate to specify a ‘matt’ non-directional surface, such as a glass bead
blasted finish. However, as with dull polishing, it is important that a ‘fine’ glass bead option should be selected, to
minimise the surface roughness and give the best possible corrosion resistance.
In practice, Ra<0.5 µm, level of roughness could most easily be achieved by using 240 grit silicon carbide polishing
belts rather than aluminium oxide abrasives
Cloth or Fiber buffing will be used to increase the polish and to get the mirror finish.
Mirror like surface Finished Cloud Gate(Bean), Chicago, USA(opened in 2006) :
During Plate Procurement:
To order annealed
Typecold
304 rolled plates,
is forged with2300
between high ºF
surface finish.
and 1700 ºF
During manufacture, handle and process the plates such that ºF(ºC)
Some Forging Type
negligible damages happen to the surface of the plates.
During assembly, use mechanical fixtures to set the alignment.
2300 (1260)
Use consumable insert for the root. Tack weld using GTAW
process.
Use GTAW process for filling. Use thinner welding filling rods and 2050 (1120)
upsetting)
less ampherages and control welding heat.
Avoid, surface damages during welding and finishing.
.14.11
By JGC Annamalai
Construction Finishing: Welds:
Pg.14.1
Pg.14.11
Stage Name Equipment used Sandpaper type Purpose
1 Rough cut 5-pound (2.3 kg), 4½-inch 40-grit Removed welded seams
(110 mm) electric grinder
2 Initial 15-pound (6.8 kg), 2-inch 80-grit, 100-grit and 120-grit Shaped the weld contours
contour (51 mm), air-driven belt sander
3 Sculpting air-driven 10-pound (4.5 kg), 1- 80-grit, 120-grit, 240-grit and Smoothed the weld contours
inch (25 mm) belt sander 400-grit
4 Refining double action sander 400-grit, 600-grit and 800-grit Removed the fine scratches that
were left from the sculpting stage
5 Polishing 10-inch (250 mm) electric buffing 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of rouge Buffedvery
andlong
polished
helical the
coil surface
wheel toGummy
a mirror-like
Tip finish SS
Maintenance:
The Could Gate is 10 m × 13 m × 20 m (33 ft × 42 ft × 66 ft), and weighs 100 tonnes. Plate is SS304 , 10 mm thick.
The surface is polished/buffed and has mirror like finish. The design life of the Cloud Gate, is expected for 1,000
SS, has poor heat
years. The lower 6 feet (1.8 m) of Cloud Gate is wiped down twice a day by hand, while the entire sculpture
Conduction. Heat is cleaned
twice a year with liquid detergent. The daily cleanings use a Windex-like solution, while the semi-annual
builds up at thecleanings
use Tide. tool tip
Difference Between CS(MS) and Stainless Steel Fabrication (selected points) :
Properties Carbon Steel (Mild Steel or Black Steel) Aus.Stainless Steel
Type Steel, an alloy of iron and other elements, Stainless Steel, an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily Chromium and Nickel.
primarily carbon.
Composition carbon is between 0.05–0.25% Minimum of 10.5% chromium content by mass. Other elements like Ni, Mn, Mo are also present
Corrosion, i.e. Affected by atmospheric corrosion. Iron oxide SS is generally resistant to atmospheric and light saline corrosion.
rust (Iron Ores-FeO, Fe2O3, Fe3O4) are the corrosion
product and are stable form and have reddish or
brown color and normally rust volume is 3 times
the Steel volume.
Tensile Tensile strength depends on carbon component High tensile strength, due to the presence of Cr, Ni, Mo and other alloying elements.
strength
Hardness Low hardness, though surface hardness can be High level of hardness
increased through carburizing.
Magnetic Mild Steel is magnetic Austenitic stainless steels usually are not magnetic. Cold worked Aus SS will have little magnetic
effect.
Cost Typically less expensive and most cost effective Typically more expensive (5 to 10 times costlier than mild steel)
Surface Requires galvanizing or painting or other corrosion Surface is always shining, due to presence of self shielding, chromium oxide film. As there is no
prevention control. corrosion or surface damage, the surface is always shining, if maintained.
High Normally high temperature oxidization and scales Chromium Oxide passive layer act as surface protector and for corrosion control. High
Temperature are formed over 600˚C temperature oxidization and scales are normally formed over 800˚C.
Scalling,
Max. temp Due to graphite formation, ASME codes normally Due to sensitization, continuous service temperature is limited to 450˚C, for selected corrosive
continuous limits carbon steel the continuous service media.
service temperature to 375˚C to 575˚C,
Castings comparing to SS, CS castings has less shrinkage. has high shrinkages.
Forming Comparing to SS, cold work(like machining, Comparing to CS, cold work(like machining, spinning, drawing, presswork etc ) will create high
spinning, drawing, presswork etc ) is easier. Spring strength, low ductility, high hardness. Plastic worked products will have high spring back.
back is much less.
Heat Normally, CS material is heat treated to have Normally Heat Treatment on Aus.SS, will not give improvement in mechanical properties. Heating
Treatment desired mechanical properties and grain pattern. Treatment requires , heating above sensitization temperature and keeping the material at high
temperaure. This gives unwanted sensitization. So heat treatment is not recommended.
Welding Type
Normally, butt weld304 is forged
included angle isbetween
70˚. 2300 ºF and
SS surface need1700
more ºFcleanliness to control contamination. Butt weld Included angle is normally
60˚. Low heat input is preferred. SurfaceºF(ºC)
temperature should be less for sensitization and for
Some Forging Typedistortion control. Volume of weld should be minimum to control over heating.
PWHT After weld completion, normally, PWHT is done on PWHT is not followed on Aus.Stainless Steel as heating above 450˚C, produces sensitization.
welds, to remove residual stresses, grain Heating is not avoidable in welding. To 2300
avoid(1260)
PWHT, control on Sensitization like (1). Reduced
refinements and to get soft material. Carbon content, (2). To use stabilized steels like SS321(Ti stabilized) or SS347(Niobium or
Moderate reductions (finish forging and upsetting)
Columbium 2200
stabilized). (3). To control (1200)
the weld area(HAZ) temperature and the duration, like skip
welding or back-step welding , thinner weld beads, smaller weld bead widths, welder to follow
many breaks so that weld & base metals 2050 are(1120)
cooled, etc. are followed.
Preheat and
upsetting)
For high carbon and low alloy steel & thicker For Aus. Stainless Steel, max.preheat (hand warm temperature is common) and max interpass
interpass material pre-heat and minimum interpass temperature(250˚C) are specified. Often welder is asked to wait, intermittantly so that the
Temperature temperature are specified. basemetal will cool down.
Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel
(Based on TWI-Welding Institute(UK) Training Manual)
There are a number of different types of steels that may be referred to as 'stainless'. Here we consider the Austenitic
Stainless Steels, the 18/8 or chromium-nickel stainless steels.
As with the other types of stainless steels, the austenitic stainless steels are corrosion and oxidation resistant due to the
presence of chromium that forms a self-healing protective film on the surface of the steel. They also have very good
toughness at extremely low temperatures so are used extensively in cryogenic applications. They can be hardened and their
strength increased by cold working but not by heat treatment. They are the most easily weldable of the stainless steel family
and can be welded by all welding processes, the main problems being avoidance of hot cracking and the preservation of
corrosion resistance.
A convenient and commonly used shorthand identifying the individual alloy within the austenitic stainless steel group is the
ASTM system. This uses a three digit number '3XX', the '3' identifying the steel as an austenitic stainless, and with additional
letters to identify the composition and certain characteristics of the alloy eg type 304H, type 316L etc; this ASTM method will
be used in this article.
Typical compositions of some of the alloys are given in Table 1. The type 304 grade may be regarded as the archetypal
austenitic stainless steel from which the other grades are derived and changes in composition away from that of type 304
result in a change in the identification number.
Table 1 Typical compositions of some austenitic stainless steel alloys

ASTM C (max) Si Mn Cr Ni Mo Others
No. (max) (max) Austenite - A
(type) Ferrite - F
304 0.08 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - - A+2/8%F
304L 0.035 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - - A + 2/8%F
304H 0.04 - 0.10 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - - A + 2/8%F
304N 0.08 0.75 2 18 to 20 8 to 11 - 0.1 to 0.16N A + 2/8%F
316 0.08 0.75 2 16 to 18 11 to 14 2 to 3 - A + 3/10%F
347 0.08 0.75 2 17 to 20 9 to 12 - Nb : 10xC A + 4/12%F
321 0.08 0.75 2 17 to 19 9 to 12 - Ti: 5xC A + 4/12%F
310 0.15 0.75 2 24 to 26 19 to 22 - - 100% A
309 0.08 1 2 22 to 24 12 to 15 - - A + 8/15%F
308L 0.03 1 2 19 to 21 10 to 12 A + 4/12%F
The 3XX may be followed by a letter that gives more information about the specific alloy as shown in the Table. 'L' is for a
low carbon austenitic stainless steel for use in an aggressive corrosive environment ; 'H' for a high carbon steel with
improved high temperature strength for use in creep applications; 'N' for a nitrogen bearing steel where a higher tensile
strength than a conventional steel is required. These suffixes are used with most of the alloy designations eg type 316L, type
316LN, type 347H, where the composition has been modified from that of the base alloy.
Austenitic stainless steels are metalurgically simple alloys. They are either 100% austenite or austenite with a small amount
of ferrite (see Table 1). This is not the ferrite to be found in carbon steel but a high temperature form known as delta (δ) -
ferrite. Unlike carbon and low alloy steels the austenitic stainless steels undergo no phase changes as they cool from high
temperatures. They cannot therefore be quench hardened to form martensite and their mechanical properties to a great
extent are unaffected by welding. Cold (hydrogen induced) cracking is therefore not a problem and preheat is not necessary
irrespective of component thickness.
Alloying elements in an austenitic stainless steel can be divided into two groups; those that promote the formation of
austenite and those that favour the formation of ferrite. The main austenite formers are nickel, carbon, manganese and
nitrogen; the important ferrite formers are chromium, silicon, molybdenum and niobium. By varying the amounts of these
elements, the steel can be made to be fully austenitic or can be designed to contain a small amount of ferrite; the importance
of this will be discussed later.
In 1949 Anton Schaeffler published a constitutional or phase diagram that illustrates the effects of composition on the
microstructure. In the diagram Schaeffler assigned a factor to the various elements, the factor reflecting the strength of the
effect on the formation of ferrite or austenite; these factors can be seen in the diagram. The elements are then combined into
two groups to give chromium and nickel 'equivalents'. These form the x and y axes of the diagram and, knowing the
composition of an austenitic stainless steel, enables the proportions of the phases to be determined.
Typical positions of some of the commoner alloys are given in Fig.1. Also superimposed on this diagram are coloured areas
identifying some of the fabrication problems that may be encountered with austenitic stainless steels.
Although all the austenitic stainless steels are sensitive to hot cracking, the fully austenitic steels falling within the vertically
blue area in Fig.1 such as type 310 are particularly sensitive.
Fig 1. Shaeffler diagram (A-austenite; M - martensite; F - ferrite)

Blue Area - Hot Cracking Sensitive; Yellow Area – Sigma & Chi Phase Embrittlement Sensitive;
Triangular White Area(with 316,304,347 etc and close to) – Low Delta Ferrite, resistance to Hot Cracking.
The main culprits are sulphur and phosphorus. To this end, these tramp elements have been progressively reduced such
that steels with less than 0.010% sulphur and phosphorus less than 0.020% are now readily available. Ideally a type 310 or
type 317 alloy should have sulphur and phosphorus levels below some 0.003%. Cleanliness is also most important and
thorough degreasing must be carried out immediately prior to welding.
The steels such as type 304, type 316, type 347 that fall within, or close to, the small uncoloured triangular region in the
centre of the diagram contain a small amount of delta-ferrite and, whilst not being immune to hot cracking, have improved
resistance to the formation of sulphur-containing liquid films. The reasons for this are that a) ferrite can dissolve more
sulphur and phosphorus than austenite so they are retained in solution rather than being available to form liquid films along
the grain boundaries and b) the presence of quite a small amount of ferrite increases the grain boundary area such that any
liquid films must spread over a greater area and can no longer form a continuous liquid film. The 100% austenitic steels do
not have this advantage.
One problem that has arisen with very low sulphur steels is a phenomenon known as 'cast to cast variation' or 'variable
penetration'. The weld pool in a low sulphur steel (<0.005%) tends to be wide with shallow penetration; a steel with sulphur
over some 0.010% has a narrower, more deeply penetrating weld bead.
This is generally only a problem with the use of the fully automated TIG welding process, a manual welder being capable of
coping with the variations in penetration due to the differences in sulphur content in different casts of steel. However,
automated TIG welding procedures developed on a 'high' sulphur steel, when used to weld a low sulphur steel may result in
lack of penetration type defects; the reverse situation may result in excessive penetration.
Changes to the procedure that have mitigated, but never eliminated, this problem have included slow travel speed, pulsed
current, use of Ar/H2 shield gas mixtures. Other methods include specifying a minimum sulphur of, say, 0.010% or
segregating the steels into batches with known penetration characteristics and developing welding procedures to suit. The
A-TIG activated flux process has also been found to be of benefit.
The austenitic stainless steels falling into the yellow area will also embrittle but this is as a result of the formation of hard
brittle phases called 'sigma' (σ) and 'chi' (χ). This embrittlement takes place in the temperature range of approximately 500 to
900°C. It is a sluggish process and is not a problem during welding of the austenitic stainless steels, but can occur in
elevated temperature service or if the welded component is stress relieved.
Formation of these phases is promoted by high chromium and molybdenum (ferrite forming elements) so that steels such as
type 310 and type 316 are particularly sensitive and may show a substantial loss of ductility after stress relief. Delta ferrite
also transforms more rapidly that austenite so those alloys containing large amounts of this phase will degrade faster than
an austenitic steel with only a small percentage of ferrite; hence the problems with duplex and super duplex stainless steels.
When it is necessary to stress relieve a fabrication then the loss of ductility must be accounted for. In those steels containing
delta-ferrite this phase should be held to a minimum, consistent with minimising the risk of hot cracking, by control of the
ferrite forming elements by requiring typically 2% to 5% delta ferrite.
Annex.1 Pickling & Passivation of Stainless Steels
A stainless steel surface should appear clean, smooth and faultless. This is obvious when the steel is used for such
purposes as façades or beautification or in applications with stringent hygienic requirements, but a fine surface finish is
Pg.A1.1
also crucial to corrosion resistance.
Pickling: Compare Surfaces before Pickling and Surfaces after Pickling
Before Pickling After Pickling
Definitions:
Passivation is the process by which a stainless steel will spontaneously form a chemically inactive surface when
exposed to air or other oxygen-containing environments
Descaling is the removal of heavy, tightly adherent oxide films resulting from hot-forming, heat treatment,
welding, and other high-temperature operations.
.2
Chemical Descaling (Pickling)—Chemical descaling agents include aqueous solutions of sulfuric, nitric, and
Pg.A1.2
hydrofluoric acid as described in Annex A1, Table A1.1, molten alkali or salt baths, and various proprietary
formulations.
Acid Pickling— Nitric+hydrofluoric acid solution is most widely used by fabricators of stainless steel equipment
and removes both metallic contamination, and welding and heat-treating scales.
Mechanical Descaling—Mechanical descaling methods include abrasive blasting, power brushing, sanding,
grinding, and chipping.
Emulsion Cleaning is a process for removing oily deposits and other common contaminants from metals by the
use of common organic solvents dispersed in an aqueous solution with the aid of a soap or other emulsifying
agent (an emulsifying agent is one which increases the stability of a dispersion of one liquid in another).
Solvent Cleaning is a process for removing contaminants from metal surfaces by immersion or by spraying or
swabbing with common organic solvents such as the aliphatic petroleums, chlorinated hydrocarbons, or blends of
these two classes of solvents.
Vapor Degreasing is a generic term applied to a cleaning process that employs hot vapors of a volatile chlorinated
solvent to remove contaminants, and is particularly effective against oils, waxes, and greases.
Ultrasonic Cleaning is often used in conjunction with certain solvent and detergent cleaners to loosen and
remove contaminants from deep recesses and other difficult to reach areas, particularly in small work-pieces.
Synthetic Detergents are extensively used as surfaceactive agents because they are freer rinsing than soaps, aid in
soils dispersion, and prevent recontamination.
Chelate Cleaning— Chelates are chemicals that form soluble, complex molecules with certain metal ions,
inactivating the ions in solution so they cannot normally react with another element or ions to produce
Mechanical Cleaning—Abrasive blasting, vapor blasting using a fine abrasive suspended in water, grinding, or wire
brushing are often desirable for removing surface contaminants and rust.
Steam Cleaning is used mostly for cleaning bulky objects that are too large for soak tanks or spray-washing
equipment.
Water-Jetting at water pressures of up to 10 000 psi (70 mPa) is effective for removing grease, oils, chemical
deposits (except adsorbed chemicals), dirt, loose and moderately adherent scale, and other contaminants that are
not actually bonded to the metal.
Acid Cleaning is a process in which a solution of a mineral or organic acid in water, sometimes in combination
with a wetting agent or detergent or both, is employed to remove iron and other metallic contamination, light
oxide films, shop soil, and similar contaminants.
Difference Between Pickling & Passivation Treatments :
Pickling Passivation
Pickling is intended to dissolve any existing oxidation, Passivation is the treatment on stainless steel with a mild
scale and weld oxides, and is capable of etching the base oxidant with intent to remove free iron and other foreign
material. It utilizes more aggressive acids than those used matter, for the purpose of improving corrosion resistance
in passivation. Metal pickling is most often used to by enhancing the formation and structure of the material’s
remove the real world effects of handling, forming and naturally occurring, corrosion-resistant passive film.
fabrication. Pickling is used to remove oxides on the Passivation prepares the alloy to perform to its engineered
surface of metal, caused by high temperature and capabilities, in a corrosive environment. The chemicals used
corrosive environments. in the passivation process are not aggressive enough to
dissolve surface oxides, thus, pickling may be used prior to,
Pickling is done on Carbon Steel as well as on Stainless or in lieu of, passivation.
Steels.
Pickling is carried out in the following Problem Areas, so that shop soils, harmful deposit, scales, corrosion product on
SS surface, are removed before next operation or before Dispatch.
1 Deposits or scales on the surface is harmful to the next operation(like rolling, drawing, spinning, forming,
forging etc)
2 Fabrication Job is completed at Vendor Shop and ready to be supplied to the owner and the surface need to
be new and fresh
3 Just before passivation.
4 Service condition had created deposits and corrosion on the surface. The deposits and corrosion masks the
Inspection and maintenance of the surface.
5 Before & After Heat Treatment: Inside the Furnace, due to unwanted chemical reaction, deposits, scales and
corrosion products are formed. So deposits and corrosion products should be removed before entering into
Pg.A1.3
any subsequent process. Heat treatments produce scales and deposits. Pickling removes them.
6 Welding: Stainless steel welding produces, Heat Tint or color bands, on the welds or next to weld due to the
formation of different oxides of the elements present. Often the tints are moved by pickling. Removing heat
tint, bring back the chromium to the surface and chromium protects the corrosion effects.
Pickling also used to remove tight open slags in welds.
Maintenance : Often the surface of stainless steel is damaged, primarily due to atmospheric corrosion, scratches,
contaminants from user Shop / environment or due to the service. The Stainless steel surface need to be
maintained regularly to preserve the self healing chromium oxide passive layer. Various methods of cleaning are
(1) Mild Cleaning: dusting, water or soap solution washing;
(2) Heavy Deposits and scales by : blasting , chemical cleaning etc.
(3) Chemical Treatment: Degreasing and general cleaning may be accomplished by immersion in, swabbing with
nylon brush, or spraying with alkaline, emulsion, solvent, or detergent cleaners or a combination of these; by
vapor degreasing;
(4) Ultrasonics or using various cleaners;
(5) Oily/waxy deposits are cleaned by steam jetting, with or without a cleaner; or by high-pressure water-jetting.
Pickling is one major operation and the whole process is called as Pickling: However, the following pre-cleaning
operations are carried out, to maintain the tank concentration for long time use and to control cost:
1 Do mechanical cleaning as much as possible and remove major surface defects etc.
2 Do alkali cleaning and remove grease, paint, organic material etc
3 Do water cleaning or rinsing to dilute or to remove all alkali traces.
Pickling is done by any one or the combination of the following Methods :
1 Inside & Outside: Immersion of the object inside a pickling tank with acids
2 If it is a long pipe spool or service pipe running, inside a plant, (a). do chemical pickling circulation inside the
pipe. (b) Partially filling the item with pickling solution and rotating or rocking to slosh the solution
3 Outside: If the object is small and very few or the piping is running inside a plant, Do brush pickling
application or paste pickling application
4 Inside & outside: If the equipment is large and difficult to carry to the Tank or no Tank: Do brush pickling
application or paste pickling application
Pickling Procedure for Stainless Steel objects.
Most of the Pickling operators or the Vendors have their own Approved Procedures. Here only a Sample Procedure is given.
Pickling Procedure : Most of the Pickling Procedures are based on ASTM A380 : Cleaning, Descaling, and Passivation of
Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment and Systems
Pickling in Brief :
Acids: Nitric Acid (Tech. Grade) 15 to 25% plus Hydrofluoric Acid 1 to 8%.(20% HNO3 and 2% HF,
Dwell Time: Bath Temperature : 60°C, for 10 minutes. (or 2 hrs at RoomTemperature)
Acid concentration & Mixing proportions are fixed based on the basis of product contamination & the degree of
removal and the temperature of the pickling solution.
To avoid pickling smut (sludge product of pickling), the surfaces should be continously SS or nylon wire brush cleaned.
If spray or brush or paste is applied, the surfaces should not be dried. The surface should be continously wetted by
pickling solution.
Copper Sulfate Test—This method is recommended for the detection of metallic iron or iron oxide on the surface of
Normally pickled surface will have matty finish.
.4
4Correct time should be followed. Over pickling time will result in loss of metal or the surface finish will be very rough.
Pg.A1.4
After pickling operation, the object should be cleaned with water/rinsed in water tank, till no trace is left behind on
the surfaces. Before doing next operation (say passivation), the object should be dried(inside & outside) . It should be
protected from contamination, before doing next operation (say passivation).
Test After Pickling: There are many inspections and testing, specified in ASTM A380. Most common are:
(1). Ferroxyl Test for Free Iron is a highly sensitive test and should be used only when even traces of free iron or
iron oxide might be objectionable.
(2). Copper Sulfate Test—This method is recommended for the detection of metallic iron or iron oxide on the
surface of austenitic 200 and 300 Series,
Pickling is done, to clean surface rust, impurities, deposits etc, before each major operation in the steel mills or there is
a doubt on the surface quality for the next use.
Passivation:
It is normally said, pickled surface is fairly clean and has good passive layer. However, passivation is required to make
sure the stainless steel surface has attained the full passivity. For passivation procedure, refer to ASTM A380.
Why Passivation: Though stainless steel, has the property to have self-healing and forming passive layer on the
surface, immediately after a damage to the existing passive layer or the material is cut and open or the surface
masking is removed. Oxygen should be present, to form new the chromium oxide / passive layer.
Passivation is the last process, to make sure, the stainless steel surface is fully passivated and chromium oxide is fully
formed to resist the Corrosion. Passivatged surface has matt finish surface, Reflective stainless surface is obtained by
(1). Initially the surface is flat and (2). by repeatitive emery polish and cloth or fiber buffing.
Passivation is done after one or more of the following operations:

1 Sandblasting 4 Pickling
2 Electro-polishing 5 Mechanically polishing
3 Grinding
Among the above pretreatment process before Passivation, Acid Pickling is more popular for stainless steel
equipments, as Pickling is faster cleaning operation and can handle large objects.
Passivation in Brief :
Acids: Treat the surfaces with Nitric Acid solution (20-50%)
Dwell Time: Bath temperature 50°C, for 15 minutes. (or 2 hrs at RoomTemperature or for manual operation)
Passivation is done before putting the equipment or piping into their normal usage/service.
Ferroxyl Test is done to find/measure the free iron on the SS surface.
(1) After passivation activity, Rinse the surfaces thoroughly with water.
(2) Dry the surfaces thoroughly.
(3) Protect the passivated surfaces from further contamination.
ASTM A380, Nitric Acid based Passivation Treatments
.5
Pg.A1.5
To retain the matt or fine polished surface:
Nitric acid alone is used for passivation where matt finished surface is ok.
Mix of Nitric acid and sodium dichromate or copper sulphate is used where plished surface is tobe preserved.
For more info and Details on Pickling & Passivation, the following Documents may be referred:
ASTM A380, Cleaning, Descaling(Pickling), Passivation of SS
ASTM A912, Passivation of Stainless Steels
ASTM A967, Passivation Treatment for Stainless Steel
SAE-AMS, QQ-P-35, Passivation Treatment for Corrosion Resistant Steels.
Nickel Institute, Cleaning, Descaling of Stainless Steel
Bohler Pickling Handbook
Avesta Pickling Handbook
ASSDA Pickling & Passivation
Euro Inox Pickling & Passivation
Alleghny Stainless Steel Passivation
Annex-2 Solution Annealing of Austenitic Stainless Steels
Solution heat treatment or Solution Annealing Heat Treatment is heating a stainless steel object to a suitable
Pg.A2.1
temperature, holding it at that temperature long enough to cause one or more constituents to enter into solid
solution, and then cooling it rapidly (say, in water) enough to hold such constituents in solution.
Solution annealing is a high temperature heat treating process performed on steels, particularly austenitic stainless
steels in the 300 series. The castings are held at a temperature and time sufficient to bring the carbon in the steel into
a solid solution. The material is then quickly cooled to lock the carbon in the solid solution. The solution anneal
process results in a casting in the most corrosion resistant and ductile condition.
Austenitic stainless steels are the most favoured construction materials of various components required in chemical,
petrochemical and nuclear industries. The selection of these is made basically due to a good combination of
mechanical, fabrication and corrosion resistance properties.
But austenitic stainless steels which have undergone treatment in the temperature range between 500-900°C or have
been cooled slowly from annealing temperatures (1000-1200°C) become sensitised. The phenomenon of sensitization
in stainless steels refers to their susceptibility to intergranular corrosion(IGC) and stress corrosion (SCC) resulting from
microstructural changes. These corrosion process affects the service behaviour of construction materials.
Case Histories of Aus SS Service Failures, due to Intergranular Corrosion Attack:

(Extracted from ASM Metals HandBook, Vol-4, Heat Treatment)
1 In a number of instances, partially stress-relieved stainless steel parts have failed through intergranular
corrosion. For example, partially stress relieved (at 620 to 650 °C, or 1150 to 1200 °F) type 316 stainless steel
hardware used in coastal steam stations failed due to intergranular attack in seawater over a span of less than
6 month.
2 Another typical case of intergranular corrosion involved a type 304 stainless steel heat exchanger (partially
stress relieved at 650 °C, or 1200 °F) for 2 h and furnace cooled) that failed within 7 days.
3 Heaters made of type 316L failed after a few weeks of service while in contact with acid organic chloride and
ammonium chloride. But those that were stress relieved at 955 °C (1750 °F) were completely free of stress-
corrosion cracking (SCC) after 4 years of service under the same conditions.
4 Typically, when two type 316L stainless steel vessels were used in 85% phosphoric acid service. One vessel was
not stress relieved & underwent extensive stress corrosion. Another was stress-relieved (540 °C, or 1000 °F).
Vessel was completely free of any stress corrosion. This illustrates that even though a stainless steel
component may not be completely stress relieved, reducing the stress level may totally prevent stress
corrosion.
5 Stress relief of unstabilized grades of stainless at 900 °C (1650 °F) will result in some intergranular carbide
precipitation. In some instances a small amount of intergranular attack may lead to failure within a few weeks
by stress corrosion cracking. Moreover, the intergranular attack probably could be avoided by using an extra-
low-carbon or stabilized grade of austenitic stainless steel.
Solution Annealing is carried out in the following situation

1 Sensitization: If the stainless steel is heated to 450 to 900 or kept in that range for long time,
chromium and carbon forms chromium carbides and the carbides are precipitated into the grain
boundries. This causes sensitiation or Stress corrosion cracking(SCC) or Intergranular corrosion(IGC) or
simply corrosion . Solution Annealing is carried out to change the chromium carbide precipitated, in
the stainless steels, back to chromium in solid solution.
If the grains are already parted away due to corrosion or there is no bonding between grains,
annealing will not help to re-bond the grains. (Please refer to Chapter-7, for more details on
Sensitization)
2 Cold Work on Stainless Steel: Cold Working on Stainless Steels: will produce high tensile and yield
strength, higher hardness, low ductility lower toughness. To soften the stainless steel material and to
have lower strength and higher ductility, the stainless steel is solution annealed, on each operation of
cold working. (Please refer to Chapter-6, for more details on Cold Work and its effect).
g.A2.2
3 As cast stainless steel, is hard to grind or to machine, as complex phases exist. Inside the mold, the
Pg.A2.2
Pg.A2.1
temperature is not controlled. Possibilities are that chromium carbides should have already formed,
requires, solution annealing on the castings.
Alloy segregation and dendritic structures may occur in castings and may be particularly pronounced as
the metal pass through the sensitization range. Most of the pressure vessel casting specification
require solution anealing on the castings. Alloy segregation and dendritic structures s may occur in
castings and may particularly pronounced in heavy sections. It is frequently necessary in the Castings,
to homogenize some alloys at temperatures above 1095 °C (2000 °F) to promote uniformity of
chemical composition and microstructure
4 ASTM Requirements: All most all cast, formed, extruded, spinned, drawn shapes require solution
annealing per ASTM. Majoritity of the material is supplied as "Annealed".
Solution Annealing Procedure (as per ASM) : Vendor to Prepare Detailed Procedure (with stage Timing) :
Austenitic SS: Solution Annealing : The austenitic alloys achieve maximum resistance to intergranular corrosion by the
high temperature heating and quenching procedure known as solution annealing. As-cast structures, or castings
exposed to temperatures in the range from 425 to 870 °C (800 to 1600 °F), may contain complex chromium carbides
precipitated preferentially along grain boundaries in wholly austenitic alloys. This microstructure is susceptible to
intergranular corrosion, especially in oxidizing solutions. (In partially ferritic alloys, carbides tend to precipitate in the
discontinuous ferrite pools; thus, these alloys are less susceptible to intergranular attack.) The purpose of solution
annealing is to ensure complete solution of carbides in the matrix and to retain these carbides in solid solution.
Solution-annealing procedures for all austenitic alloys are similar, and consist of heating to a temperature of about
1095 °C (2000 °F), holding for a time sufficient to accomplish complete solution of carbides, and quenching at a rate
fast enough to prevent reprecipitation of the carbides--particularly while cooling through the range from 870 to 540 °C
(1600 to 1000 °F). Temperatures to which castings should be heated prior to quenching vary somewhat, depending on
the alloy.
Niobium statbilized SS: Stabilizing Treatment. As shown in Table 16, a two-step heat-treating procedure may be applied
to the niobium containing CF-8C (UNS J92710) alloy. The first treatment consists of solution annealing. This is followed
by a stabilizing treatment at 870 to 925 °C (1600 to 1700 °F), which precipitates niobium carbides, prevents formation
of the damaging chromium carbides, and provides maximum resistance to intergranular attack.
Because of their low carbon contents, CF-3 and CF-3M (UNS J92700 and J92800) as-cast do not contain enough
chromium carbides to cause selective intergranular attack, and hence may be used in some corrodents in this
condition;
Vendor /Sub-Vendor should consult and prepare the Solutional Annealing Procedure shall be made, to meet the ASTM
or applicable Specification Requirements.
ASTM says, the heat-treatment procedure, shall consist of solution annealing the components at a minimum
temperature of 1900°F [1040°C] until the chromium carbides go into solution, and then cooling at a sufficient rate to
prevent carbide re-precipitation.
(1). The duration / transformation time of solution annealing, inside the furnace
(2). time taken from furnace to water tank
(3). how fast the black temperature (400°C) is reached
are left to the Vendor to establish and to incorporate the timings, into their Procedure. ASTM A262 test shall be
conducted on test samples to find any sensitization left/the carbides have gone fully to Solid Solution. The production
Procedure should include, such timings(heat treatment time, transfer time to tank, cooling rate time etc).To do the
trial run, Expected or Tentative Time may be taken from other references, like AMS 2759/4B, Heat Treatment of
Austenitic Corrosion-Resistant Steel Parts, in addition to Vendor experience
.A2.3
Pg.A2.3
Pg.A2.1
Solution
General, ASM
Seamless & Welded Pipe

Annealing
Temperatures
These ASTM & ASM Spec do not specify
soaking etc. Vendor to determine Time so

that no sensitization happen/ remain and
any Time limit for object transfer or
prepare the Solution Annealing

Procedure
Castings
Wrought Fittings
ASTM A403, Wrought Type, Solution

Heat Treatment, Annealing Annealing @
Grades 321H, 347H, and 348H 1050°C min
Grades 321, 321H, 347, and 347H 1150°C max
All other Au SS Grades 1040°C min
A 182/A 182M, Austenitizing/

Quenching Tempering
Forgings
Heat Treating Requirements solutioning Cooling

Cool, Below, Temperature,
Temperature, Media
°F (°C) min °F (°C)
Grade Heat Treat Type min °F (°C)
F 304 solution treat and quench 1900 [1040] liquid 500 [260] B
F 304H solution treat and quench 1900 [1040] liquid 500 [260] B
F 304L solution treat and quench 1900 [1040] liquid 500 [260] B
F 304N solution treat and quench 1900 [1040] liquid 500 [260] B
F 304LN solution treat and quench 1900 [1040] liquid 500 [260] B
(B means Not Applicable)
1900–2010
F 310MoLn solution treat and quench liquid 500 [260] B
[1050–1100]
F 316N solution treat and quench 1900 [1040] liquid 500 [260] B
F 316LN solution treat and quench 1900 [1040] liquid 500 [260] B
F XM-11 solution treat and quench 1900 [1040] liquid 500 [260] B
Difficulties faced during Solution Annealing of Stainless Steel objects at Vendor Shop :
Pg.A2.1
Pg.A2.4
1 Residual Stress: Rapid cooling will re-introduce residual stresses, which could be as high as the yield point.
Distortion can also occur if the object is not properly supported during the annealing process.
2 Transfer Time from Furnace to Water Tank: Large and heavy objects are difficult to transport and rapid cool in
Water Tank, within the specified transfer time. Time limitation is based on sensitization time)
3 High Temperature Risk: The solution annealing temperatures are very high, say, 1000 to 1150 °C. Handling
objects and transfering the objects to water tank to quench, has high temperature risk.
4 Steam Forming and steam effect: High temperature of the object, immediately makes the water to steam.
Heat Transfer in the medium of Steam is much less and this may retard the heat transfer and cooling rate may
be slow and sensitization may appear again. Allowing water inside the closed vessel produce steam. Pressure
5 Difficult to Keep the Shape: The stainless steel material stress at annealing temperatures(1000 to 1150 °C), is
near to yield strength. Lifting, transfering may deform the shape. Possibilities are more that the object may
deform due to its own weight. Additional supporting , using SS310 and/or SS309 and/or refractory Brick is
6 Floating: Some fabricated vessels, may float on the water due to buoyancy. Additional dead weight may be
added to the vessel supporting structure, to counter the buoyancy/floating effect.
Difficulties faced for Solution Annealing at Site / Fab Shop :

There are cases, solution annealing is not possible or near impossible. However, to meet the code requirement
or to avoid sensition and other bad effects due to heat, the following alternatives are taken:
(1). The object, like large pressure vessels, reactors are large in size and difficult to handle or have such large
quench tank and controls.
(2). Fabricated piping, inside a plant often have complex configuration and sometime runs more than 1 km.
(3). Vessels and heat exchangers are constructed using different type of metals and materials and normally, their
property does not allow to have water quenching.
Knowing such difficulties, Engineers often go for alternative methods, to avoid solution annealing at the end.
Buy and use fully annealed plates and shapes for fabrication.
Carbon Control:
1 Use low Carbon Stainless steels materials(plates & Electrodes etc) like, 304L, 316L and 308L, 316L
2 Use stabilized stainless steel type-321 and 347.
Time Control:
1 Longer the duration at the sensitizing temperature, larger the sensitization. Electric Spot welding of
thin 301 stainless steel sheets, in less than 5 milliseconds, is found to cause no sensitization. There was
no corrosion , even after 30 years of operation.
Temperature Control:
(1). During Welding: Eletrical Energy = I2Rh, the energy is proportional to square of Current and so reduce
current flow through the electrode. Use smaller size electrodes. Control and maintain Interpass
temperature below 175˚C. Have number of small passes/stringer beads to complete the welding. Use
Skip welding and backstep welding. During welding, have heat sink(copper plates, water soaked cloths
etc) next to weld and save the weld HAZ from sensitization.
(2). If the root side of vessel or pipe, is accessible, after stabilizing pass or after 3 passes, use heat
sinks/water washing, in the rear side. If the piping is long and inaccessible, controlled water may be
circulated inside, after stabilizing passes or after 3 passes, to wash away the temperature increase in
the sensitizing range.
(3). If undesirable distortion exist, limited stress relieving can be done, below 450˚C.
(4). For hot Forging, drawing, forming, hot spinning, upsetting, extrusion etc process, are done around
1000˚C. Solution annealing may be done, immediately after these operation
(5).During machining, to avoid work hardening and sensitization and to avoid metal gumming at the tool
tip, surplus coolant water should be flushed at the tool tip.
Measure of Sensitization: Susceptibility Tests of stainless steels to Intergranular Attack are described in ASTM A262 / E
.A2.5
Advances in Solution Annealing
Pg.A2.1
Pg.A2.5
(1). Solution Annealing on thin objects, are found to distort during water quenching. Few Solution Annealing
Vendors are now using intert gases at cryogenic temperatures to quench, so that distortion can be
minimized. The furnace is modified to inject / introduce direct cryogenic inert gases inside the furnace .
(2). Aerospace and Nuclear Industry are mostly responsible to the present advances in materials sciences.
Automotive, Oil & Gas etc industries followed/adopted the advances to their benefits
(3). Aerospace Spec, AMS2750 E, Pyrometry Standard, is now standard for most of the Furnaces. (1). Temperature
uniformity in the work space (TUS), (2). Instrumentation (definition of measurement and control systems), (3).
Calibration of the measurement system (IT) from the controller via the measurement line to the
thermocouple, (4). Inspections of system accuracy (SAT), (5). Documentation of the inspection cycle are
followed.
For further info/details, the following SAE-AMS Standards/Specification, may be consulted, on Solution Annealing of
Stainless Steels:
AMS 2759D, Heat Treatment of Steel Parts-General Requirements
AMS 2759/4B, Heat Treatment Austenitic Corrosion-Resistant Steel Parts
AMS-H-6875A, Heat Treatment of Steel Raw Materials
AMS2750, Pyrometry
Year Annex.4 Chronology or Events or Mile-Stone Developments for Stainless Steel
402 Iron pillar of Delhi Qutub Minar, 7 m (23 ft) tall and 6 tonnes wt. It is notable for the rust-resistant composition of the metals . The
corrosion resistance results from an even layer of crystalline iron hydrogen phosphate hydrate forming on the high-phosphorus-content
Pg.A4.1
iron. metal was reduced from Cobolt ores (known in ancient times). The German name was kobold .
1735 Cobolt
1751 Nickel was discovered in Sweden by Axel Cronsted
1774 Manganese was discovered by Johann Gann in Sweden
1778 Molybdenum was discovered by Swedwash scientwast Karl Wilhelm Scheele
1781 Tungsten was discovered by Swedish chemist
1790 Titanium was first discovered in England
1797 Chromium(Cr) was discovered by German chemist, Klaproth and French analyst, Vauquelin(Cr ore, crocoite, is red in color. Chrome means
color in Greek.Another German chemist, separated Cr, from another ore, Chromite, FeCr2O4(it is the only one ore now used for Cr metal)
1798 First chromium metal by Louwas Nicolas Vauquelin.
1801 Columbium was discovered by the British chemist,
1802 Tantalum was discovered by Anders Ekeberg and isolated by Jons Berzelius.
1803 Vanadium discovered by a Swedish chemist
1811 Boron metal was prepared by France
1811 Silicon was prepared by J. Gay-Lussac and L. Thenard
1811 Krupp founded. Friedrich Krupp founds the first Foundry for cast steel in Germany.
1821 Pierre Berthier, a Frenchman, studied the effect of Carbon and Chromium in Steel.
1822 Stodart and Faraday found improved atmospheric corrosion resistance with 3% Cr steel.
1825 Aluminum was discovered in 1825 and separation of Aluminum by Electrolys was in 1885, by Harles Martin Hall, USA
1838 Mallet. R. Mallet, England, showed chromium-iron alloys are resistant to oxidizing agents
1842 Established Thomas Firth & Sons . In 1913, they produced the first commercial heat of chromium stainless steel
1844 Columbium was rediscovered by Heinrich Rose and called niobium. Metal name is columbium in USA and it is called niobium in Europe
1854 Chromium was found to resists strong acids (inc. Aqua Regia) by. W. Bunsen, Germany.
1862 Sandvik Steel. The Sandvik Steel Company was founded in Sandviken, Sweden.
1863 Metallography. Dr. Henry Clifton Sorby , England, was pioneer of microscopic metallurgy and crystalline structure study.
1866 Columbium metal was prepared by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand
1869 British Iron and Steel Institute (BWASI) was formed, with 292 members.
1869 Chromium alloy steel was used by J. Baur to construct Eads Bridge, St. Louis
1871 August Thyssen established Thyssen and Company in Styrum (today Muylhelm Styrum), Germany.
1871 John T. Woods and John Clark, Englwash scientists,produced “Weather-resistant Alloys.”
1875 Establised Ludlum Steel. Ludlum produced one of the first commercial heats of chromium stainless steel in America in 1918.
1877 Chromium steels. Acieries Holtzer in Unieux, France, developed chromium steels for the first time in Europe.
1878 Chromiferous spiegeleisen. The Terre Noire Company in France produceed a chromiferous spiegeleisen (German name for brilliant iron) with
25% chromium and 13% manganese.
1886 Chromium steels. It was known, common knowledge among analytical chemists that chromium-containing steels exhibit greater corrosion
resistance in many media.
1886 Carpenter Steel. The Carpenter Steel Company was Established at Reading, Pennsylvania.
1892 Hadfield. Sir Robert A. Hadfield studied 1 to 9% chromium alloys with 1 to 2% carbon in 50% sulfuric acid solutions and concluded that
sulfuric acid was harmful to chromium alloys.
1895 Low-carbon ferrochromium. In Germany, Hans Goldschmidt had prepared carbon-free chromium. Low carbon ferrochromium and
chromium metal were produced.
1898 High-carbon alloys. In France, A. Corot and E. Goutal found higher the carbon content, higher the corrosion, on the corrosion resisting iron-
chromium alloys,.
1898 ASTM. The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)was Established at Philadelphia. In 1950s, the name was changed to The
American Society for Testing and Materials.
1899 The American Rolling Mill Company was established at Middletown, Ohio. Later changed to Armco and later to A-K Steel Company in 1994.
1900 The Crucible Steel Company of America was Established with its headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
1900 ASTM confirms, Holtzer and Company of Unieux, France,exhibited stainless steel at the Paris Exposition.
1901 Allegheny Steel and Iron, Established at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and merged with Ludlum Steel in 1938, to form Allegheny Ludlum Steel
Corporation, (largest steel company specializing in stainless, electrical, tool, and other alloy steels and carbides).
1901 The British Standards Institute (BSI) was Established in London.
1902 The United States Steel Company (US Steel) was created by a merger of J.P. Morgan’s Federal Steel Company with Carnegie Company
1902 Jones & Laughlin. Jones & Laughlin Company was incorporated at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
1902 The International Nickel Company, Ltd. (INCO) was created in Camden, New Jersey, 1902 Nickel refinery. A nickel refinery was completed at
Clydach,Wales, by the Mond Nickel Company.
1903 La Societe Anonyme de la Neo-Metallurgie, found rustless medium carbon Steel(16 to 38% Iron, 5 to 60% Nickel, 24 to 57% chromium).
1904 Guillet, professor of metallurgy France, used hydrochloric acid to etch the stainless steel and studied the metallography
1905 First book on stainless steel, by Leon Guillet, Paris, was published. It had 132 pages.
1906 Guillet studied iron-chromium-nickel alloys. & published a detailed study of iron-chromium-nickel alloys with basic metallurgical
characteristics
1907 American Steel Founders’ Society organized. The American Steel Founders’ Society of America (ASFS) was organized in New York City.
1907 Thomas Firth & Sons and John Brown & Company, in Sheffield,set up Brown Firth Research Laboratories with Harry Brearley as first Head
.A4.2
1908 The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) was organized in New York City
Pg.A4.2
1909 Giesen and Portevin, in France, indicated there are 3 types of stainless steels, roughly equivalent to the modern austenitic, martensitic, and
ferritic stainless steels.
1910 Iron rusts. Wrote, Cushman and Gardner,England, “The tendency to rust was due to iron element and in all probability, the corrosion will
never be entirely overcome.”
1910 Ludlum electric furnace. Ludlum Steel of Watervliet, New York, was the first to use the Electric Arc furnace to melt alloy steel.
1910 W. Borchers and Philip Monnartz, in Germany, obtained German Patent 246,015 on a stainless steel.
1911 Philip Monnartz, in Germany, published that stainless steel requires at least 12% chromium and controlled amount of carbon(Chromium
oxide passivation film theory came late).
1911 Christian Dantsizen of the General Electric Lab, New York, develops a low-carbon, iron chromium ferritic alloy having 14 to 15% chromium
and 0.07 to 0.15% carbon for use as filament wire for electric bulbs.
1912 Maurer and Strauss. Eduard Maurer, at Krupp Works at Essen,Germany, as their first metallurgist. In 1912, found 2 alloys, (1). V1M , M for
Matertensitic alloy, containing 7 to 25% Cr, 1%C, 0.5 to 20%Ni(this was similar to present SS Type 414), (2). V2A, A for Austenitic alloy,
containing 20%Cr and 7% Ni(this was similar to 18-8 alloy or SS type 304). Also Maurer devised Solution Annealing method to put
chromium carbide into solution and made the alloys ductile.
1912 Schilling found a chromium steel (9% Cr, 3% Mo,and approx 1% C) A Steel for safe vault and it was claimed that the steel could not be
melted by an oxy-acetylene flame.
1913 Harry Brearley, Sheffield, England was generally credited as the initiator of the stainless steel. He casted ever-shining, 12.86% Cr and 0.24%
C, a martensitic steel (SS 420)
1914 Christian Dantsizen of General Electric, N.Y., uses ferritic SS (14 to 16% chromium and 0.07 to 0.15% carbon) stainless steel to steam turbine
blades.
1914 Frederick M. Becket of Electro Metallurgical Company, New York, produced (1). High carbon Chrome Iron, an oxidation resistant SS, (25 to
27% chromium & high in carbon) ferritic stainless steel, hardened by heat treatment. (2). low carbon ferrochromium
1914 Silicon-chrome steels. P.A.E. Armstrong of the Ludlum Steel Company, Watervliet, New York, discovers the silicon-chrome steels, which are
principally used for gasoline engine exhaust valves.
1914 Thomas Firth produced 50 tons of Cutlery stainless steel
1914 Thomas Firth produced Stainless table knives first made, by forging Harry Brearley’s 12% chromium steel and stamped with “STAINLESS
KNIFE; George Ibberson & Co. Sheffield Eng; Firth-Brearley”
1914 Dr. Benno Strauss of Krupp explains the high resistance High alloy Cr-Ni Steels to rust and acids at Microexamination convention of German
chemists in Bonn.
1914 During World War I(1914 to 1918), Firth’s entire production of chromium stainless steel was used in aeroplane engine exhaust valves
1915 Brearley moves to Brown Bayley’s. In 1914, Harry Brearley, moved from Brown Firth Research Lab to Brown Bayley’s Steelworks, and the
plant started making stainless steel.
1915 Mosely made Blades , the second manufacturer of knives using Firth’s iron-chromium alloy.
1915 New York Times , publwashes: “Sheffield Invention (for Table Cutlery),a non-rusting, non-stainable, and non-tarnwashable steel and the
original polwash was maintained after use, with most acid foods.”
1915 Firth-Sterling Steel Company of McKeesport, first American producer of(martensitic) stainless steel.The alloy was similar to type 420
stainless steel and was known as cutlery steel.
1917 Ferritic Stainless iron was developed at Firth-Sterling Steel Company, Pennsylvania, with a composition of approximately 13% Cr and 0.15%
C. The alloy, was ferritic, was not hardenable by heat treatment.
1917 DIN. Deutsches Institut fur Normung e.V. (DIN), the German standards organization, was Established in Berlin.
1917 Carpenter Steel Company, Pennsylvania, melts its first two heats of martensitic chromium stainless steel. They were used in Liberty airplane
engine and for cutlery.
1917 Firth-Brearley Syndicate allowed the manufacture of stainless cutlery steel by others with permission, a logo, “Firth-Brearley Stainless,”
stamped on all knife blades. Firth company people attended each heat to control the Trade, each ladle was loaded with a secret powder “X”
from Firth, (the secret powder was, later found as, Cobalt metal).
1917 Stainless steel in Oxford Englwash Dictionary and also in Scientific American Magazine : “The New Stainless Steel , it does not stain nor
tarnish & welcomed by the housewife as a real boon.
1917 American Stainless Steel Co., a patent-holding company, in Pennsylvania. ( Firth- Brearley Syndicate (40%) and Elwood Haynes (30%). The
American Stainless Steel Company was dissolved in the mid-1930s when the patent limits of Brearley, Haynes, and others had expired.
1919 Cutlery steel produced. After the end of World War I, Sheffield cutlers start regular production of stainless steel cutlery, surgical scalpels,
and tools. Early stainless steel tableware and bowls start to appear in hotels and restaurants in England.
1920 Stainless iron. The world’s first commercial heat of stainless iron was cast at Brown Bayley’s Steelworks, Sheffield. made a five or six ton cast
material containing 0.07% carbon and 11.7% chromium and . The ingots were 12” square.”
1920 Latrobe Steel Company begins producing stainless steel at Latrobe, Pa. They develop the first mirror-finish cutlery in the United States.
1920 Carpenter Steel Company, produces a ferritic chromium copper alloy with a composition of 20% Cr, 1% Cu,and 0.30% C. The alloy was
known as Carpenter No. 3( similar to type 422).
1920 Sandvik produces stainless. Sandvik Steel Company at Sandviken,Sweden, starts making stainless steel.
1920 “Stainless Steel, Its Treatment, Properties and Applications” a paper by W.H. Marble, presented at American Stainless Steel Company, on
hardenable chromium stainless steels.
1920 Maurer and Strauss paper. published in Krupp’s Monthly magazine, “Strauss-Maurer Chromium-Nickel Phase Diagram,”. (Due to the
information gap, the manufacture or use of austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steel was not known to North Americans until 1927)
1920 Harry Brearley receives one of the highest awards for metallurgical achievement for discovering and commercializing chromium stainless
steels.
1921 Victorinox was the sole producer of Swiss Army knives. (1921 to 2005)
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1922 Low-carbon stainless. The General Electric Company at Schenectady, New York, makes its first heat of low-carbon,12% chromium ferritic
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stainless steel.
1922 Nirosta was a brand name by Krupp. It was an acronym for nicht-rostender-Stahl , or nonrusting steel.
1922 Boiler tubes. Chromium stainless steel with 0.30% carbon and 12% chromium was fabricated into boiler tubes by Babcock and Wilcox Tube
Company, Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania.
1923 The world’s first book in the English language on stainless steel was published by the Firth-Sterling Steel Company
1923 Austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steels are introduced into U.K.from Germany, they are called super stainless steels to distinguish them
from the plain chromium stainless steels.
1923 Firth-Brearley Syndicate and Krupp exchange licenses. The Firth-Brearley Syndicate agreed with Krupp to make 13% chromium steel in
Germany and to make Krupp’s austenitic steels in England.
1924 William A. Hatfield,Brown Firth Research Lab in Sheffield, had invented 18-8 stainless steel (18% chromium and 8% nickel) and also
Titanium stabilized 18-8 SS to prevent chromium carbide precipitation(similar to type 321)
1924 Parmiter paper on cutlery steel. Owen Parmiter , Firth-Sterling Steel Company, McKeesport, Pennsylvania, first detailed American paper on
Brearley’s cutlery stainless steel at a meeting of the American Society for Steel Treating
1924 Avesta produces chromium steel. Avesta Jernverk produces chromium stainless steel in Sweden.
1924 Sandvik’s chromium stainless tubes. The first seamless chromium alloy stainless steel tubes were produced by the Sandvik Steel Company,
Sandviken, Sweden.
1924 ASTM Symposium. The first large symposium concerning stainless steel( “Heat and Corrosion-resisting Alloys and Electrical-resistance
Alloys”) was held at Atlantic City
1924 Dr. Benno Strauss of the Krupp Works presents a paper, “Non-Rusting Iron-Chromium-Nickel Alloys,”at the ASTM Symposium in Atlantic
City.
1924 Armstrong paper on hwastory by P.A.E. Armstrong, vice president of Ludlum Steel, presents a the third paper at the ASTM Symposium on
“Corrosion- and Heat-resisting Alloys.”
1924 Stainless Steel Tanks. The first application of stainless steel plate for Nitric Acid Storage Tanks in a large chemical plant in the United
Kingdom
1924 Earliest known fabrication of 18-8 stainless steel by Struthers Wells in the United States. The source of the steel was not given.
1925 Ferrochromium specification. ASTM specification A 101, “Ferrochromium,”was published.
1925 Avesta produces austenitic stainless. Avesta Jernverk produced the first austenitic stainless steel in Sweden.
1926 18-8 stainless steel was introduced into surgical implant applications as it is resistant to bodily fluids
1926 Allegheny Steel metallurgists visit Hatfield at Sheffield to learn about the 18-8 austenitic stainless steel
1926 Rustless Iron Company starts a new process for making stainless iron that uses chromite ore instead of ferrochromium
1926 Field of Rustless developed a process for making low cost, low-carbon stainless steel instead of low-carbon ferrochromium.
1927 U.S. Steel Company published the first austenitic steel article. “An Introduction to Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys,”
1927 Carpenter Steel Company forms the Welded Alloy Tube Division to make tube produced on their new strip mill
1927 Brown Firth develops a deep-drawing quality (DDQ) alloy with 12% Cr and 12% Ni comparing to 18-8 stainless steel
1927 Krupp found an austenitic 25% Cr and 20% Nil steel, later known as 25-20 and type 310 stainless steel.
1927 First stainless steel cookware(commercial use) were produced by the Polar Ware Company.
1927 Leipzig Fair, showed distilling apparatuses, acid pumps, turbine blades, beer barrels, tableware and kitchenware made of 18-8, Krupp
Nirosta)
1927 Heil Truck produces first welded chromium stainless steel tank (for milk).
1927 The first 4 to 6% Cr steel heater tubes were installed in an American oil refinery for handling hydrogen sulfides.
1928 Hatfield of Brown Firth visited Allegheny Steel and “found a considerable production of 18-8 stainless steel.”
1928 Carpenter No. 5. an antifriction stainless steel (type 416). It was a straight chromium grade with at least 0.15% sulfur to make it easier to
machine. It was the world’s first free-machining stainless steel.
1929 Precipitation hardening discovered. William J. Kroll (1889–1973) of Luxembourg was the first to discover precipitation hardening stainless
steel. He used titanium. Kroll developed the Kroll process for refining titanium and zirconium.
1929 The first stainless steel sign in architecture was erected at the entry to the Hotel Savoy in London.
1929 The Ford Motor Company starts using Allegheny Metal stainless steel for the bright trim of the Model A Ford car.
1929 Pierce Arrow has 24 pounds of stainless. Pierce Arrow uses 24 pounds of Carpenter stainless steel strip as trim on each car.
1929 A 3000 gallon (12000L) milk tanker was the first stainless steel rolling stock.
1929 Stainless steel golf clubs are first time manufactured.
1929 ASTM establishes Committee A-10 on Corrosion- and Heat-resisting Stainless Steels.
1929 A.L. Feild produces rustless iron, commercially in a 6 ton electric furnace at Lockport, N.Y.
1929 Iron Age reports that the total stainless steel production in US, was 53,293 tons.
1930 U.R. Evans, reports from electrochemical test that Chromium produces chromium oxide film on the SS surface. It is responsible for the
corrosion resistance. Chromiun oxide is a thin transparent passive layer, 1 to 5 x 10-6 mm(1 to 5 nm) thick
1930 77-story, 1046 foot high world tallest, Chrysler Building, in New York, has 100 foot spire on the roof and also enormous decorative articles,
approx. 48 tons of the German- Nirosta Stainless Steel. This was the first time, such large weight of stainless steel was used in architecture.
1930 DuPont Corrosion Consultant, William R.Huey, developed a corrosion test for chromium stainless steel. Specimens were suspended in 65%
boiling nitric acid solutio. Weight loss after 48 hours is determined. It is converted into loss per year. This is now, ASTM A 262, Practice C.
1930 To reduce the cost of Heavy Plates, a process for hot roll bonding metals such as stainless steel or nickel to a backing plate of carbon steel
was developed by Lukens Steel. The clad plate was normally 10% the thickness of CS plate .
1930 Iron Age journal reported, total stainless steel, production in 1930 was 26,618 tons.(
1931 Molybdenum in stainless alloy. Molybdenum-bearing 18-8 stainless steel was produced.
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1931 Empire State Building was trimmed with stainless. Following Chrysler Building Empire State Building had stainless steel window trim and
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pilasters. Krupp Nirosta 18-8 chromium-nickel was used. The 102-story building was the tallest in the world for 40 years.
1931 Low-carbon austenitic stainless. The world’s first very low carbon (0.02%) austenitic stainless steel was produced by Acieries d’Unieux (later
integrated into the Compagnie des Ateliers et Forges de la Loire) in France.
1931 The world’s first stainless steel aircraft,the Pioneer, built by Budd Company in Philadelphia; weighed 1750 lb(800 kg) , used SS 18-8 , 0.006”
thick sheets, with strength 150000 psi(1034 MPa), improved by cold working; flown for over 1000 hrs(now in Franklin Institute in
Philadelphia)
1931 Budd Manufacturing Company, Philadelphia, did Shot weld(now called, Spot weld) on stainless steels (using very high currents and very
short welding times, on the order of 1/100th of a second).
1931 Plummer system for grouping stainless steels. A system listing stainless steel alloys in groups according to their alloy content was developed
by Clayton Plummer of the Robert Hunt Company, Chicago. AISI numbering system(2xx,3xx,4xx) was set up for stainless steels, about this
time.
1932 Budd stainless trailer. Budd Company of Philadelphia inaugurated lightweight stainless steel trailer body production using high-strength,
cold-rolled type 301 stainless steel
1932 Budd-Michelin rubber-tired train. Budd Company builds a self-propelled, rubber-tired, stainless steel passenger car. The pneumatic tires
were made by Michelin. Body, sides etc were mad by high strength thin stainless steel (301)sheets with different forms.
1932 Rolls-Royce engine with stainless parts. Rolls-Royce aeroengine had stainless steel shafts, rods, valves, and spindles.
1933 The second book on stainless steel The Book of Stainless Steels, was published by the ASM. Alloy naming, probably most difficult part in the
book, was use of many hundered trade names in "The Book of Stainless Steels", 1933
1933 Intergranular corrosion. E. Houdremont and P. Schafmewaster published an early paper, “Prevention of Intergranular Corrosion in Steels
with 18% Chromium and 8% Nickel with the Addition of Carbide Forming Metals,”
1933 90 North American companies producing or fabricating stainless steel and marketing the products by their own trade names
1933 U.S. Steel Corp. exhibits kitchen ware at Chicago Exposition of Progress. A large showcase at the Chicago Centennial Exposition of Progress
dwasplays various items made of the 18-8 stainless alloy, including a kitchen sink, countertop, pots, and pans.
1933 Duplex stainless steel discovered. Avesta Ironworks in Sweden develops the first stainless alloys that have microstructures conswasting of
ferrite and austenite. Known as duplex alloys,they have considerably higher strength and better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking than
either the ferritic or austenitic alloys.
1933 AISI numbers for stainless steel. Stainless Steel Committee of AISI developed a 3 digit numbering system(3xx & 4xx) for wrought stainless
steels.
1934 Rustless stainless melting process. The Rustless Iron and Steel Company, Maryland, develops the Rustless stainless steel melting process,
which was the first use of stainless scrap and chromite ore, instead of ferrochrome, to make stainless steel at a reduced cost.
1934 Burlington Zephyr’s record run. The three-car Burlington Zephyr, stainless steel train by the Budd Company at Philadelphia, makes its first
travelled from Denver to Chicago. New York Times Reports in 1934, the train travelled, Average Speed of 77.5 M.P.H(125 KMPH); Top
Speed of 112.5 M.P.H(181 KMPH).
1934 Carpenter produced the first free machining chromium-nickel stainless steel. It was known today as type 303. It was a type 302 alloy
containing a minimum of 0.15% sulfur.
1934 American production of stainless. The total American production of corrosion- and heat-resisting alloys, including castings, SS 18-8 25,733
tons, SS 12–14% Cr 8,822 tons, SS 16–18% Cr 6,328 tons, All others 5,680 tons and total 46,563 tons
1935 SAE develops stainless numbering system. It was similar to AISI numbers except the total numbers were 5 digits. For Aus SS, 31 was added at
the front(say 31304), For, Mar& Fer SS, 41 was added at the front.
1935 Stainless in Ford Cars: . 6 Delux model Sedans had SS material.
1935 Alloy Casting Industry classifies stainless alloys. The Alloy Casting Industry Code Authority classifies SS , “C” for chromium alloys, “CN” for
chromium-nickel alloys, and “NC” for nickel-chromium alloys. The letters are followed by one or two digits, such as C20, CN35, and NC5.
1935 Dupont Alloy 20. Dr. Mars A. Fontana, develops what becomes known as Alloy 20, which was the first stainless steel suitable for handling
sulfuric acid. It was an iron-base casting (20% Cr, 20% Ni, 2.25% Mo, , 3.25% Cu) also called CN7M.
1935 The first ASTM spec for stainless steel, ASTM A 167, “Stainless and Heat-resisting Chromium-Nickel Plate, Sheet and Strip,” and ASTM A 176,
“Stainless and Heat-resisting Chromium Plate, Sheet and Strip”. They followed AISI three-digit designations, such as 304, 310, 410,and 430
1935 First ASTM specifications for cast stainless steels. In 1935 and 1936,
1935 Stainless household sinks. People started using 18-8 stainless steel kitchen Sink. Instead of the heavy porcelain-enameled cast iron sinks.
1936 Carlson started to supply stainless steel dwascs, rings, heads, tube sheets, and special-cut shapes.Large plates were from Lukens Steels.
1936 Vessel Queen - Stainless steel was widely used throughout the vessel in its kitchens, swimming pools, interior decor, and turbine engines.
1937 Budd company made stainless steel railcars, total – 104 passenger cars for the Atchwason and consumed approximately 800 tons of type
301 stainless steel.
1937 Crucible Steel Company , USA discovered stabilization of austenitic stainless steel to avoid carbide precipitation.
1938 Allegheny Steel and Ludlum Steel merged.
1938 ASTM specification on castings was published. ASTM A 219 on martensitic stainless steel castings was published.
1938 Steel Founders’ Society started functioning and gave technical advwases.
1938 ASTM specification on boiler tubes was published. ASTM A 213,“Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Boiler Tubes,”
1938 Nuts and bolts. ASTM A 194 on nuts and A 193 on bolts, covering Stainless Steels, were first time published.
1938 ASTM specification on sanitary tubing. ASTM A 270 on sanitary austenitic stainless steel tubing was published.
1938 Collection of Oscar Bach’s stainless steel metalwork. A decorated stainless steel door, with trim and grillwork, was placed on permanent
exhibit in the Procurement Divwasion of the Treasury Department.
1939 Joslyn makes stainless. Joslyn Manufacturing Company, FortWayne, Ind., manufactures its first stainless steel.
1939 Revere Ware. Revere Ware copper-bottomed stainless steel cooking utensils were introduced.
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1939 Stainless washer tubs introduced by Speed Queen Train. Monel, was replace with stainless steel(SS 302) washer and dryer tubs.
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1939 Brearley receives Sheffield Scroll receives Freedom of Sheffield Scroll and the Freedom of Sheffield Casket, which was a small metal box
decorated with figures depicting the metal trades.
1940 Alloy Casting Institute was organized, replacing Alloy Casting Research Group(established in 1937.
1940 ASTM’s Committee A-10 on Stainless Steel made their second, five-year inspection of the stainless steel on the roof of the Chrysler Building
and showed no corrosion whatever after ten years.”
1940 During World War II, chromium stainless steel was used in engine valves of all British Royal Air Force planes and the last versions of the
American-built Mustang fighter planes.
1940 Budd receives largest stainless order. Order for 10,000 Budd stainless steel trailers. ($9 million, each trainler used 2 tons of SS 301
1940 ASTM A 240,“Heat-resisting Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip,” was first was published.It contains,
large number of SS alloys.
1940 American Rolling Mills buys Rustless Iron and Steel Co, USA.
1940 AMS specifications on Stainless Steel was published Society of Automotive Engineers.
1941 ACI numbers for stainless casting alloys. ACI designations divide casting alloys into two groups: “C” for corrosion-resisting alloys, and an “H”
for heat resisting alloys. A second letter, from “A” to “Z,” was used to denote approximate combined amounts of nickel and chromium.
1941 British “En” numbering system was established. (Emergency Number ?)“En,” the first British numbering system for steel, was started during
World War II. En 56 to En71 were for Stainless Steels. En system of numbering were replaced in 1967.
1942 Type 430 wire for voice-recording. Type 430 stainless steel, a ferritic chromium alloy, was used to make wire 0.004 inch in diameter for
voice-recording machines. Thousands of miles of the wire were used for the purpose during World War II.
1942 Nitrogen added to stainless. Electro Metallurgical Company, a unit of Union Carbide, announces that small amounts of nitrogen enhance
the properties of chromium and chromium-nickel stainless steels.
1943 18-8 exhaust manifolds. Solar Turbines, San Diego, Calif., manufactured over 300,000 18-8 stainless steel exhaust manifolds for U.S. planes
during World War II.
1943 ASTM A 262, “Standard Practices for Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular Corrosion in Austenitic Stainless Steels”. The standard
describes five different tests, including the Strauss and Huey tests.
1943 Budd builds cargo planes for the military. Budd built 25 of the huge RB-1 Conestoga planes with high-strength type 301 stainless steel.
1943 Stainless-clad specifications. ASTM publishes the first two specifications for stainless-clad steel, ASTM A 263, “Corrosion-Resisting Chromium
Steel-Clad Plate, Sheet and Strip,” and ASTM A 264, “Chromium-Nickel Steel-Clad Plate Sheet and Strip.”
1943 ASME medal was awarded to Edward G. Budd, who was called “the father of the stainless steel streamlined train,”
1943 The National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) was formed in Houston.
1943 German stainless grades. In November 1943, the Verein Deutscher Ewasenhuttenleute (VDEh) (now the Steel Institute VDEh) published the
first list of all steel grades manufactured at that time in Germany. The list provided the group 4xxx for stainless steels.
1944 Stainless bar specification. The first ASTM specification for stainless steel bars and shapes, ASTM A 276, was published.
1945 Passivity. The phenomenon of passivity was demonstrated corrosion of 10% chromium by R.Franks in the ASM Transaction paper
“Chromium Steels of Low Carbon Content,”.
1945 Precipitation-hardening stainless. by Carnegie-Illinois Company at Pittsburgh. SS piece was finish machined and then given an aging
treatment, which hardens the steel, at a temperature low enough to avoid distortion or scaling.
1945 Stainless watch screws. The first stainless steel watch screws are made at the Hamilton Watch Company in Lancaster,Pennsylvania. The tiny
hardened-and-tempered screws are made on automatic screw machines using type 420F, a free machining,hardenable stainless steel.
1945 Harold W. Cobb developed a chemical blackening process for stainless steel(for military applications)
1946 Stainless Steel Fabricators Association. The Stainless Steel Fabricators Association (SSFA), was formed.
1946 Powder metallurgy stainless parts. appeared in the market.
1947 Stainless-clad steel plates. Stainless-clad steel plates are introduced by the Lukens Steel Company, Pennsylvania.
1947 Stainless spring wire. ASTM specification A 313 on stainless steel spring wire was published.
1947 Stainless bars. ASTM specification A 314 on bars and billets for forgings was published.
1947 Stainless tubing. ASTM specification A 213 on austenitic steel tubing was published.
1948 Armco introduces 17-4 PH. Armco Steel introduces precipitation-hardening stainless steel alloys, including PH 17-4, PH17-7, and PH 15-7
Mo.(forged, finish machined, aged at low temperatures to avoid distortion and scaling
1949 Zapffe’s book on stainless steels. by Carl A.Zapffe
1949 German specification on stainless. The first German specification for stainless steels, entitled “Nichtrostende Walz- und Schmiedestahle”
(“Wrought Stainless Steels”), was published by VDEh
1949 From 1949 through 1962, Budd built 398 Rail Diesel Cars (RDC) made of stainless steel
1950 Budd built New stainless steel highway trailers, to carry 35% more than others . Max was 35 ton.
1950 AISI published 16 steel products manuals to cover the major steel mill products(including Corrosion and Heat resisting Steels.
1950 Atlas Steel Company in Canada manufactured stainless steel in both bar and wire product form.
1950 Military Handbook of Metals: —Cross Index of Chemically Equivalent Metals and Alloys (Ferrous and Nonferrous).
1950 Three-ply cookware (SS-CS-SS) was produced in Quebec.
1950 Stainless flatware was imported into the United States from Solingen,Germany.
1950 Stainless replaces chrome plated parts (bumpers, grilles, head lamps, wiper arms etc) for auto applications in cars
1951 Korean War,Nickel shortage. Type 201 was introduced by Allegheny Ludlum replacing 301 and 301L(Nickel was replaced by Manganese )
1953 Roll-formed stainless jet engine compressor blades were used in aircraft engines
1954 Canadian Pacific orders 173 stainless railcars from Budd Co.
1954 Pullman Standard produces their first all-stainless train
1954 Wallace Silver introduces stainless flatware. R.B. Wallace Connecticut, introduces a 18-8 stainless steel flatware replacing silver-plated
flatware
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1954 ASTM A380, Cleaning and descaling, pickling of stainless steel parts and equipment was published.
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1955 Allegheny Ludlum melts superalloys by consumable electrode vacuum remelt process.
1955 The first DIN specification(Pre-standard DIN17224) for stainless steels was published
1956 Mobil Oil Corporation Headquarters skyscraper from 1956 to 1987, used 7000 pieces of SS 304 panels.
1956 Stainless razor blades. The world’s first stainless steel razor blades were introduced by Wilkinson Sword in England.
1957 Carpenter bought Northeastern Steel to double the Ingot production.
1957 Cadillac sports car, Eldorado, had stainless steel tail fins and shiny top
1957 J&L established Stainless Sheet and Strip Division.
1957 Allegheny Ludlum Steel produced 304 stainless steel & boron-10 isotope to capture neutron, in the Nuclear Reactors.
1958 Space Explorer launched with nose cone. Made of Stainless steel.
1958 Japan makes stainless railcars. using U.S. technology and a new high-manganese, low-nickel alloy (16Cr-4Mn-4Ni).
1958 The Atomium, landmark in Brussels, constructed for World's Fair (Expo 58). It is 102 m tall & has 18 m diameter stainless steel clad spheres
connected, so that the whole forms the shape of a unit cell of an iron crystal magnified 165 billion times.
1959 Explosive bonding or cladding of metals was discovered by the DuPont Company, Delaware. The technology was commercialized in 1963
1959 NS Savannah, nuclear cargo ship, contained fuel in stainless steel rods(Type 3744 ).
1960 Tyson , Pensilvenia develops Selectaloy system to aid the user to select proper Stainless Steel.
1960 Sandvik introduces duplex alloy 3RE80 to resist stress-corrosion cracking.
1960 Allegheny Ludlum offers bright-annealed stainless. in large volume.
1960 Gillette makes stainless steel safety razor blades.
1960 Ford makes stainless Thunderbird sports cars in venture with Allegheny Ludlum.
1960 Carpenter introduces Custom 450 and Custom 455 which were having corrosion resistance and strength
1960 Tool and Stainless Steel Association was established. Later changed to Specialty Steel Industry
1960 Major city buildings having SS decoration, were inspected for corrosion & decided, no further inspection needed.
1960 “The Fascinating History of Stainless Steel:The Miracle Metal” a movie by Republic Steel Co & Dr. Zapffe, released.
1960 Composite Metal Products, Inc., Pennsylvania, was established to supply bonded metal products.
1961 Armco introduced Nitronic 40, 21-6-9 Stainless, a special high strength & corrosion resistance alloy with Nitrogen, for aircraft hydraulic
tubing
1961 Budd delivers 270 stainless steel subway cars for Philadelphia
1961 Chrysler spire and tower cleaned. the stainless steel was found, in perfect condition.after 30 years of service.
1961 Stainless steel publications (1). Krupp published, 50 years of Stainless steel, (2). ASM, evaluated 898 papers on Stainless steel
1962 Adjustable safety razor were made with types 410, 420, and 416.
1962 Feb 20, 1962, John Glenn becomes the first American to orbit the Earth, using Atlas Rocket, made from Stainless Steel.
1962 Gillette Surgical introduced Disposable stainless steel needles , from England.,
1962 German Werkstoff Numbers for (cast and wrought) stainless steels, 1.4xxx were reserved for stainless Steels
1962 Carpenter improves stainless machinability of type 416 and later also on to 303, 304, and 316
1962 Centro Inox was formed in Italy, headquartered in Milan.
1962 Stainless airport transporter(to carry 102 passengers, weighting 35 tons) built for Dulles-Washington D.C. Airport.
1962 Oneida Silver introduced ornated & pierced pattern of stainless flatware.
1962 ASTM A479, Stainless Steel Bars and shapes for boilers and pressure vessels. was published.
1962 ASTM A473 for stainless steel forgings was published.
1962 ASTM A478 on stainless steel weaving wire was published.
1963 Teflon-coated stainless steel razor blades were first introduced by Schick.
1963 First Stainless beer kegs appered on the U.S. market.
1963 Atlas Steel in Canada was acquired by Rio Algoma.
1963 Specialty Steel Industry of North America(SSINA) was established by AISI to promote the use of stainless steel
1963 ASTM A492, Stainless Steel Rope wire, was published
1963 Explorer 17 satillite was launched by NASA and it had a thin-skinned, 35 inch diameter, spherical stainless steel(Type-321, 0.025” thick)
shell containing complex instrumentation.
1964 Budd made 600 stainless steel(type 201) cars for New York subway(assembled length of all cars exceeded 15 km length).
1964 The South African Stainless Steel Development Association (SASSDA) was opened in Durban, South Africa.
1965 Stainless exhaust system replacements was launched into the U.S. car market.
1965 "New Horizons in Architecture with Stainless Steel" was published.
1966 World’s tallest stainless steel monument, St. Louis Gateway Arch was completed with Stainless Steel clad, 630 feet high, 630 feet span. The
monument was clad with 886 tons of 1/4" thick type 304 stainless steel plates with a No. 3 finish.
1966 Allegheny Ludlum developed type 409 stainless steel, an 11% chromium ferritic alloy, for automotive exhaust systems.
1966 The world’s first tidal power station, near St. Malo, France, was completed with stainless steel turbine blades.
1966 ASTM A564 on hot-rolled and cold-finished age-hardening stainless steel bars and shapes
1967 British Steel Corporation formed with Fourteen major U.K. steel companies
1967 "Lincoln", convertible cars with stainless steel made by Ford Motor Company, in collaboration with Allegheny Ludlum.
1967 ASTM A582 Specification for free-machining bars on free-machining stainless steel bars.
1967 Composite Metal Products, Canonsburg & Alcoa merged and became Clad Metals
1967 ASTM A581 on free-machining stainless steel wire
1967 World War II “En” designation system was replaced by UK Standard BS 970, “Stainless, Heat resisting and Valve Steels"
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1968 First AOD vessel(Argon-Oxygen Decarburization) for refining stainless steel at Joslyn Mafg . AOD produces stainless steel- low carbon ,
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improved quality and reduced cost. AOD was first invented in 1954 by the Lindé Division of The Union Carbide (which became Praxair in
1992).
1968 Crucible Steel Company produces types 416 and 416 Plus X stainless steels.
1968 Stainless coins circulated in Italy. A 100 lire coin was introduced in Italy.
1969 The British supersonic Concorde made its first flight. The plane had a stainless steel rudder,ailerons, and engine nacelles to withstand the
relatively high temperature produced at supersonic speeds.
1969 The first men on the moon (Apollo 11 ) was made by stainless steel Saturn V rocket.
1969 Chicago Transit orders 160 stainless steel cars on Budd Co.
1970 ACI merges with SFSA(Steel Founders Society of America). SFSA will continue the ACI research activities.
1970 Stainless steel ballpoint pen refills become available.
1971 Avesta 3RE60. Avesta introduces one of the first duplex stainless steels, Avesta 3RE60.
1971 Joslyn Stainless Steels introduces nitrogen into AOD refining of stainless steels.
1971 Armco Steel introduces 18 SR Stainless, a cheaper ferritic chromium stainless steel with excellent oxidation resistance at high temperatures
for automobile exhaust systems.
1971 Clad Metals, Inc, Pennsylvania, begins making stainless-clad cookware under the name All Clad Metal Crafters
1971 Crucible Steel developed the free-machining type 303 Plus X stainless steel.
1972 ASTM Steel (A1) committee and Stainless Steel (A10)Committee merge as ASTM Committee A1
1972 ASTM A 666, “Annealed or Cold-Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel Strip, Plate, and Flat Bar,”
1972 DIN , major German stainless steel specification, “Stainless Steels—Quality Specifications,”
1973 Stainless magazine started by British Stainless Steel Association
1973 Armco introduced Nitronic 60, a nitrogen-bearing stainless steel that was antigalling and wear resistant.
1974 LTV buys J&L. J&L becomes a wholly owned subsidiary of the LTV Corporation.
1974 Allegheny Ludlum develops a process to give Colored stainless steel, a decorative bronze color, for Western Electric’s wall-mounted coin
telephone.
1974 ASTM A 693, Precipitation-hardening & heat resisting stainless specification for Plate, Sheet, and Strip
1974 Turkey circulates stainless coins. Turkey introduces a 25 kurus coin.
1975 The first edition of Metals and Alloys in the Unified Numbering System (UNS) , ASTM DS 56
1975 Turkey introduces a second stainless coin. A 50 kurus coin was circulated in Turkey.
1975 Report of train Accident. Revealed, SS compartment was less damaged and CS compartments were severely damaged.
1976 Bronze Statue of Liberty. Inspected and steel joint bolts were replaced with stainless steel bolts.
1977 3CR12 stainless alloy developed in South Africa.
1978 The world’s first stainless steel vacuum bottles/flasks were introduced by the Thermos Company to replace glass.
1979 ASTM A763 to detect intergranular attack in ferritic stainless steels, was published.
1979 Stainless steel was used in the making of thermostats for car engines.
1980 First stainless train, Pioneer Zephyr (1934), built by Budd Co was made National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by ASME
1980 Italian buses start using type 304 stainless in construction. The buses are lighter, less expensive, reduced maintenance and fuel efficient. In
2008, 80% of the buses are stainless.
1980 Thames Flood Barrier. The massive Thames Flood Barrier makes extensive use of stainless steel in its construction.
1980 Armco introduced aluminized type 409 and 439 stainless steel(excellent resistance to high temperature corrosion) for automotive exhaust
systems
1981 Slater acquires Joslyn Stainless Steel Company.
1981 Armco introduced Nitronic 30, a nitrogen strengthened austenitic stainless steel with resistance to abrasion and metal-to-metal wear.
1981 DeLorean’s stainless automobile produced stainless steel skinned, 8563 cars.
1982 U.S. Steel Company ends stainless production, after staying as leader in the business for 55 years.
1982 ASTM A887 for borated stainless steel plate,sheet, and strip for nuclear applications (stainless burnable poison)
1982 The Secretariat of ISO/TC 17 on Steel & Stainless Steel moved from UK to Japan . The International Organization for Standards (ISO) is
headquartered in Geneva.
1984 Ford Motor Company mass-produced stainless steel exhaust Systems and changed to 100% stainless steel, before 2000.
1984 LTV and Republic Steel merge, to form the LTV Steel Co.
1984 Internaitonal Chromium Association started with headquarter in Paris.
1984 Stainless steel was used for the first time to make telegraph poles.
1984 Armco Steel introduced Armco 311 DQ, austenitic stainless steel, containing copper and nitrogen, (having higher yield strength and better
formability than type 304).
1984 Sweden Avesta AB formed (combining main stainless steel suppliers: Avesta Jernverks , Nyby Uddeholm , Fagersta and Sandvik).
1984 Japanese trains changed from carbon steel to stainless steel (the cars are 20% lighter than the normal carbon steel cars and 3% lighter than
aluminum cars).
1985 Allegheny Ludlum produced AL-6XN, a nitrogen-bearing, super austenitic stainless steel, to minimize chloride pitting.
1985 Stainless steel(304) was used as concrete rebars in the construction of an Interstate Highway I-696 bridge deck near Detroit, Michigan.
1986 Lloyds Building/London, has voluminous and delicately decorated Stainless steel fittings in modern London and is a landmark.
1986 Armco Steel introduced aluminized stainless steel foil for metal monolithic catalytic converters.
1986 J&L Specialty Products acquired the assets of LTV Steel’s Specialty Steel Company.
1986 Stainless steel Telephone kiosks made their debut in the United Kingdom.
1986 BS 6744-1986,“Stainless Steel re-Bars for the Reinforcement and Use of Concrete,”
1986 Armco Steel introduces 301 LN, a low-carbon, high-nitrogen version of type 301, for high-strength applications and it is weldable.
.A4.8
1987 Budd Co closed. (Budd made 10,641 stainless steel railcars and used 82,000 tons of stainless steel), due to labor problem and competion.
Pg.A4.8
1988 75th anniversary of stainless. Sheffield celebrated the 75th anniversary of Harry Brearley’s discovery of 12% chromium stainless steel
1988 Nickel Development Institute was organized.
1988 British Steel Stainless created. British Steel Stainless was created as the dedicated stainless arm of British Steel PLC.
1989 Autobiography of Harry Brearley Stainless Pioneer was published by British Steel
1989 International Molybdenum Association was established in Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania.
1989 Stainless Steel World magazine(for the users, suppliers and fabricators) was published by KCI Publishing, Zutphen, The Netherlands.
1989 Sammi purchased Atlas Facilities and Tracy Quebec plant.
1989 Ugine, France acquired J&L Specialty Products.
1990 Armco Nitronic 19D, a duplex stainless steel casting alloy for automotive structural parts.
1990 Armco and Acerinox established the North American Stainless Co
1990 AISI, Corrosion and Heat-resisting Steels book was published.
1991 Electralloy and G.O. Carlson merge.
1991 Tallest building in the United Kingdom , 800 foot Canary Wharf Tower has complete stainless clad.
1992 British Steel Stainless and Avesta AB merge to form Avesta Sheffield AB.
1992 The British Stainless Steel Association (BSSA) was organized at Sheffield, England.
1992 U.S. shipments of stainless steel in 1992, are 1,514,222 tons,
1992 Australian Stainless Steel Association (ASSA) was established, with headquarters in Brisbane.
1994 ASM Stainless Steels Handbook was published.
1994 Water tank, at Matsuyama, Japan, was constructed of three grades of stainless steel: 304, 316 and 318.It was costly, but was compromised
by the least maintenance with the minimum life of 60 years.
1994 Armco Steel and Kawasaki Steel merge to form A-K Steel, headquartered at Middletown,Ohio.
1994 At the NACE corrosion conference at Avesta Sheffield, “60 Years of Duplex Stainless Steel Applications” was presented.
1994 Brazil circulated six denominations of ferritic stainless circular coins(1, 5, 20, 25,and 50 centavos and a 1 Real coin).
1995 Krupp and Thyssen merge their stainless steel flat rolled products divisions to form Thyssen Nirosta GmbH, the world’s largest producer of
stainless steel flat products.
1995 A new alloy, 700 Si, containing 7% silicon, the highest silicon content in an iron-base alloy was produced to handle hot sulfuric acid. The iron-
nickel-chromium-silicon alloy’s UNS designation was S70003.
1995 After 40 year of service 191 stainless steel rail cars at Canadian Pacific Railway were refurbished/upgraded. Stainless steel siding and roofs
were virtually corrosion-free, they required little attention except for washing.
1995 From 1970 to 1995, 101 AOD installations were completed worldwide.
1995 EN (Euronorm10088-1) designations Established for steel. Europe replaced their traditional designations(DIN) to a five-digit number and a
steel-naming code.For type 304 stainless steel, the number will be 1.4301, and the name will be X5CrNi 18-10.
1995 Stainless steel dome of Chrysler Building was inspected for corrosion after a gap of 30 years(the dome was 65 years old). The damage was
much lesser than expected. Experts said the stainless steel should serve for at least another 100 years.
1996 8000 tons of stainless powder was used for (60 million) car exhaust system.
1996 Automotive Exhaust System: Each car/vehicle has 23 kg of Titanium and Niobium stabilized 18% Cr ferritic stainless (Type 439)in the exhaust
system. US alone require 400,000 tons of SS in one year, for their 15 million vehicles in a year. .
1996 Armco Steel develops the reduction of chromite and nickel ores with carbon in a rotary hearth to produce feedstock for stainless steel.
1996 Armco Steel develops Armco 410 Cb, a heat treatable alloy with high strength and impact resistance for exhaust flange applications.
1996 Stainless Club in Korea. The Stainless Steel Club was formed in Seoul, Korea, to promote the use of stainless steel.
1996 The International Stainless Steel Forum (ISSF) was founded by the International Iron & Steel Institute in Brussels, Belgium. (comprises 72
company and affiliate members in 26 countries).
1997 ASTM replaces Type-409 in ASTM A240, “Chromium and Chromium- Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and
General Applications” with designations UNS S40910, S40920 and S40930, Ti and Cb are added. (for automotive exhaust systems)
1997 The first book, “Duplex Stainless Steels”, was published. The book was edited by Robert N. Gunn and published by Abington. Duplex steels
have an attractive combination of properties, including high strength and excellent resistance to chloride stress corrosion.
1997 As part of the reorganization of the Nirosta Division of the Krupp Group, Krupp Thyssen Stainless (KTS) was formed.
1997 Types 304, 304L, and 316L approved for drinking water systems by ANSI and NSF Std.61.
1997 140 tons of SS S30400 , Rebar were used for walls of Guildhall Building, London.
1997 Armco Steel uses hydrogen peroxide to clean, pickle stainless steel strip.
1997 Technetics Corp. Florida, manufactured Feltmetal(porous acoustic media), made by sintering of metal fibers, including types 300 and 400.
1998 Krupp Thyssen Stainless and Shanghai Pudong Iron & Stee, China, agree to build a stainless steel flat rolled products plant in Pudong under
the name ShanghaiKrupp Stainless.
1998 J&L becomes a subsidiary of Usinor, a French stainless steel producer.
1998 The Jin Mao Building, Shanghai (until 2009, worlds tallest building), with 1214 ft, 88 floors. was decorarted with stainless steel, aluminum,
granite and glass facade.
1999 Waterford Wedgwood buys All-Clad cookware
1999 The tallest buildings in the world, The Petronas Twin Towers, are clad with 65,000 square meters of type 316 stainless steel.
1999 Allegheny Technologies, Inc.was formed, with Allegheny Ludlum, Allvac, Oremet-Wah Chang, Titanium Industries, and Rome Metals.
1999 Allegheny Technologies, Inc. acquires the assets of Lukens’ Washington Steel Division from Bethlehem Steel Corporation
1999 Thyssen Krupp Materials and Service formed. Thyssen and Krupp merge to form Thyssen Krupp Materials and Service AG.
1999 India, A series of circular ferritic stainless steel coins were introduced, including coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, and 50 paise / rupees.
1999 Third edition of ASM Introduction to Stainless Steels Book
1999 Stainless Steels Product Manual. Stainless Steels, Iron & Steel Society / AISI, Book
A4.9
1999 Casti Stainless Steel & Nickel Alloys Book
Pg.A4.9
2000 ASM Alloy Digest: Stainless Steels Book
2000 The use of stainless steel in cars reaches 65 pounds per car, mainly for the exhaust systems.
2000 Largest stainless building in North America, Canada, The Edmonton, composting facility opens. At 23,000 square meters,The siding, roofing,
and bolts are made of Type 304 stainless steel.
2001 AvestaPolarit formed by the merger of the Finnwash stainless steel division within Outokumpu Steel, and the Swedwash-British company
Avesta Sheffield. Outokumpu operates the former British Steel Stainless plant at Sheffield.
2001 China was largest consumer, 2.25 million tonnes U.S. consumption was approximately 2 million tonnes; and Japan’s was approximately 1.5
million tonnes.
2001 Pocketbook of Standard Wrought Steels, Book. Iron & Steel Society/AISI.
2001 Carpenter Steel introduced BioDur 128 (UNS S29108) nickel-free austenitic stainless steels with addition of Manganese and Nitrogen
2002 Hoeganaes Co and Electralloy, produced high quality stainless steel powder (by AOD process and water atomization process). 10 ton SS
powder produced was enough for all powder metallurgy applications in North America.
2002 Finnwash Outokumpu acquires British and Swedwash Avesta Sheffield company.
2002 ArcelorMittal, Luxembourg, was the world's leading integrated steel and mining company (capacity of 40 million tones per year)
2002 ThyssenKrupp Nirosta produces stainless steel strip casting process (Hot strip in thicknesses from 1.5 to 4 millimeters)
2002 J&L, Pittsburgh, was a subsidiary of Arcelor.
2002 300 tons of 2205 duplex stainless steel concrete rebars used in a bridge in Oregon(for its stress corrosion cracking resistance for 120 years)
2002 Australia’s first stainless steel buses were manufactured by Bus Tech / Volvo Australia.The buses were weight saving.
2002 Mont Blanc Tunnel Repair work, extensively used S31603 stainless steel for ventilation fans, lighting equipment, ceiling cladding, piping,
fittings, and anchor for safety and strength.
2002 Specialty Steel Industry of North America (SSINA) estimated that the cost of corrosion per year,in the United States was $279 billion, or 3.2%
of the Gross Domestic Product.
2002 AK Coatings / AK Steel introduced flat rolled stainless and carbon steel with the silver-containing AgIon antimicrobial coating.
2003 Single volume 2800 pages of 400 ASTM and SAE/AMS specifications on steel, published.
2003 142 meter stainless steel bridge was completed in Spain,using Duplex SAF 2304.
2003 The Guide to Stainless Steel Specifications was published by the British Stainless Steel Association (BSSA).
2003 Utility stainless. 3CR12 (S41003) 12% Cr ferritic stainless steel was used in Australia, India,and South Africa to save cost, on Coal wagons
2003 In Singapore, 9 million aluminum loose rivets in the windows of 43,000 residential apartments were replaced with S30400 stainless steel
2004 Groupe SEB, SwedenM, buys All-Clad cookware plant in Canonsburg,Pennsylvania.
2004 SAE and ASTM jointly published, 10th edition of Metals and Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
2004 Nickel Institute organized by merging Nickel Development Institute (NiDI)and the Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association.
2004 The 101-story Taipei Financial Centre uses S30400 and S31600 stainless steel pipe for fire protection and hot and cold water.
2005 After 75 year , Stainless Steel Cladding/Fittings on Chrysler Building, New York, were found fine.
2005 Stainless Steel Focus, a magazine, news and analysis of the markets for stainless steels and the raw materials for stainless steel production.
2006 Monument-Could Gate or The Bean, Chicago. Made up of 168 stainless steel(10 mm tk, type-304) plates welded together, its highly polished
exterior has no visible seams. It measures 33 by 66 by 42 feet (10 by 20 by 13 m) and weighs 100 tonnes. Expected life, 1000 years
2006 Zhangjiagang Posco, China produces 1.9 million tons Stainless Steel per year.
2007 ThyssenKrupp Nirosta, together with ThyssenKrupp Accai Speciali Terni, ThyssenKrupp Mexinox and Shanghai, was world’s leading
manufacturer of stainless flat products
2007 The world production of stainless steel was reported to have doubled in the last 10 years to reach 30 million tons.
2008 Stainless Steels Products Manual (combining AISI, ASTM, AMS) published
2008 Ford exhibit 1936 made stainless steel cars.
2008 European nuclear accelerator center in Geneva was the largest particle accelerator in the world. The ring was made of 450 tons of Nirosta
4307 (304L) stainless steel.
2008 ASM published Stainless Steel for Designers book (applications of various stainless Steels).
2008 The price of 18-8 stainless steel sheet in June 2008 was high at $3.30 per pound. The high cost was largely due to the high price of nickel.
2008 Stainless Steel World News was online, dealing with Market and trading news and product information
2008 The Lockheed-Martin Fighter was the first aircraft to use a precipitation-hardenable stainless steel(Carpenter Steel, 465) in its airframe
2008 Monument, A colossal statue of Genghis Khan, the legendary horsemen who conquered the known world in the 13th century was erected.
The 131 foot tall giant on horseback was wrapped with 250 tons of stainless steel. The statue was the largest in the world.
2009 Rolled Alloys acquires Weir Materials.
2009 The International Iron and Steel Institute becomes the World Steel Association (www.worldsteel.org).
2009 75th anniversary of the Burlington Zephyr stainless steel train was published by ASM.
2009 Bombardier of Canada built stainless trains in India.
2009 Stainless steel demand skyrockets in India. A 55% increase in the use of flat stainless steel products occurs between 2004 and 2010. The
818,000 tonnes used in 2004 is expected to increase to 1,269,000 tons in 2010.
2012 100th anniversary of the discovery of chromium-nickel stainless steel. This year marks the 100th anniversary of the discovery of the
commercial use of chromium-nickel stainless steel by Dr. Eduard Maurer and Benno Strauss of the Krupp Steel Works.
2013 100th anniversary of the discovery of the commercial use of chromium stainless steel by Harry Brearley
2016 Indian Stainless steel production rose to 3.32 million tons for 2016: ISSF
2017 SS consumption in India grows at 6.1%, China at 2%, USA at 3%, Global at 1.3%
Austenitic Stainless Steels : Problems, Failures, Difficulties
ASTM for Stainless Steel By JGC Annamalai
ASTM Standards Annex.5 ASTM Standards, Title
ASTM A167 Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Chromium-Nickel Steel Plate, Sheet, and
Pg.A4.1
Strip
ASTM A182/A182M Standard Specification for Forged or Rolled Alloy and Stainless Steel Pipe Flanges, Forged Fittings,
and Valves and Parts for High-Temperature Service
ASTM A193/A193M Standard Specification for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting for High Temperature or High
Pressure Service and Other Special Purpose Applications
ASTM A194/A194M Standard Specification for Carbon Steel, Alloy Steel, and Stainless Steel Nuts for Bolts for High
Pressure or High Temperature Service, or Both
ASTM A217/A217M Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Martensitic Stainless and Alloy, for Pressure-Containing
Parts, Suitable for High-Temperature Service
ASTM A240/A240M Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications
ASTM A262 Standard Practices for Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular Attack in Austenitic Stainless Steels
ASTM A263 Standard Specification for Stainless Chromium Steel-Clad Plate

ASTM A264 Standard Specification for Stainless Chromium-Nickel Steel-Clad Plate
ASTM A268/A268M Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steel Tubing for
General Service
ASTM A269/A269M Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General
Service
ASTM A270/A270M Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic and Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel
Sanitary Tubing
ASTM A276/A276M Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes
ASTM A312/A312M Standard Specification for Seamless, Welded, and Heavily Cold Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel
Pipes
ASTM A313/A313M Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Spring Wire
ASTM A314 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Billets and Bars for Forging
ASTM A320/A320M Standard Specification for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting for Low-Temperature Service
ASTM A356/A356M Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Carbon, Low Alloy, and Stainless Steel, Heavy-Walled for
Steam Turbines
ASTM A358/A358M Standard Specification for Electric-Fusion-Welded Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Pipe
for High-Temperature Service and General Applications
ASTM A368 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Wire Strand
ASTM A380/A380M Standard Practice for Cleaning, Descaling, and Passivation of Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment, and
Systems
ASTM A403/A403M Standard Specification for Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Piping Fittings
ASTM A437/A437M Standard Specification for Stainless and Alloy-Steel Turbine-Type Bolting Specially Heat Treated
for High-Temperature Service
ASTM A453/A453M Standard Specification for High-Temperature Bolting, with Expansion Coefficients Comparable to
Austenitic Stainless Steels
ASTM A473 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Forgings
ASTM A478 Standard Specification for Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Weaving and Knitting Wire
ASTM A479/A479M Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes for Use in Boilers and Other Pressure
Vessels
ASTM A480/A480M Standard Specification for General Requirements for Flat-Rolled Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel
Plate, Sheet, and Strip
ASTM A484/A484M Standard Specification for General Requirements for Stainless Steel Bars, Billets, and Forgings
ASTM A492 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Rope Wire
ASTM A493 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Wire and Wire Rods for Cold Heading and Cold Forging
ASTM A511/A511M Standard Specification for Seamless Stainless Steel Mechanical Tubing and Hollow Bar
ASTM A554 Standard Specification for Welded Stainless Steel Mechanical Tubing
ASTM A555/A555M Standard Specification for General Requirements for Stainless Steel Wire and Wire Rods
ASTM A564/A564M Standard Specification for Hot-Rolled and Cold-Finished Age-Hardening Stainless Steel Bars and
Pg.A4.2
Shapes
ASTM A565/A565M Standard Specification for Martensitic Stainless Steel Bars for High-Temperature Service
ASTM A580/A580M Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Wire
ASTM A581/A581M Standard Specification for Free-Machining Stainless Steel Wire and Wire Rods
ASTM A582/A582M Standard Specification for Free-Machining Stainless Steel Bars
ASTM A609/A609M Standard Practice for Castings, Carbon, Low-Alloy, and Martensitic Stainless Steel, Ultrasonic
Examination Thereof
ASTM A632 Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing (Small-
Diameter) for General Service
ASTM A666 Standard Specification for Annealed or Cold-Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel Sheet, Strip, Plate,
and Flat Bar
ASTM A688/A688M Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Feedwater Heater
Tubes
ASTM A693 Standard Specification for Precipitation-Hardening Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet,
and Strip
ASTM A705/A705M Standard Specification for Age-Hardening Stainless Steel Forgings
ASTM A733 Standard Specification for Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel and Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
Nipples
ASTM A747/A747M Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Stainless, Precipitation Hardening
ASTM A756 Standard Specification for Stainless Anti-Friction Bearing Steel
ASTM A763 Standard Practices for Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular Attack in Ferritic Stainless Steels
ASTM A774/A774M Standard Specification for As-Welded Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Fittings for General
Corrosive Service at Low and Moderate Temperatures
ASTM A778/A778M Standard Specification for Welded, Unannealed Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubular Products
ASTM A789/A789M Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for
General Service
ASTM A790/A790M Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
ASTM A793 Standard Specification for Rolled Floor Plate, Stainless Steel
ASTM A799/A799M Standard Practice for Steel Castings, Stainless, Instrument Calibration, for Estimating Ferrite
Content
ASTM A803/A803M Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic Stainless Steel Feedwater Heater Tubes
ASTM A813/A813M Standard Specification for Single- or Double-Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
ASTM A814/A814M Standard Specification for Cold-Worked Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
ASTM A815/A815M Standard Specification for Wrought Ferritic, Ferritic/Austenitic, and Martensitic Stainless Steel
Piping Fittings
ASTM A838 Standard Specification for Free-Machining Ferritic Stainless Soft Magnetic Alloy Bar for Relay
Applications
ASTM A872/A872M Standard Specification for Centrifugally Cast Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe for Corrosive
Environments
ASTM A887 Standard Specification for Borated Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Nuclear Application
ASTM A895 Standard Specification for Free-Machining Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
ASTM A908 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Needle Tubing
ASTM A923 Standard Test Methods for Detecting Detrimental Intermetallic Phase in Duplex Austenitic/Ferritic
Stainless Steels
ASTM A928/A928M Standard Specification for Ferritic/Austenitic (Duplex) Stainless Steel Pipe Electric Fusion Welded
with Addition of Filler Metal
ASTM A941 Standard Terminology Relating to Steel, Stainless Steel, Related Alloys, and Ferroalloys
ASTM A943/A943M Standard Specification for Spray-Formed Seamless Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes
ASTM A947M Standard Specification for Textured Stainless Steel Sheet [Metric]
ASTM A949/A949M Standard Specification for Spray-Formed Seamless Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
ASTM A955/A955M Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A959 Standard Guide for Specifying Harmonized Standard Grade Compositions for Wrought Stainless
Pg.A4.3
Steels
ASTM A967/A967M Standard Specification for Chemical Passivation Treatments for Stainless Steel Parts
ASTM A982/A982M Standard Specification for Steel Forgings, Stainless, for Compressor and Turbine Airfoils
ASTM A988/A988M Standard Specification for Hot Isostatically-Pressed Stainless Steel Flanges, Fittings, Valves, and
Parts for High Temperature Service
ASTM A994 Standard Guide for Editorial Procedures and Form of Product Specifications for Steel, Stainless
Steel, and Related Alloys
ASTM A995/A995M Standard Specification for Castings, Austenitic-Ferritic (Duplex) Stainless Steel, for Pressure-
Containing Parts
ASTM A999/A999M Standard Specification for General Requirements for Alloy and Stainless Steel Pipe
ASTM Standard Specification for Higher-Strength Martensitic Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
A1010/A1010M
ASTM Standard Specification for General Requirements for Ferritic Alloy Steel, Austenitic Alloy Steel, and
A1016/A1016M Stainless Steel Tubes
ASTM Standard Specification for Martensitic Stainless Steel Forgings and Forging Stock for High-
A1021/A1021M Temperature Service
ASTM Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Wire and Welded Wire for Concrete
A1022/A1022M Reinforcement
ASTM A1028 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Bars for Compressor and Turbine Airfoils
ASTM Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Forgings, Ferritic/Austenitic (Duplex), for Pressure
A1049/A1049M Vessels and Related Components
ASTM Standard Specification for Welded Ferritic-Martensitic Stainless Steel Pipe
A1053/A1053M
ASTM Standard Specification for Laser-Fused Stainless Steel Bars, Plates, and Shapes
A1069/A1069M
ASTM A1080 Standard Practice for Hot Isostatic Pressing of Steel, Stainless Steel, and Related Alloy Castings
ASTM Standard Specification for High Strength Precipitation Hardening and Duplex Stainless Steel
A1082/A1082M Bolting for Special Purpose Applications
ASTM A1084 Standard Test Method for Detecting Detrimental Phases in Lean Duplex Austenitic/Ferritic
Stainless Steels
Further Reading
Author Book, Title
ASM ASM Handbook vol 1-Properties and selection steel
ASM ASM Handbook vol 4-Heat treating
ASM ASMHandBook Vol 5-Surface Engineering (surface texture, cleaning, blasting, painting, plating etc)
ASM ASM Handbook vol 6-Welding & Brazing & Soldering
ASM ASM Handbook vol 8-Mechanical testing and evalution
ASM ASM Handbook vol 9-Metallography and microstrctures
ASM ASM HandBook Vol 10-Materials Characterization NDT
ASM ASM Handbook vol 13-Corrosion
ASM ASM Handbook vol 14-Forming and Forging
ASM ASM Handbook vol 15-Casting
ASM ASM Handbook vol 16-Machining Processes
ASM ASM Handbook vol 20-Materials Selection and Design
ASM Source Book on Stainless Steel
Mars G Fontana Corrosion Engineering
AWS AWS Welding Handbook, Vol-2(Oxy cutting, Arc cutting & Gouging)
Nickel Institute Design Guidelines for Selection and Use of SS
Michael McGuire Stainless Steels for Design Engineers
Harold M. Cobb The History of Stainless Steels
US Steel The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel
API Guide to Inspection of Refinery Equipments(Operating)
ACI Stainless and Heat Resisting Steel Castings Grades
Designation Chemical composition % by mass (max unless otherwise stated)
ACI No UNS No Wrought Grade C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni N Cu Nb Others
CA6N - - 0.06 1 0.5 0.02 0.02 10.5/12.5 - 6.0/8.0 - - - -
CA6NM J91540 - 0.06 1 1 0.04 0.04 11.5/14.0 0.4-1.0 3.5/4.5 - - - -
CA15 J91150 410 0.15 1.5 1 0.04 0.04 11.5/14.0 0.5 1 - - - -
CA15M J91151 - 0.05 0.65 1 0.04 0.04 11.5/14.0 0.15/1.0 1 - - - -
W 0.90/1.25; V
CA28MWV J91422 - 0.20/0.28 1 0.50/1.00 0.03 0.03 11.0/12.5 0.90/1.25 0.50/1.00 - - - 0.20/0.30
CA40 J91153 420 0.20/0.40 1.5 1 0.04 0.04 11.5/14.0 0.5 1 - - - -
CA40F J91154 - 0.20/0.40 1.5 1 0.04 0.20/0.40 11.5/14.0 0.5 1 - - - -
CB6 J91804 - 0.06 1 1 0.04 0.03 15.5/17.5 0.5 3.5/5.5 - - - -
CB30 J91803 - 0.06 1.5 1 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 - 2 0.90/1.20 - - -
CB7Cu-1 J92180 17/4PH 0.07 1 0.7 0.035 0.03 15.50/17.70 - 3.60/4.60 0.05 2.50/3.20 0.15/0.35 -
CB7Cu-2 J92110 15/5PH 0.07 1 0.7 0.035 0.03 14.0/15.50 - 4.50/5.50 0.05 2.50/3.20 0.15/0.35 -
CC50 J92615 - 0.5 1.5 1 0.04 0.04 26.0/30.0 - 4 - - - -
CD3MCuN J93373 1C 0.03 1.1 1.2 0.03 0.03 24.0/26.7 2.9/3.8 5.6/6.7 0.22/0.33 1.40/1.90 - -
CD3MN J92205 2205 (4A) 0.03 1 1.5 0.04 0.02 21.0/23.5 2.5/3.5 4.5/6.5 0.10/0.30 1 - -
N J93380 Zeron 100 (6A) 0.03 1 1 0.03 0.025 24.0/26.0 3.0/4.0 6.5/8.5 0.20/0.30 0.5/1.0 - W 0.5/1.0
CD4MCu J93370 1A 0.04 1 1 0.04 0.04 24.5/26.5 1.75/2.25 4.75/6.00 - 2.75/3.25 - -
CD4MCuN J93372 1B 0.04 1 1 0.04 0.04 24.5/26.5 1.7/2.3 4.7/6.0 0.10/0.25 2.7/3.3 - -
CD6MN J93371 3A 0.06 1 1 0.04 0.04 24.0/27.0 1.75/2.5 4.0/6.0 0.15/0.25 - - -
CE20N J92802 - 0.2 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 23.0/26.0 0.5 8.0/11.0 0.08/0.20 - - -
CE3MN J93404 Alloy 958 (5A) 0.03 1 1.5 0.04 0.04 24.0/26.0 4.0/5.0 6.0/8.0 0.10/0.30 - - -
CE30 J93423 - 0.3 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 26.0/30.0 - 8.0/11.0 - - - -
CE8MN J93345 Escoloy (2A) 0.08 1.5 1 0.04 0.04 22.5/25.5 3.0/4.5 8.0/11.0 0.10/0.30 - - -
CF3 J92500 304L 0.03 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 17.0/21.0 - 8.0/12.0 - - - -
CF8 J92600 304 0.08 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 - 8.0/11.0 - - - -
CF8C J92710 347 0.08 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 - 9.0/12.0 - - 8x C/1.0 -
CF20 J92602 302 0.2 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 - 8.00/11.0 - - - -
CF3M J92800 316L 0.03 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 17.0/21.0 2.0/3.0 9.0/13.0 - - - -
CF3MN J92804 316LN 0.03 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 17.0/22.0 2.0/3.0 9.0/13.0 0.10/0.20 - - -
CF8M J92900 316 0.08 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 2.0/3.0 9.0/12.0 - - - -
CF8C J92710 - 0.08 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 - 9.0/12.0 - - - -
CF10 J92950 - 0.04/0.10 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 0.5 8.0/11.0 - - - -
CF10M J92901 - 0.04/0.10 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 2.0/3.0 9.0/12.0 - - - -
CF10MC - - 0.1 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 15.0/18.0 1.75/2.25 13.0/16.0 - - 10xC/1.20 -
CF10SMnN J92972 - 0.1 3.50/4.50 7.00/9.00 0.06 0.03 16.0/18.0 - 8.0/9.0 0.08/0.18 - - -
CF16F J92701 303Se 0.16 2 1.5 0.17 0.04 18.0/21.0 1.5 9.0/12.0 - - - Se 0.20/0.35
CF16FA - - 0.16 2 1.5 0.04 0.20/0.40 18.0/21.0 0.40/0.80 9.0/12.0 - - - -
CG6MMN J93790 - 0.06 1 4.00/6.00 0.04 0.03 20.50/23.50 1.50/3.00 11.5/13.5 0.20/0.40 - 0.10/0.30 V 0.10/0.30
CG3M J92999 317L 0.03 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 3.0/4.0 9.0/13.0 - - - -
CG8M J93000 317 0.08 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 18.0/21.0 3.0/4.0 9.0/13.0 - - - -
CG12 J93001 - 0.12 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 20.0/23.0 - 10.0/13.0 - - - -
CH8 J93400 - 0.08 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 22.0/26.0 0.5 12.0/15.0 - - - -
CH10 J93401 - 0.1 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 22.0/26.0 - 12.0/15.0 - - - -
CH20 J93402 - 0.2 2 1.5 0.04 2 22.0/26.0 - 12.0/15.0 - - - -
CK20 J94202 - 0.2 2 2 0.04 0.04 23.0/27.0 - 15.0/19.0 - - - -
CK3MCuN J93254 254SMO 0.025 1 1.2 0.045 0.01 19.5/20.5 6.0/7.0 17.5/19.5 0.18/0.24 0.50/1.00 - -
CK35MN - - 0.035 1 2 0.035 0.02 22.0/24.0 6.0/6.8 20.0/22.0 0.21/0.32 0.4 - -
CN3M J94652 - 0.03 1 2 0.03 0.03 20.0/22.0 4.5/5.5 23.0/27.0 - - - -
CN3MN J94651 AL-6XN 0.03 1 2 0.04 0.01 20.0/22.0 6.0/7.0 23.5/25.5 0.18/0.26 0.75 - -
CN7M N08007 - 0.07 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 19.0/22.0 2.0/3.0 27.5/30.5 - 3.0/4.0 - -
CN7MS J94650 - 0.07 1.5 1.5 0.04 0.04 19.0/22.0 2.0/3.0 27.5/30.5 - 1.5/2.0 - -
CT15C N08151 - 0.05/0.15 0.50/1.50 0.15/1.50 0.03 0.03 19.0/21.0 - 31.0/34.0 - - 0.50/1.50 -
High temperature grades
Designation Chemical composition % by mass (max unless otherwise stated)
ACI No UNS No Wrought Grade C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni N Cu Nb Others
HC - - 0.5 2 1 0.04 0.04 26.0/30.0 0.5 4.0/7.0 - - - -
HD - - 0.5 2 1.5 0.04 0.04 26.0/30.0 0.5 4 - - - -
HE - - 0.20/0.50 2 2 0.04 0.04 26.0/30.0 0.5 8.0/11.0 - - - -
HF - 309 0.20/0.40 2 2 0.04 0.04` 18.0/23.0 0.5 8.0/12.0 - 0.5 - -
HH - - 0.20/0.50 2 2 0.04 0.04 24.0/28.0 0.5 11.0/14.0 - - - -
HI - - 0.20/0.50 2 2 0.04 0.04 26.0/30.0 0.5 14.0/18.0 - - - -
HK - 310 0.20/0.60 2 2 0.04 0.04 24.0/28.0 0.5 18.0/22.0 - - - -
HK30 J94203 - 0.25/0.35 1.75 1.5 0.04 0.04 23.0/27.0 0.5 19.0/22.0 - - - -
HK40 J94204 - 0.35/0.45 1.75 1.5 0.04 0.04 23.0/27.0 0.5 19.0/22.0 - - - -
HL - - 0.20/0.60 2 2 0.04 0.04 28.0/32.0 0.5 18.0/22.0 - - - -
HN - - 0.20/0.50 2 2 0.04 0.04 19.0/23.0 0.5 23.0/27.0 - - - -
HP - - 0.35/0.75 2.5 2 0.04 0.04 24/28 0.5 33/37 - - - -
HT - - 0.35/0.75 2.5 2 0.4 0.4 15.0/19.0 0.5 33.0/37.0 - - - -
HT30 N08030 - 0.25/0.35 2.5 2 0.04 0.04 13.0/17.0 0.5 33.0/37.0 - - - -
HU - - 0.35/0.75 2.5 2 0.4 0.4 17.0/21.0 0.5 37.0/41.0 - - - -
HW - - 0.35/0.75 2.5 2 0.4 0.4 10.0/14.0 0.5 58.0/62.0 - - - -
HX - - 0.35/0.75 2.5 2 0.4 0.4 15.0/19.0 0.5 64.0/68.0 - - - -
Annex-9 Monuments, made of Stainless Steels
Pg.A9.1
SS surface is highly polished to have mirror effect
2
By JGC Annamalai
Annex-9 Monuments, made of Stainless Steels
.1
Pg.A9.2
22

Austenitic Stainless Steels, Problems-Failures-Difficulties

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Austenitic Stainless Steels, Problems-Failures-Difficulties

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Austenitic Stainless Steels : Problems, Failures, Difficulties By JGC Annamalai

(2). Introduction to Austenitic Stainless Steels

(3). Austenitic Stainless Steel Family

(4). Galling or Seizing or Freezing up or Jamming of Threads of SS Fasteners

(6). Sensitization , Weld Decay, Knifeline Attack

(7). Attack of Chlorine Ion, HCL or Sea water on Stainless Steels

(8). Delta Ferrites, in Stainless Steel Welds and Base Metal

(9). Formation of Brittle Sigma Phase

(11). Contamination or Pollution on Stainless Steel Surface

(12). Zinc Poisoning of Stainless Steels

(13). Stainless Steel Weld HAZ Area is Colored or Tinted

(14). Stainless Steel Manufacturing: Casting, Machining, Forming, Cutting, Welding, HT

material formed because of fast rate of cooling. So no preheat is required.

Effect of Cold Work on Mech. Properties of SS-316

Effect of Cold Wor

complex shapes. Yield Strength (N/m ) 2

Ultimate Strength (N/m ) 6.0 to 7.0x10 10.0x10

Effect of Cold Work on Mech. Properties of SS-316

Effect of Cold Wor

Yield Strength (N/

SCC Corrosion is mostly

(2c). Knifeline Attack: Remedy-to use low Carbon SS,

(1) An increased anodic reactivity,

cracking or fissuring in weld metals(if it is ≤ To increase the Ferrite

Ferrite Number(FN) Measurement :

(3). In 1988 and 1992, Welding Research Council

(4). Schoefer Diagram (Modified Schaeffler Diagram)

A high chromium/nickel ratio favors primary ferrite formation, whereas a low

Sigma Phase formation on SS Welds and Base Metals :

The chain is SS-304 material. During fabrication/welding the

chain got wet, rust had formed on SS surface

Controls: While working on SS, use

Flying Steel Dust/Cloud

Contamination of Stainless Steel Surface by Free Iron and Iron Oxide:

(3). Wrong Material Selection or Mix up: Galvanic Corrosion.

(11). Contamination / Pollusion on Stainless Steel Surfaces, Causes & Controls

For Further study - please read ASTM A380, Cleaning, Descaling(Pickling),

Heat Tint on SS Welds / HAZ

Heat Tint or coloring on Welds & HAZ

Theory: HAZ is colored or Tinted :

more, eg. SS type 303.

Other Forming Processes :

(C ). Difficulties with Stainless Steel at Casting Manufacture:

Chip, is not breaking and have

Severe reductions (ingot breakdown, roll forging,

Chip, is not breaking and have

CS Thermal Expansion = 100% CS Thermal Conduction, @100˚C=100% CS Thermal Conduction, @650˚C=100%

The neighboring pipe spool fabrication set up

In contrast, fine polished finishes with Ra values <

Table 1 Typical compositions of some austenitic stainless steel alloys

Aus SS Composition wt% Microstructure

Fig 1. Shaeffler diagram (A-austenite; M - martensite; F - ferrite)

Passivation is done after one or more of the following operations:

Case Histories of Aus SS Service Failures, due to Intergranular Corrosion Attack:

Solution Annealing is carried out in the following situation

Seamless & Welded Pipe

soaking etc. Vendor to determine Time so

prepare the Solution Annealing

ASTM A403, Wrought Type, Solution

A 182/A 182M, Austenitizing/

Heat Treating Requirements solutioning Cooling

Difficulties faced for Solution Annealing at Site / Fab Shop :

ASTM A263 Standard Specification for Stainless Chromium Steel-Clad Plate

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