Learn About Corrosion Prevention for Metals

By Terence Bell
Updated October 16, 2017

In virtually all situations, metal corrosion can be managed, slowed, or even stopped by using
the proper techniques. Corrosion prevention can take a number of forms depending on the
circumstances of the metal being corroded. Corrosion prevention techniques can be generally
classified into 6 groups:

1. Environmental Modifications

2. Metal Selection and Surface Conditions

3. Cathodic Protection

4. Corrosion Inhibitors

5. Coating

6. Plating

Environmental Modification

Corrosion is caused by chemical interactions between metal and gasses in the surrounding
environment. By removing the metal from, or changing, the type of environment, metal
deterioration can be immediately reduced.

This may be as simple as limiting contact with rain or seawater by storing metal materials
indoors or could be in the form of direct manipulation of the environmental affecting the
metal.
Methods to reduce the sulfur, chloride or oxygen content in the surrounding environment can
limit the speed of metal corrosion.

For example, feed water for water boilers can be treated with softeners or other chemical
media to adjust the hardness, alkalinity or oxygen content in order to reduce corrosion on the
interior of the unit.

Metal Selection and Surface Conditions

No metal is immune to corrosion in all environments, but through monitoring and

understanding the environmental conditions that are the cause of corrosion, changes to the
type of metal being used can also lead to significant reductions in corrosion.

Metal corrosion resistance data can be used in combination with information on the
environmental conditions to make decisions regarding the suitability of each metal.

The development of new alloys, designed to protect against corrosion in specific

environments, is constantly under production. Hastelloy® nickel alloys, Nirosta® steels, and
Timetal® titanium alloys are all examples of alloys designed for corrosion prevention.

Monitoring of surface conditions is also critical in protecting against metal deterioration from
corrosion. Cracks, crevices or asperous surfaces, whether a result of operational
requirements, wear and tear, or manufacturing flaws, all can result in greater rates of
corrosion.

Proper monitoring and the elimination of unnecessarily vulnerable surface conditions, along
with taking steps to ensure that systems are designed to avoid reactive metal combinations
and that corrosive agents are not used in the cleaning or maintenance of metal parts are all
also part of effective corrosion reduction program.

Cathodic Protection

Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals are situated together in a corrosive
electrolyte.

This a common problem for metals submerged together in seawater, but can also occur when
two dissimilar metals are immersed in close proximity in moist soils. For these reasons,
galvanic corrosion often attacks ship hulls, offshore rigs, and oil and gas pipelines.

Cathodic protection works by converting unwanted anodic (active) sites on a metal's surface
to cathodic (passive) sites through the application of an opposing current. This opposing
current supplies free electrons and force local anodes to be polarized to the potential of the
local cathodes.

Cathodic protection can take two forms. The first is the introduction of galvanic anodes. This
method, known as a sacrificial system, uses metal anodes, introduced to the electrolytic
environment, to sacrifice themselves (corrode) in order to protect the cathode.

While the metal needing protection can vary, sacrificial anodes are generally made of zinc,
aluminum, or magnesium, metals that have the most negative electro-potential. The galvanic
series provides a comparison of the different electro-potential - or nobility - of metals and
alloys.

In a sacrificial system, metallic ions move from the anode to the cathode, which leads the
anode to corrode more quickly than it otherwise would. As a result, the anode must regularly
be replaced.

The second method of cathodic protection is referred to as impressed current protection.

This method, which is often used to protect buried pipelines and ship hulls, requires an
alternative source of direct electrical current to be supplied to the electrolyte.

The negative terminal of the current source is connected to the metal, while the positive
terminal is attached to an auxiliary anode, which is added to complete the electrical circuit.
Unlike a galvanic (sacrificial) anode system, in an impressed current protection system, the
auxiliary anode is not sacrificed.

Corrosion Inhibitors

Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that react with the metal's surface or the environmental
gasses causing corrosion, thereby, interrupting the chemical reaction that causes corrosion.

Inhibitors can work by adsorbing themselves on the metal's surface and forming a protective
film. These chemicals can be applied as a solution or as a protective coating via dispersion
techniques.

The inhibitors process of slowing corrosion depends upon:

 Changing the anodic or cathodic polarization behavior

 Decreasing the diffusion of ions to the metal's surface

 Increasing the electrical resistance of the metal's surface

Major end-use industries for corrosion inhibitors are petroleum refining, oil and gas
exploration, chemical production and water treatment facilities. The benefit of corrosion
inhibitors is that they can be applied in-situ to metals as a corrective action to counter
unexpected corrosion.

Coatings

Paints and other organic coatings are used to protect metals from the degradative effect of
environmental gasses. Coatings are grouped by the type of polymer employed. Common
organic coatings include:

 Alkyd and epoxy ester coatings that, when air dried, promote cross-link oxidation

 Two-part urethane coatings

  Both acrylic and epoxy polymer radiation curable coatings

 Vinyl, acrylic or styrene polymer combination latex coatings

 Water-soluble coatings

 High-solid coatings

 Powder coatings

Plating

Metallic coatings, or plating, can be applied to inhibit corrosion as well as provide aesthetic,
decorative finishes. There are four common types of metallic coatings:

1. Electroplating: A thin layer of metal - often nickel, tin, or chromium - is deposited on

the substrate metal (generally steel) in an electrolytic bath. The electrolyte usually
consists of a water solution containing salts of the metal to be deposited.

2. Mechanical plating: Metal powder can be cold welded to a substrate metal by

tumbling the part, along with the powder and glass beads, in a treated aqueous
solution. Mechanical plating is often used to apply zinc or cadmium to small metal
parts

3. Electroless: A coating metal, such as cobalt or nickel, is deposited on the substrate

metal using a chemical reaction in this non-electric plating method.

4. Hot dipping: When immersed in a molten bath of the protective, coating metal a thin
layer adheres to the substrate metal.

Sources

Corrosionist.com. Corrosion Control Methods.

Source: www.corrosionist.com

A Guide to Corrosion Protection. Auto/Steel Partnership. 1999.

Source: http://www.a-sp.org/database/custom/cprotection/corrosionprotection.pdf
How to Calculate the Rate of Metal Corrosion
How do you calculate the rate of corrosion in metals?

Daniel Loiselle/E+/Getty Images

By Terence Bell

Updated October 13, 2017

When most metals come into contact with certain substances in the air or water, they undergo
a chemical change which decreases the integrity of the metal. This process is called
corrosion. Oxygen, sulfur, salt, and other materials can all lead to corrosion.

When a metal corrodes or deteriorates, it cannot hold the same loads as it did before
corrosion began. At a certain point, corrosion can lead to dangerous conditions.
Metal used in bridges, railroad tracks, and buildings are all subject to corrosion. Because of
this, it is important to monitor and manage corrosion to avoid structural collapse.

What Is the Rate of Corrosion?

The rate of corrosion is the speed at which any given metal deteriorates in a specific
environment. The rate, or speed, is dependent upon environmental conditions as well as the
type, and condition, of the metal.

Corrosion rates in the US are normally calculated using mpy (Mils per year). In other words,
the corrosion rate is based on the number of millimeters (thousandths of an inch) it penetrates
each year.

In order to calculate the rate of corrosion, the following information must be collected:

 Weight loss (the decrease in metal weight during the reference time period)

 Density (density of the metal)

 Area (total initial surface area of the metal piece)

 Time (the length of the reference time period)

Online Resources for Calculating Corrosion Rates:

Corrosionsource.com provides an online metal corrosion rate calculator for computing

corrosion rates.

To use the calculator, follow the link here: Corrosion Rate Calculator

Simply input the details above and click "Calculate" to calculate corrosion rates in
millimeters, inches, microns or millimeters per year, or inches per minute.

Converting Corrosion Rates:

To convert corrosion rate between the mils per year and the metric equivalent millimeter per
year (mm/y), you can use the following equation:

1 mpy = 0.0254 mm/y = 25.4 microm/y

To calculate the corrosion rate from metal loss:

mm /y = 87.6 x (W / DAT)

where:

W = weight loss in milligrams

D = metal density in g /cm3
A = area of sample in cm2
T = time of exposure of the metal sample in hours
Why Corrosion Rates Matter

Corrosion rates determine the lifespan of metal-based structures. This reality dictates the
choice of metals used for different purposes, and in different environments. It also determines
the maintenance requirements for structures: a metal structure in a wet environment may
require more frequent maintenance than a similar structure in a drier location. Maintenance
schedules are developed based on the types of calculations described above.

What Is Corrosion Engineering?

Corrosion engineering is a relatively new profession dedicated to slowing, reversing, and

avoiding the impact of corrosion on materials and structure. They are responsible for
developing coatings and treatments that can be used on metals to improve the metals'
resistance to corrosion. They are also involved with the development of materials that are less
vulnerable to corrosion.

New non-corroding ceramics, for example, can sometimes be substituted for metals.In
situations where corrosion is likely to cause hazardous or expensive situations, corrosion
engineers can recommend and implement solutions.

Types of Corrosion
What are the different types of corrosion?

Schmitz Olaf/E+/Getty Images

By Terence Bell

Updated October 27, 2017

There are many different types of corrosion, each of which can be classified by the cause of
the metal's chemical deterioration.
Listed below are 10 common types of corrosion:

General Attack Corrosion:

Also known as uniform attack corrosion, general attack corrosion is the most common type of
corrosion and is caused by a chemical or electrochemical reaction that results in the
deterioration of the entire exposed surface of a metal.

Ultimately, the metal deteriorates to the point of failure.

General attack corrosion accounts for the greatest amount of metal destruction by
corrosion but is considered as a safe form of corrosion, due to the fact that it is predictable,
manageable and often preventable.

Localized Corrosion:

Unlike general attack corrosion, localized corrosion specifically targets one area of the metal
structure. Localized corrosion is classified as one of three types:

 Pitting: Pitting results when a small hole, or cavity, forms in the metal, usually as a result of
de-passivation of a small area. This area becomes anodic, while part of the remaining metal
becomes cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The deterioration of this small
area penetrates the metal and can lead to failure. This form of corrosion is often difficult to
detect due to the fact that it is usually relatively small and may be covered and hidden by
corrosion-produced compounds

 Crevice corrosion: Similar to pitting, crevice corrosion occurs at a specific location. This type
of corrosion is often associated with a stagnant micro-environment, like those found under
gaskets and washers and clamps. Acidic conditions or a depletion of oxygen in a crevice can
lead to crevice corrosion.

 Filiform corrosion: Occurring under painted or plated surfaces when water breaches the
coating, filiform corrosion begins at small defects in the coating and spreads to cause
structural weakness.

Galvanic Corrosion:

Galvanic corrosion, or dissimilar metal corrosion, occurs when two different metals are
located together in a corrosive electrolyte. A galvanic couple forms between the two metals,
where one metal becomes the anode and the other the cathode. The anode, or sacrificial
metal, corrodes and deteriorates faster than it would alone, while the cathode deteriorates
more slowly than it would otherwise.

Three conditions must exist for galvanic corrosion to occur:

 Electrochemically dissimilar metals must be present

 The metals must be in electrical contact, and

 The metals must be exposed to an electrolyte

Environmental Cracking:

Environmental cracking is a corrosion process that can result from a combination of

environmental conditions affecting the metal. Chemical, temperature and stress-related
conditions can result in the following types of environmental corrosion:

 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

 Corrosion fatigue

 Hydrogen-induced cracking

 Liquid metal embrittlement

Flow-Assisted Corrosion (FAC):

Flow-assisted corrosion, or flow-accelerated corrosion, results when a protective layer of

oxide on a metal surface is dissolved or removed by wind or water, exposing the underlying
metal to further corroding and deteriorate.

 Erosion-assisted corrosion

 Impingement

 Cavitation

Intergranular corrosion

Intergranular corrosion is a chemical or electrochemical attack on the grain boundaries of a

metal. It often occurs due to impurities in the metal, which tend to be present in higher
contents near grain boundaries. These boundaries can be more vulnerable to corrosion than
the bulk of the metal.

De-Alloying:

De-alloying, or selective leaching, is the selective corrosion of a specific element in an alloy.

The most common type of de-alloying is de-zincification of unstabilized brass. The result of
corrosion in such cases is a deteriorated and porous copper.

Fretting corrosion:

Fretting corrosion occurs as a result of repeated wearing, weight and/or vibration on an

uneven, rough surface. Corrosion, resulting in pits and grooves, occurs on the surface.

Fretting corrosion is often found in rotation and impact machinery, bolted assemblies and
bearings, as well as to surfaces exposed to vibration during transportation.

High-Temperature Corrosion:
Fuels used in gas turbines, diesel engines and other machinery, which contain vanadium or
sulfates can, during combustion, form compounds with a low melting point. These
compounds are very corrosive towards metal alloys normally resistant to high temperatures
and corrosion, including stainless steel.

High-temperature corrosion can also be caused by high-temperature oxidization, sulfidation,

and carbonization.

What Is Galvanic Corrosion? How Can It Be Avoided?

Galvanic Corrosion Is a Chemical Process That Is Well Understood

corroded pipes. Terence Bell

By Terence Bell

Updated March 17, 2017

Over 200 years ago, the British naval frigate Alarm lost its copper sheeting due to the rapid
corrosion of the iron nails used to fasten the copper to the hull. This rapid corrosion occurred
because of a chemical process called galvanic corrosion.

Galvanic corrosion can only occur when two electrochemically different metals are close to
one another and also submerged in an electrolytic liquid (such as salt water).

When this occurs, the metals and the electrolyte create a galvanic cell. The cell has the effect
of corroding one metal at the expense of the other.

In the case of the Alarm, the iron was corroded at the expense of the copper. Just two years
after attaching the copper sheets, the iron nails that were used to hold the copper to the ship's
underside were already severely corroded, causing the copper sheets to fall off.

How Galvanic Corrosion Works

Metals and metal alloys all possess different electrode potentials. Electrode potentials are a
relative measure of a metal's tendency to become active in a given electrolyte. The more
active, or less noble, a metal is the more likely it is is to form an anode (positively charged
electrode) in an electrolytic environment. The less active, or nobler a metal is, the more likely
it is to form a cathode (negatively charged electrode) when in the same environment.

The electrolyte acts as a conduit for ion migration, moving metal ions from the anode to the
cathode. The anode metal, as a result, corrodes more quickly than it otherwise would, while
the cathode metal corrodes more slowly and, in some cases, may not corrode at all.

In the case of Alarm, the metal of greater nobility (copper) acted as a cathode, while the
lesser noble iron acted as an anode.

Iron ions were lost at the expense of the copper, ultimately resulting in the rapid deterioration
of the nails.

How to Protect Against Galvanic Corrosion

With our current understanding of galvanic corrosion, metal-hulled ships are now fitted with
'sacrificial anodes', which play no direct role in the ship's operation, but serve to protect the
structural components of the vessel. Sacrificial anodes are often made of zinc and
magnesium, metals with very low electrode potentials. As sacrificial anodes corrode and
deteriorate they must be replaced.

In order to understand what metal will become an anode and which will act as a cathode in
electrolytic environments, we must understand the metals' nobility or electrode potential. This
is generally measured with respect to the Standard Calomel Electrode (S.C.E.).

A list of metals, arranged according to electrode potential (nobility) in flowing seawater can
be seen in the table below.

It should also be pointed out that galvanic corrosion does not only occur in water. Galvanic
cells can form in any electrolyte, including moist air or soil, and chemical environments.
Galvanic Series In Flowing Sea Water

Material Potential, Volts

Steady State Electrode
(Saturated Calomel Half-Cell)
Graphite +0.25
Platinum +0.15
Zirconium -0.04
Type 316 Stainless Steel (Passive) -0.05
Type 304 Stainless Steel (Passive) -0.08
Monel 400 -0.08
Hastelloy C -0.08
Titanium -0.1
Silver -0.13
Type 410 Stainless Steel (Passive) -0.15
Type 316 Stainless Steel (Active) -0.18
Nickel -0.2
Type 430 Stainless Steel (Passive) -0.22
Copper Alloy 715 (70-30 Cupro-Nickel) -0.25
Copper Alloy 706 (90-10 Cupro-Nickel) -0.28
Copper Alloy 443 (Admiralty Brass) -0.29
G Bronze -0.31
Copper Alloy 687 (Aluminum Brass) -0.32
Copper -0.36
Alloy 464 (Naval Rolled Brass) -0.4
Type 410 Stainless Steel (Active) -0.52
Type 304 Stainless Steel (Active) -0.53
Type 430 Stainless Steel (Active) -0.57
Carbon Steel -0.61
Cast Iron -0.61
Aluminum 3003-H -0.79
Zinc -1.03
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the cracking

induced from the combined influence of tensile
stress and a corrosive environment. The impact
of SCC on a material usually falls between dry
cracking and the fatigue threshold of that
material. The required tensile stresses may be
in the form of directly applied stresses or in the
form of residual stresses. The problem itself
can be quite complex.

Cold deformation and forming, welding, heat

treatment, machining and grinding can
introduce residual stresses. The magnitude and
importance of such stresses is often intergranular SCC of an Inconel heat exchanger
underestimated. The residual stresses set up as tube with the crack following the grain
a result of welding operations tend to approach
boundaries. photo courtesy
the yield strength. The build-up of corrosion
products in confined spaces can also generate
significant stresses and should not be
overlooked. SCC usually occurs in certain
specific alloy-environment-stress
combinations.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the cracking induced from the combined influence of
tensile stress and a corrosive environment. The impact of SCC on a material usually falls
between dry cracking and the fatigue threshold of that material. The required tensile stresses
may be in the form of directly applied stresses or in the form of residual stresses, see an
example of SCC of an aircraft component . The problem itself can be quite complex. The
situation with buried pipelines is a good example of such complexity.

Cold deformation and forming, welding, heat treatment, machining and grinding can
introduce residual stresses. The magnitude and importance of such stresses is often
underestimated. The residual stresses set up as a result of welding operations tend to approach
the yield strength. The build-up of corrosion products in confined spaces can also generate
significant stresses and should not be overlooked. SCC usually occurs in certain specific
alloy-environment-stress combinations.

Usually, most of the surface remains unattacked, but with fine cracks penetrating into the
material. In the microstructure, these cracks can have an intergranular or a transgranular
morphology. Macroscopically, SCC fractures have a brittle appearance. SCC is classified as a
catastrophic form of corrosion, as the detection of such fine cracks can be very difficult and
the damage not easily predicted. Experimental SCC data is notorious for a wide range of
scatter. A disastrous failure may occur unexpectedly, with minimal overall material loss.

The micrograph above (X500) illustrates intergranular SCC of an Inconel heat exchanger
tube with the crack following the grain boundaries.

The micrograph below (X300) illustrates SCC in a 316

stainless steel chemical processing piping system.
Chloride stress corrosion cracking in austenitic
stainless steel is characterized by the multi-branched
"lightning bolt" transgranular crack pattern.

SCC in a 316 stainless steel chemical processing

piping system; photo courtesy

The catastrophic nature of this severe form of

corrosion attack has been repeatedly illustrated in
many news worthy failures, including the following:

Swimming pool roof collapse in Uster, Switzerland *

EL AL Boeing 747 crash in Amsterdam Stress
Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Chloride SCC SCC in a 316 stainless steel chemical processing
 One of the most important forms of stress corrosion piping system; photo courtesy
that concerns the nuclear industry is chloride stress
corrosion. Chloride stress corrosion is a type of
intergranular corrosion and occurs in austenitic
stainless steel under tensile stress in the presence of
oxygen, chloride ions, and high temperature. It is
thought to start with chromium carbide deposits
along grain boundaries that leave the metal open to
corrosion. This form of corrosion is controlled by
maintaining low chloride ion and oxygen content in
the environment and use of low carbon steels.

Caustic SCC

Despite the extensive qualification of Inconel for specific applications, a number of corrosion
problems have arisen with Inconel tubing. Improved resistance to caustic stress corrosion
cracking can be given to Inconel by heat treating it at 620oC to 705oC, depending upon prior
solution treating temperature. Other problems that have been observed with Inconel include
wastage, tube denting, pitting, and intergranular attack.

Different Types of Corrosion

- Recognition, Mechanisms & Prevention
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
Recognition
What is stress corrosion cracking? Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) is a cracking process that requires the
simultaneous action of a corrodent and sustained tensile stress. This excludes corrosion-reduced sections
that fail by fast fracture. It also excludes intercrystalline or
transcrystalline corrosion, which can disintegrate an alloy without
applied or residual stress. Stress-corrosion cracking may occur in
combination with hydrogen embrittlement.
The image of stress corrosion I see
Is that of a huge unwanted tree
Against whose trunk we chop and chop,
But which outgrows the chips that drop;
And from each gash made in its bark
A new branch grows to make more dark
The shade of ignorance around its base,
Where scientists toil with puzzled face.
(by S P Rideout 1967)

Mechanisms

What causes stress corrosion cracking? Stress corrosion cracking results from the conjoint action of three
components: (1) a susceptible material; (2) a specific chemical species (environment) and (3) tensile stress.
For example, copper and its alloys are susceptible to ammonia compounds, mild steels are susceptible to
alkalis and stainless steels are susceptible to chlorides.

There is no unified mechanism for stress corrosion cracking in the literature. Various models have been
proposed which include the following:

 Adsorption model: specific chemical species adsorbs on the crack surface and lowers the fracture
stress.

 Film rupture model: stress ruptures the passive film locally and sets up an active-passive cell. Newly
formed passive film is ruptured again under stress and the cycle continues until failure.

 Pre-existing active path model: Pre-existing path such as grain boundaries where intermetallics and
compounds are formed.

 Embrittlement model: Hydrogen embrittlement is a major mechanism of SCC for steels and other
alloys such as titanium. Hydrogen atoms diffuse to the crack tip and embrittle the metal.

Prevention
How to prevent stress corrosion cracking? Stress corrosion
cracking can be prevented through:

 Avoid the chemical species that causes SCC.

 Control of hardness and stress level (residual or

load).

 Introduce compressive stress by shot-peening for

example.

 Use of materials known not to crack in the specified

environment.

 Control operating temperature and/or the

electrochemical potential of the alloy.