Force and Motion: Facts

Motion makes the world go 'round. Motion makes the moon go 'round too. In fact, motion makes lots of things
go. When we think of motion we often think of cars, bicycles, kids running, basketballs bouncing and airplanes
flying. But motion is so much more. Motion is important to our lives and impacts so many things that we do.
Motion is the changing of position or location. But motion requires a force to cause that change. Let's learn
about force and motion and the effects of these physical laws in our world.

What is Force?
Force is just a fancy word for pushing or pulling. If I push on something or pull on it, then I am applying a
force to it. Force makes things move or, more accurately, makes things change their motion. Two natural
forces that we have experienced are the force of gravityand magnetic forces magnetic forces.
These two forces act at a distance and do not require direct contact between the objects to function. Gravity
produces a force that pulls objects towards each other, like a person towards the ground. It is the force that
keeps the Earth revolving around the sun and it's what pulls you toward the ground when you trip. See Science
Trek's site on Gravity.

Magnetism produces a force that can either pull opposite ends of two magnets together or push the matching
ends apart. A magnet also attractsobjects made of metal.
Types Of Contact Forces

There are 6 kinds of forces which act on objects when they come into contact with one another. Remember, a
force is either a push or pull. The 6 are:

 normal force
 applied force
 frictional force
 tension force
 spring force
 resisting force
Let's investigate how these forces can be seen in our lives.

Normal Force

A book resting on a table has the force of gravity pulling it toward the Earth. But the book is not moving or
accelerating, so there must be opposing forces acting on the book. This force is caused by the table and is
known as the normal force. You can “see” the normal force in some situations. If you place a thin piece of
wood or plastic (a ruler works) so that it is supported by both ends (by books perhaps) and place a small heavy
object in the center, the piece of wood will bend. Of course it wants to straighten out so it exerts an upward
force on the object. This upward force is the normal force. You can feel the force yourself if you push down in
the center of the piece of wood. The harder you push, the more the wood bends and the harder it pushes back.
 Applied Force

Applied force refers to a force that is applied to an object such as when a person moves a piece of furniture
across the room or pushes a button on the remote control. A force is applied.
 Frictional Force

Frictional force is the force caused by two surfaces that come into contact with each other. Friction can be
helpful as in the friction that allows a person to walk across the ground without sliding or it can be destructive
such as the friction of moving parts in a motor that rub together over long periods of time.

Tension Force
Tension force is the force applied to a cable or wire that is anchored on opposite ends to opposing walls or
other objects. This causes a force that pulls equally in both directions.

Spring Force

The spring force is the force created by a compressed or stretched spring. Depending upon how the spring is
attached, it can pull or push in order to create a force.

Resisting Forces

Resisting force, like air resistance or friction, change motion. Whether the forces actually stop or slow
something depends upon your point of view. Air friction makes a leaf travel along in the wind. When you pick
up a pencil, it's friction with your fingers that gets the pencil in motion. In each case, the friction makes the two
things (like the air and the leaf) move together.

What is Inertia?
Inertia is actually not a force at all, but rather a property that all things have due to the fact that they have mass.
The more mass something has the more inertia it has. You can think of inertia as a property that makes it hard
to push something around.

What is Friction?

Friction is a force that happens when objects rub against one another. Say you were pushing a toy train across
the floor. It doesn't take much effort or force, because the toy is light. Now say you try to push a real train. You
probably can't do it because the force of friction between the train and the ground is more intense. The heavier
the object, the stronger the force of friction.

Velocity

Velocity is the speed of an object in one direction. If an object turns a corner, it changes its velocity because it
is no longer moving in its original direction.

Newton's Laws of Motion

Some consider Sir Isaac Newton to be the greatest English mathematician of his time and perhaps one of the
greatest scientists the world has known. According to a story, Newton saw an apple fall to the ground and he
figured out that the same force which caused the apple to fall also governed the motion of the Moon and the
planets. In 1687 Newton published his three laws of motion in the “Principia Mathematica Philosophiae
Naturalis.” His three laws explained how the concepts of force and motion work.
Newton's First Law

Newton's first law of motion states: A body in motion tends to remain in motion, a body at rest tends to remain
at rest unless acted on by an outside force.
So, if an object is moving – its inertia (mass) will tend to keep it in motion, and if something is at rest, its
inertia will tend to keep it at rest.

From the Goddard Space Center: learn more about Newton's First Law. Check out these additional ideas.

Newton's Second Law

 Newton's second law of
motion states that a force, acting on an object, will change its velocity by changing either its
speed or its direction or both.
If your basketball goes rolling into the street and is hit by a bike, either the ball will change direction or its
speed or both. It will also be true for the bike.

From the Goddard Space Center: learn more about Newton's Second Law.Here are some additional ideas.

Newton's Third Law

 The third law is probably the best known of Newton's laws. It states that for every force and action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction.

This is what causes a cannon to recoil when it fires. The 'kick' from the firing of the ammunition is what makes
the cannon jump backwards.

From the Goddard Space Center: learn more about Newton's Third Law. Here are some additional ideas.

Acceleration
 Introduction
 Scalars and Vectors
 Distance and Displacement
 Speed and Velocity
 Acceleration
The final mathematical quantity discussed in Lesson 1 is acceleration. An often
confused quantity, acceleration has a meaning much different than the meaning
associated with it by sports announcers and other individuals. The definition of
acceleration is:
 Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an object changes
its velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.
Sports announcers will occasionally say that a person is accelerating
if he/she is moving fast. Yet acceleration has nothing to do with
going fast. A person can be moving very fast and still not be
accelerating. Acceleration has to do with changing how fast an
object is moving. If an object is not changing its velocity, then the
object is not accelerating. The data at the right are representative
of a northward-moving accelerating object. The velocity is changing
over the course of time. In fact, the velocity is changing by a
constant amount - 10 m/s - in each second of time. Anytime an object's velocity is
changing, the object is said to be accelerating; it has an acceleration.

The Meaning of Constant Acceleration

Sometimes an accelerating object will change its velocity by the same amount each
second. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, the data table above show an object
changing its velocity by 10 m/s in each consecutive second. This is referred to as
a constant acceleration since the velocity is changing by a constant amount each
second. An object with a constant acceleration should not be confused with an object
with a constant velocity. Don't be fooled! If an object is changing its velocity -whether
by a constant amount or a varying amount - then it is an accelerating object. And an
object with a constant velocity is not accelerating. The data tables below depict motions
of objects with a constant acceleration and a changing acceleration. Note that each
object has a changing velocity.

Since accelerating objects are constantly changing their velocity, one can say that the
distance traveled/time is not a constant value. A falling object for instance usually
accelerates as it falls. If we were to observe the motion of a free-falling object (free fall
motion will be discussed in detail later), we would observe that the object averages a
velocity of approximately 5 m/s in the first second, approximately 15 m/s in the second
second, approximately 25 m/s in the third second, approximately 35 m/s in the fourth
second, etc. Our free-falling object would be constantly accelerating. Given these
average velocity values during each consecutive 1-second time interval, we could say
that the object would fall 5 meters in the first second, 15 meters in the second second
(for a total distance of 20 meters), 25 meters in the third second (for a total distance of
45 meters), 35 meters in the fourth second (for a total distance of 80 meters after four
seconds). These numbers are summarized in the table below.

Total Distance
Time Velocity Change Ave. Velocity Distance Traveled Traveled from
Interval During Interval During Interval During Interval 0 s to End of
Interval

0 – 1.0 s 0 to ~10 m/s ~5 m/s ~5 m ~5 m

1.0 – 2.0 s ~10 to 20 m/s ~15 m/s ~15 m ~20 m

 2.0 – 3.0 s ~20 to 30 m/s ~25 m/s ~25 m ~45 m

3.0 – 4.0 s ~30 to 40 m/s ~35 m/s ~35 m ~80 m

Note: The ~ symbol as used here means approximately.

This discussion illustrates that a free-falling object that is accelerating at a constant rate
will cover different distances in each consecutive second. Further analysis of the first
and last columns of the data above reveal that there is a square relationship between
the total distance traveled and the time of travel for an object starting from rest and
moving with a constant acceleration. The total distance traveled is directly proportional
to the square of the time. As such, if an object travels for twice the time, it will cover
four times (2^2) the distance; the total distance traveled after two seconds is four
times the total distance traveled after one second. If an object travels for three times
the time, then it will cover nine times (3^2) the distance; the distance traveled after
three seconds is nine times the distance traveled after one second. Finally, if an object
travels for four times the time, then it will cover 16 times (4^2) the distance; the
distance traveled after four seconds is 16 times the distance traveled after one second.
For objects with a constant acceleration, the distance of travel is directly proportional to
the square of the time of travel.

Calculating the Average Acceleration

The average acceleration (a) of any object over a given interval of time (t) can be
calculated using the equation

This equation can be used to calculate the acceleration of the object whose motion is
depicted by the velocity-time data table above. The velocity-time data in the table
shows that the object has an acceleration of 10 m/s/s. The calculation is shown below.

Acceleration values are expressed in units of

velocity/time. Typical acceleration units include the
following:
m/s/s
mi/hr/s
km/hr/s
m/s2
These units may seem a little awkward to a beginning physics student. Yet they are
very reasonable units when you begin to consider the definition and equation for
acceleration. The reason for the units becomes obvious upon examination of the
acceleration equation.
Since acceleration is a velocity change over a time, the units on acceleration are
velocity units divided by time units - thus (m/s)/s or (mi/hr)/s. The (m/s)/s unit can be
mathematically simplified to m/s2.

The Direction of the Acceleration Vector

Since acceleration is a vector quantity, it has a direction associated with it. The direction
of the acceleration vector depends on two things:
 whether the object is speeding up or slowing down
 whether the object is moving in the + or - direction
The general principle for determining the acceleation is:
If an object is slowing down, then its acceleration is in the opposite
direction of its motion.

This general principle can be applied to determine whether the

sign of the acceleration of an object is positive or negative, right
or left, up or down, etc. Consider the two data tables below. In
each case, the acceleration of the object is in the positivedirection. In Example A, the
object is moving in the positive direction (i.e., has a positive velocity) and is speeding
up. When an object is speeding up, the acceleration is in the same direction as the
velocity. Thus, this object has a positive acceleration. In Example B, the object is
moving in the negative direction (i.e., has a negative velocity) and is slowing down.
According to our general principle, when an object is slowing down, the acceleration is
in the opposite direction as the velocity. Thus, this object also has a positive
acceleration.

This same general principle can be applied to the motion of the objects represented in
the two data tables below. In each case, the acceleration of the object is in
the negative direction. In Example C, the object is moving in the positive direction (i.e.,
has a positive velocity) and is slowing down. According to our principle, when an object
is slowing down, the acceleration is in the opposite direction as the velocity. Thus, this
object has a negative acceleration. In Example D, the object is moving in
the negative direction (i.e., has a negative velocity) and is speeding up. When an object
is speeding up, the acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity. Thus, this
object also has a negative acceleration.
Observe the use of positive and negative as used in the discussion above (Examples A -
D). In physics, the use of positive and negative always has a physical meaning. It is
more than a mere mathematical symbol. As used here to describe the velocity and the
acceleration of a moving object, positive and negative describe a direction. Both velocity
and acceleration are vector quantities and a full description of the quantity demands the
use of a directional adjective. North, south, east, west, right, left, up and down are all
directional adjectives. Physics often borrows from mathematics and uses the + and -
symbols as directional adjectives. Consistent with the mathematical convention used on
number lines and graphs, positive often means to the right or up and negative often
means to the left or down. So to say that an object has a negative acceleration as in
Examples C and D is to simply say that its acceleration is to the left or down (or in
whatever direction has been defined as negative). Negative accelerations do not refer
acceleration values that are less than 0. An acceleration of -2 m/s/s is an acceleration
with a magnitude of 2 m/s/s that is directed in the negative direction.
 Activity 1
Roll, roll, and away!
Activity 2
Drop me
 Activity 3
You raise me up!
 Activity 4
Curve me on an incline
 Activity 5
Curve a like
 Activity 6
Investigating Momentum
 Activity 7
Playing Egg Volleball
 Activity 8
Balloon Rocket
 Activity 9
Bouncy Balls
Motion in two Dimension
Projectile Motion
A body moving horizontally as well as vertically under the action of gravity simultaneously is called
a projectile. The motion of projectile is called projectile motion. The path followed by a projectile is called
its trajectory.

Examples of projectile motion are

1. Kicked or thrown balls

2. Jumping animals

3. A bomb released from a bomber plane

4. A shell of a gun.

Analysis of Projectile Motion

Let us consider a body of mass m, projected an angle θ with the horizontal with a velocity V0. We made
the following three assumptions.

1. The value of g remains constant throughout the motion.

2. The effect of air resistance is negligible.

3. The rotation of earth does not affect the motion.

Horizontal Motion

Acceleration : ax = 0

Velocity : Vx = Vox

Displacement : X = Vox t

Vertical Motion

Acceleration : ay = - g

Velocity : Vy = Voy - gt

Displacement : Y = Voy t - 1/2 gt2

Initial Horizontal Velocity

Vox = Vo cos θ ...................... (1)

Initial Vertical Velocity

Voy = Vo sin θ ...................... (2)

Net force W is acting on the body in downward vertical direction, therefore, vertical velocity continuously
changes due to the acceleration g produced by the weight W.

There is no net force acting on the projectile in horizontal direction, therefore, its horizontal velocity
remains constant throughout the motion.

X - Component of Velocity at Time t (Vx)

Vx = Vox = Vo cos θ .................... (3)

Y - Component of Velocity at Time t (Vy)

Data for vertical motion

Vi = Voy = Vo sin θ

a = ay = - g

t=t

Vf = Vy = ?

Using Vf = Vi + at

Vy = Vo sin θ - gt .................... (4)

Range of the Projectile (R)

The total distance covered by the projectile in horizontal direction (X-axis) is called is range

Let T be the time of flight of the projectile.

Therefore,

R = Vox x T .............. {since S = Vt}

T = 2 (time taken by the projectile to reach the highest point)

T = 2 Vo sin θ / g

Vox = Vo cos θ

Therefore,

R = Vo cos θ x 2 Vo sin θ / g

R = Vo2 (2 sin θ cos θ) / g

R = Vo2 sin 2 θ / g .................. { since 2 sin θ cos θ = sin2 θ}

Thus the range of the projectile depends on

(a) The square of the initial velocity

(b) Sine of twice the projection angle θ.

The Maximum Range

For a given value of Vo, range will be maximum when sin2 θ in R = Vo2 sin2 θ / g has maximum value.
Since

0 ≤ sin2 θ ≤ 1

Hence maximum value of sin2 θ is 1.

Sin2 θ = 1

2θ = sin(-1) (1)

2θ = 90º

θ = 45º

Therefore,

R(max) = Vo2 / g ; at θ = 45º

Hence the projectile must be launched at an angle of 45º with the horizontal to attain maximum range.

Projectile Trajectory

The path followed by a projectile is referred as its trajectory.

We known that

S = Vit + 1/2 at2

For vertical motion

S=Y

a=-g

Vi = Voy = Vo sin θ

Therefore,

Y = Vo sinθ t - 1/2 g t2 ....................... (1)

Also

X = Vox t

X = Vo cosθ t ............ { since Vox = Vo cosθ}

t = X / Vo cos θ

(1) => Y = Vo sinθ (X / Vo cos θ) - 1/2 g (X / Vo cos θ)2

Y = X tan θ - gX2 / 2Vo2 cos2 θ

For a given value of Vo and θ, the quantities tanθ, cosθ, and g are constant, therefore, put

a = tan θ

b = g / Vo2 cos2θ
Therefore

Y = a X - 1/2 b X2

Which shows that trajectory is parabola.

Uniform Circular Motion

If an object moves along a circular path with uniform speed then its motion is said to be uniform circular
motion.

Recitilinear Motion

Displacement → R

Velocity → V

Acceleration → a

Circular Motion

Angular Displacement → θ

Angular Velocity → ω

Angular Acceleration → α

Angular Displacement

The angle through which a body moves, while moving along a circular path is called its angular
displacement.

The angular displacement is measured in degrees, revolutions and most commonly in radian.
Diagram Coming Soon

s = arc length

r = radius of the circular path

θ = amgular displacement

It is obvious,

s∞θ

s=rθ

θ = s / r = arc length / radius

Radian
It is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to its radius.

Therefore,

When s = r

θ = 1 radian = 57.3º

Angular Velocity

When a body is moving along a circular path, then the angle traversed by it in a unit time is called its
angular velocity.
Diagram Coming Soon

Suppose a particle P is moving anticlockwise in a circle of radius r, then its angular displacement at P(t1)
is θ1 at time t1 and at P(t2) is θ2 at time t2.

Average angular velocity = change in angular displacement / time interval

Change in angular displacement = θ2 - θ1 = Δθ

Time interval = t2 - t1 = Δt

Therefore,

ω = Δθ / Δt

Angular velocity is usually measured in rad/sec.

Angular velocity is a vector quantity. Its direction can be determined by using right hand rule according to
which if the axis of rotation is grasped in right hand with fingers curled in the direction of rotation then
the thumb indicates the direction of angular velocity.

Angular Acceleration

It is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity with respect to time.

Thus, if ω1 and ω2 be the initial and final angular velocity of a rotating body, then average angular
acceleration "αav" is defined as

αav = (ω2 - ω1) / (t2 - t1) = Δω / Δt

The units of angular acceleration are degrees/sec2, and radian/sec2.

Instantaneous angular acceleration at any instant for a rotating body is given by

Angular acceleration is a vector quantity. When ω is increasing, α has same direction as ω. When ω is
decreasing, α has direction opposite to ω.

Relation Between Linear Velocity And Angular Velocity

Consider a particle P in an object in X-Y plane rotating along a circular path of radius r about an axis
through O, perpendicular to the plane of figure as shown here (z-axis).
If the particle P rotates through an angle Δθ in time Δt,

Then according to the definition of angular displacement.

Δθ = Δs / r

Dividing both sides by Δt,

Δθ / Δt = (Δs / Δt) (1/r)

=> Δs / Δt = r Δθ / Δt

For a very small interval of time

Δt → 0

Alternate Method

We know that for linear motion

S = v t .............. (1)

And for angular motion

S = r θ ................. (2)

Comparing (1) & (2), we get

Vt=rθ

v = r θ/t

V = r ω ........................... {since θ/t = ω}

Relation Between Linear Acceleration And Angular Acceleration

Suppose an object rotating about a fixed axis, changes its angular velocity by Δω in Δt. Then the change in
tangential velocity, ΔVt, at the end of this interval is

ΔVt = r Δω

Dividing both sides by Δt, we get

ΔVt / Δt = r Δω / Δt

If the time interval is very small i.e., Δt → 0 then

Alternate Method

Linear acceleration of a body is given by

a = (Vr - Vi) / t

But Vr = r ω r and Vi = r ω i

Therefore,
a = (r ω r - r ω i) / t

=> a = r (ωr- ωi) / t

a = r α .................................... {since (ωr = ωi) / t = ω}

Time Period

When an object is rotating in a circular path, the time taken by it to complete one revolution or cycle is
called its time period, (T).

We know that

ω = Δθ / Δt OR Δt = Δθ / ω

For one complete rotation

Δθ = 2 π

Δt = T

Therefore,

T=2π/ω

If ω = 2πf ........................ {since f = frequency of revolution}

Therefore,

T = 2π / 2πf

=> T = 1 / f

Tangential Velocity

When a body is moving along a circle or circular path, the velocity of the body along the tangent of the
circle is called its tangential velocity.

Vt = r ω

Tangential velocity is not same for every point on the circular path.

Centripetal Acceleration

A body moving along a circular path changes its direction at every instant. Due to this change, the velocity
of the body 'V' is changing at every instant. Thus body has an acceleration which is called its centripetal
acceleration. It is denoted by a(c) or a1 and always directed towards the centre of the circle. The
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration a(c) is given as follows

a(c) = V2 / r, ........................... r = radius of the circular path

Prove That a(c) = V2 / r

Proof
Consider a body moving along a circular path of radius of r with a constant speed V. Suppose the body
moves from a point P to a point Q in a small time Δt. Let the velocity of the body at P is V1 and at Q is V2.
Let the angular displacement made in this time be ΔO .

Since V1 and V2 are perpendicular to the radial lines at P and Q, therefore, the angle between V1 and V2 is
also Δ0, Triangles OPQ and ABC are similar.

Therefore,

|ΔV| / |V1| = Δs / r

Since the body is moving with constant speed

Therefore,

|V1| = |V2| = V

Therefore,

ΔV / V = Vs / r

ΔV = (V / r) Δs

Dividing both sides by Δt

Therefore,

ΔV / Δt = (V/r) (V/r) (Δs / Δt)

taking limit Δt → 0.

Proof That a(c) = 4π2r / T2

Proof

We know that

a(c) = V2 / r

But V = r ω

Therefore,

a(c) = r2 ω2 / r

a(c) = r ω2 ...................... (1)

But ω = Δθ / Δt

For one complete rotation Δθ = 2π, Δt = T (Time Period)

Therefore,

ω = 2π / T

(1) => a(c) = r (2π / T)2

a(c) = 4 π2 r / T2 .................. Proved

Tangential Acceleration

The acceleration possessed by a body moving along a circular path due to its changing speed during its
motion is called tangential acceleration. Its direction is along the tangent of the circular path. It is denoted
by a(t). If the speed is uniform (unchanging) the body do not passes tangential acceleration.

Total Or Resultant Acceleration

The resultant of centripetal acceleration a(c) and tangential acceleration a(t) is called total or resultant
acceleration denoted by a.

Centripetal Force

If a body is moving along a circular path with a constant speed, a force must be acting upon it. Direction of
the force is along the radius towards the centre. This force is called the centripetal force by F(c).

F(c) = m a(c)

F(c) = m v(2) / r ..................... {since a(c) = v2 / r}

F(c) = mr2 ω2 r ....................... {since v = r ω}

F(c) = mrω2

Physics Notes, Chapter 3: Two Dimensional Motion and Vectors I. Introduction to Vectors A. Scalars and
Vectors 1. Scalar quantities, such as speed, use only magnitude while vector quantities, such as velocity,
use magnitude and direction 2. In the text, scalar quantities are in italics, vector quantities are bolded 3.
In drawings, vectors are shown by arrows, the length of which indicates its magnitude, the direction its
pointing indicates the direction 4. The resultant is the answer that results when two or more vectors are
added together, or one vector has the same net effect as two or more vectors B. Properties of Vectors 1.
Vectors can be aligned in a drawing so that the tip of one is right at the beginning of the next, so it
becomes easy to draw in the resultant vector from the start of the first vector to the tip of the last 2.
Triangle method of addition--graphically or mathematically determining resultant vectors by moving
vectors parallel to themselves in a diagram to align them 3. Vectors can be added in any order 4. When
subtracting vectors, add the opposite (+/- or west/east, for example) 5. When multiplying or dividing
vectors by scalars, the result is a vector II. Vector Operations A. Coordinate Systems in two dimensions
1. The x and y axis can both be used at the same time to simplify the direction a moving object is
traveling 2. X is usually east, or along the horizon (whichever the problem calls for), while Y is usually
north, or vertical B. Determining Resultant Magnitude and Direction 1. The magnitude of a resultant of
two perpendicular vectors can be found using the Pythagorean theorem 2. The direction of the resultant
can be found using the tangent function (or sine, or cosine) C. Resolving Vectors into Components 1.
Components are the horizontal and vertical parts that can be added to describe a vector 2. Resolving (or
breaking) a vector into two components helps to find the unknowns in a problem 3. Again, the
Pythagorean theorem and simple trig functions are used in calculations D. Adding Vectors That Are Not
Perpendicular  This can be done by resolving each of the vectors involved into their x and y
components, and then adding x components together, and adding y components together, and then
finally applying the Pythagorean theorem and trig functions III. Projectile Motion A. Projectile-objects
that are thrown or launched into the air are subject to gravity B. Projectiles have an initial horizontal
velocity and follow a parabolic path when air resistance is neglected (called a trajectory) 1. Note that a
projectile and an object simply dropped, if both released at the same time and if air resistance is
ignored, will fall at the same rate and hit the ground at the same time 2. When the motion of two
objects described above is examined by resolving their velocities into a horizontal and vertical
component, then this is easy to explain (pg. 99-100) C. To find the velocity of a projectile at any point
during its flight, find the vector sum of the components of the velocity at that point—use the
Pythagorean theorem to find the magnitude of the velocity, and simple trig functions (tangent) to find
the direction D. Projectiles launched at an angle to the horizontal 1. Again, motion of the projectile, this
time its initial velocity, must be analyzed by resolving it into its components 2. Some more or less useful
equations for projectiles launched at an angle: x = vi(cos ) t vx = vi (cos ) = constant y = vi (sin ) t
– ½ g (t) 2 vy,f = vi (sin ) – g t vy,f 2 = vi 2 (sin ) 2 – 2 g y IV. Relative Motion A. Frames of
Reference—velocity measurements differ in different frames of reference, so it is often important to
define where the observer is in problemsolving B. Relative Velocity—approach these problems by clearly
defining quantities (such as velocities) with subscripts that explain both what object the given refers to,
and with respect to what frame of reference (i.e. the Earth, the other car…)

 Momentum…
o is a quantity that describes an object's resistance to stopping

(a kind of "moving inertia").

o is represented by the symbol p (boldface).

o is the product of an object's mass and velocity.

p = mv
 o is a vector quantity (since velocity is a vector and mass is a
scalar).
 Impulse…
o is a quantity that describes the effect of a net force acting

on an object (a kind of "moving force").

o is represented by the symbol J (boldface).

o is the product of the average net force acting on an object

and its duration.

J = F̅Δt
o is the force–time integral.
⌠
J = F dt
⌡
o is a vector quantity (since force is a vector and time is a
scalar).
 Impulse-Momentum Theorem
o The impulse-momentum theorem states that the change in

momentum of an object equals the impulse applied to it.

J = Δp
o If mass is constant, then…

F̅Δt = mΔv
o If mass is changing, then…

F dt = m dv + v dm
o The impulse-momentum theorem is logically equivalent

to Newton's second law of motion (the force law).

 Units
o The SI unit of impulse is the newton second.

o The SI unit of momentum is the kilogram meter per second.

o These units of impulse and momentum are equivalent.

[N s = kg m/s]

I II
inertia momentum
1st law
m p = mv
2nd law force law impulse-momentum theorem
 F = ma J = Δp
action-reaction conservation of momentum
3rd law
+F1 = −F2 ∑p = ∑p0
Related concepts of dynamics
 Specific Impulse
o is a measure of the efficacy of rocket propellants.

o if defined as impulse per mass (or thrust per mass flow

rate)
 is equal to exhaust velocity and has the SI unit of meter

per second.
J T
Jsp[m/s] = = =v
m qm
o if defined as impulse per weight (or thrust per weight flow
rate)
 is equal to exhaust velocity divided by acceleration due

to gravity and has the SI unit of second.

J T v
Jsp[s] = = =
mg qmg g

Conservation of momentum is a fundamental law of physics which states that the momentum of a system is constant
if there are no external forces acting on the system. It is embodied in Newton's first law (the law of inertia).

Suppose we have two interacting particles 1 and 2, possibly of different masses. The forces between them are equal

and opposite. According to Newton's second law, force is the time rate of change of the momentum, so we conclude

that the rate of change of momentum of particle 1 is equal to minus the rate of change of momentum of a

particle 2,

(1)

Now, if the rate of change is always equal and opposite, it follows that the total change in the momentum of particle 1

is equal and opposite of the total change in the momentum of particle 2. That means that if we sum the two momenta
the result is zero,

(2)
But the statement that the rate of change of this sum is zero is equivalent to stating that the quantity is a

constant. This sum is called the total momentum of a system, and in general it is the sum of all individuals momenta
of each particle in the system.

For electromagnetic radiation,

(3)

so in cgs,

(4)

where T is the Maxwell stress tensor, is the force density, S is the Poynting vector, c is the speed of light,

and is the momentum density.