CONTENTS

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Basic concepts in occupational health and safety. ................................................................. 1
What is occupational health and safety? .................................................................................... 2
Why is occupational health and safety important?................................................................. 4
The cost of accidents and occupational diseases .................................................................... 4
Prevention as a key concept in the management of occupational health and safety. ................. 6
Control and prevention measures ........................................................................................... 7
Precautionary measures ...................................................................................................... 7
Protection measures ............................................................................................................ 8
Mitigation measures ........................................................................................................... 8
Awareness and participation of workers in matters of occupational health and safety ............. 8
Rights and Responsibilities of Employers and Employees in Matters of Occupational Health
and Safety................................................................................................................................... 9
Responsibilities of Employers ................................................................................................ 9
Rights and Responsibilities of Employees ........................................................................... 11
Drug Testing and Safety. Substance use and abuse in the workplace. .................................... 12
The effects of various types of substances ........................................................................... 13
Elements of work that may contribute to the use of substances........................................... 13
Substance Use and Abuse in Particular Industries ............................................................... 14
Costs of Substance Use and Abuse to a Business. ............................................................... 15
The connection between drug testing and occupational health and safety .......................... 16
Which drugs should the workers be tested for? ................................................................... 17
Some facts about alcohol in the workplace: ..................................................................... 17
Some facts about drugs in the workplace: ........................................................................ 18
New risks and future of occupational health and safety .......................................................... 19
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 21
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................... 22
Introduction

The ILO1 Constitution sets forth the principle that “workers should be protected from sickness,
disease and injury arising from their employment”. Yet for millions of workers the reality is
very different. It is estimated that 2.02 million people die each year from work-related accidents
or diseases. A further 317 million people suffer from work-related diseases, and there are an
estimated 337 million fatal and non-fatal work-related accidents per year. The suffering caused
by such accidents and illnesses to workers and their families is incalculable. In economic terms,
It has been estimated that 4% of the world’s annual GDP is lost as a consequence of
occupational diseases and accidents. Employers face costly early retirements, loss of skilled
staff, absenteeism, and high insurance premiums due to work-related accidents and diseases.
Yet many of these tragedies are preventable through the implementation of sound prevention,
reporting and inspection practices.

Basic concepts in occupational health and safety.

Some of the key concepts in occupational health and safety are:

Danger - It is defined as any source, situation or act with a potential to cause damage in terms
of injury or illness, damage to property, damage to the environment or a combination of these.
This term is used to describe something present in the workplace that has the potential to cause
an injury to workers, be it an accident at work or an occupational disease.

Risk - This is the combination of the probability of an event or a dangerous exposure occurring
and the severity of the injury or illness that may be caused by the event or exposure.

Risk assessment - is the process to identify the dangers arising from working conditions. It is a
systematic examination of all aspects of working conditions to:

 Identify what may cause injury or damage

 Eliminate the dangers that may be eliminated
 Assess the risks that cannot be eliminated immediately
 Plan the adoption of corrective measures.

1
International Labour Organization. The ILO was created in 1919, as part of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I,
to reflect the belief that universal and lasting peace can be accomplished only if it is based on social justice.
Security - it is a concept of difficult definition. Security consists in the situation of being "safe",
that is, free from any damage or risk although in practice it is impossible to achieve this
situation of total security. Therefore, safety should be understood as a certain level of risk that
can be considered acceptable.

Health - in relation to work not only includes the absence of diseases or illnesses, but also the
physical and mental elements directly related to work, which may negatively affect health.

Occupational disease - is the disease contracted as a result of exposure over a period of time
to factors (chemical, physical or biological agents) arising from work activity. Includes any
chronic ailment produced as a result of a job or work activity. This type of disease is identified
by demonstrating that it is more frequent in a certain labor sector than in the general population
or in other groups of workers. Examples of occupational diseases may include respiratory
diseases (eg, asbestosis or occupational asthma), skin diseases (eg, carpal tunnel syndrome),
musculoskeletal disorders, and occupational cancer.

Occupational accident - it is a punctual event in the course of work (may occur outside the
facilities of the company or be caused by third parties) that produces physical or mental
damage.

Prevention - are all steps or measures taken or planned in all phases of the company's activity
to avoid or reduce occupational risks.

In terms of scope, the concepts of occupational safety and health apply to any type of work,
including sectors of construction, agriculture, manufacturing, mining, fishing, the service
sector or health care; and companies and subcontracted workers are also included.

In terms of occupational health and safety, in addition to the period of work activity, the journey
and time spent going to and from the workplace as part of the workday are included. Safe
journeys are therefore one of the areas covered by occupational health and safety.

What is occupational health and safety?

Occupational health and safety is a very broad discipline that encompasses multiple specialized
fields. In its most general sense, it should tend to:
  The promotion and maintenance of the highest possible degree of physical, mental and
social well-being of the workers, whatever their occupation;
 The prevention among workers of the negative consequences that their working
conditions may have on health;
 The protection of workers at their place of employment against the risks to which
negative health factors may give rise;
 The placement and maintenance of workers in a work environment adapted to their
physical or mental needs;
 The adaptation of work activity to human beings.
 In other words, occupational health and safety encompass the social, mental and
physical well-being of workers, that is, "the whole person".

For the practice in occupational health and safety to achieve these objectives, collaboration and
participation of employers and workers in health and safety programs are necessary, and
different issues related to occupational medicine must be taken into account, industrial hygiene,
toxicology, training, technical safety, ergonomics, psychology, etc.

Often, less attention is paid to occupational health problems than to occupational safety
problems, because it is usually more difficult to resolve them. However, when addressing the
issue of health, the issue of safety is also addressed, because, by definition, a healthy workplace
is also a safe workplace. On the other hand, it may not be true the other way around, because a
workplace considered safe is not necessarily a healthy workplace. The important thing is that
health and safety problems must be addressed in all workplaces. In general terms, the definition
of health and safety at work that we have given covers both health and safety in its broader
contexts.

Poor working conditions influence the health and safety of the worker. If, at all events, the
working conditions are bad, they can influence the health and safety of the worker.

Insane or unsafe working conditions do not only occur in factories or industrial plants - they
can be found anywhere, whether working indoors or outdoors. For many workers, such as
agricultural laborers or miners, the workplace is "outdoors" and can carry many risks to their
health and safety.
Poor working conditions can also affect the environment in which workers live, as many
workers work and live in the same environment. That is, occupational risks can have harmful
consequences for workers, their families and other people in the community, as well as in the
physical environment surrounding the workplace. A classic example is the use of pesticides in
agricultural work2. The families of the workers can also be exposed in different ways: inhale
the pesticides that persist in the atmosphere; Drink contaminated water or be exposed to waste
that contains the worker's clothing. Likewise, other people in the immediate community may
be exposed in different ways. When chemical products are absorbed by the soil or diffuse to
groundwater tables, the negative consequences in the natural environment can be permanent.

In general, occupational health and safety activities should aim to avoid accidents and
occupational diseases, while recognizing the relationship between the health and safety of
workers, the workplace and the environment outside the workplace.

Why is occupational health and safety important?

Work plays an essential role in the lives of people, since most workers spend at least eight
hours a day in the workplace, be it a plantation, an office, an industrial workshop, etc. Thus,
working environments must be safe and healthy, which is not the case for many workers. Every
day of the year there are workers around the world subjected to a multitude of health risks, such
as:

 Powder
 Gases
 Noises
 Vibrations
 Extreme temperatures

The cost of accidents and occupational diseases

“How much does an accident or an occupational disease cost?” -Accidents or work-related
illnesses are very expensive and can have many serious consequences, both direct and indirect,

2
Workers may be exposed to toxic chemicals in different ways when using pesticide sprays: inhale chemicals while they spray
with them and after they have been sprayed; absorb chemicals through the skin; Ingest chemicals if they eat, drink or smoke
without having washed their hands before, or if the chemicals have contaminated drinking water.
on the lives of workers and their families. For workers, an illness or an accident at work
involves, among others, the following direct costs:

 The pain and the condition of the injury or illness

 The loss of income
 The possible loss of a job
 The costs of medical care.

It has been estimated that the indirect costs of an accident or illness can be four to ten times
greater than their direct costs, or even more. An illness or an accident at work can have so many
indirect costs for workers that it is often difficult to calculate them. One of the most obvious
indirect costs is the human suffering that is caused in the families of the workers, which cannot
be compensated with money.

It is estimated that the costs of work accidents for employers are also huge. For a small
business, the cost of just one accident can be a financial catastrophe.

For employers, some of the direct costs are the following:

 Having to pay for a job not done.

 The payments that must be made for medical treatment and compensation.
 The repair or replacement of damaged machines and equipment.
 The decrease or temporary interruption of production.
 The increase in expenses in training and administration.
 The possible decrease in the quality of work.
 The negative consequences on the morale of other workers.

Some of the indirect costs to employers are the following:

 The injured or sick worker must be replaced.

 A new worker has to be trained and give him time to get used to the job.
 It takes time until the new worker produces at the rate of the previous one.
 Time must be devoted to the obligatory inquiries, to write reports and to fill in forms.
 Often, accidents cause concern in the colleagues of the injured person and negatively
influence labor relations.
  Poor sanitary and safety conditions in the workplace can also negatively influence the
public image of the company.

In general, the costs of most work-related accidents or illnesses, both for workers and their
families and for employers, are very high3.

Prevention as a key concept in the management of occupational health and

safety.

Prevention is a key concept in occupational safety and health. In fact, the prevention of
occupational accidents and diseases should be the main objective of any occupational health
and safety management system as opposed to the resolution of problems after they have
occurred. Due to the rapid changes experienced by organizations and companies today
(globalization, downsizing, part-time work, temporary work and subcontracting, among
others), the concept of prevention is increasingly relevant and also allows for a dynamic
approach to occupational health and safety.

For example, the "Declaration of Luxembourg on the promotion of occupational health in the
European Union"4 establishes a series of principles to prevent poor health at work (work-
related diseases, accidents, injuries, occupational diseases and stress) and promote the
improvement of the health and well-being of employees. These principles are:

 Codes of conduct and business guidelines that consider employees not only as costs but
as important success factors
 Business cultures and management policies that encourage employee participation and
allow them to assume responsibilities
 Organizations that allow employees to combine the performance of their work with the
development of their personal skills and control their own work in addition to offering
support
 Personnel policies that include health improvement objectives.

3
At national level, the estimated costs of accidents and occupational diseases can amount to 3 or 4 percent of a country's gross
domestic product. In reality, nobody really knows the total cost of work-related accidents or illnesses because, in addition to
the more obvious direct costs, there are many indirect costs that are difficult to assess.
4
The Luxembourg Declaration on Workplace Health Promotion in the European Union. Workplace Health Promotion (WHP)
is the combined efforts of employers, employees and society to improve the health and well-being of people at work.
  Integrated occupational health and safety services
 Inclusion of employees in health-related issues at all levels (encouraging their
participation)
 Systematic application of all measures and programs (project management)
 Linking risk reduction strategies with the development of health and safety
improvements (comprehensive approach)

Taking into account the aforementioned principles and the need to focus on the prevention of
occupational accidents and diseases, companies must implement and integrate an occupational
health and safety management system in their management system. This system will allow both
develop and implement occupational health and safety policies in the company and manage
their risks.

Control and prevention measures

As mentioned previously, the risk assessment allows to decide if they are necessary or concrete
actions are required and what type of occupational health and safety measures should be
applied in the workplace. These control measures should be based on up-to-date technical and
organizational knowledge and good practices. The implementation of control measures must
be done using the following hierarchy:

1. precautionary measures
2. protection measures
3. mitigation measures

Precautionary measures
The objective of preventive measures is to reduce the likelihood of an occupational accident or
disease. These measures can be two types:

 Technical or engineering measures - measures that are intended to act directly on the
source of risk to eliminate, reduce or replace it.
 Organizational or administrative measures - aim to promote a change in behaviors and
attitudes in addition to promoting a culture of safety.
Protection measures
In the case of protection measures, decisions must be taken that put collective protection before
individual protection and, if these are not feasible or effective, consider measures of individual
protection. The protection measures include:

 Collective measures - designed to isolate risk, for example, through the use of physical
barriers or administrative or organizational measures that reduce the duration of
exposure (rotation in employment, control of work time, use of safety signals).
 Individual measures - any personal protective equipment designed to protect the worker
from residual risk.

Mitigation measures
The mitigation measures are aimed at reducing the severity of the damage to employees, the
public and the facilities. These include:

 Emergency plan
 Evacuation planning
 Alert systems (alarms, flashing lights)
 Exercises, tests and emergency drills

Awareness and participation of workers in matters of occupational health

and safety

Besides being a legal requirement, information and the realization of training courses for
workers is essential in any occupational health and safety program since it raises awareness
about workplace safety, allowing the early recognition of dangerous work situations, symptoms
and signs of any occupational disease or other risks to which they may be exposed.

Communication must be the priority in occupational health and safety. The awareness and
participation of workers contribute to a better work environment. In fact, for the
implementation of an OHS program to be successful, it is necessary both a total commitment
of the management and the participation and involvement of the workers.
For this, it is necessary that the management consult with the workers and / or their
representatives the issues related to occupational health and safety, as well as allowing them to
participate in the debates related to this topic. The result of the participation of both parties
gives rise to actions of adaptation of the work to the person, for example in the design of the
jobs or in the choice of equipment or production methods.

On the other hand, the participation of workers is very valuable to identify and solve problems,
for example to change unsuitable working conditions (eg monotonous work) and therefore
reduce their impact on health

Rights and Responsibilities of Employers and Employees in Matters of

Occupational Health and Safety

In a typical workplace, unbiased health and safety management also covers the employers, just
as it covers the employees. Employers are required to provide safe workplace to its constituents
while employees are expected to adhere to the rules and regulations brought about and
introduced during work orientation. This is usually discussed by a Compensation and Benefits
Specialist or anybody from the Human Resource Group. There’s supposed to be a designated
health and safety manager assigned to handle relevant issues concerning the workplace
conditions as explained in workplace safety certification.

Responsibilities of Employers
Under the law employers are responsible for health and safety management. According to the
OSHA, the employer is obliged to protect the safety and health of workers, in accordance with
the provisions of current regulations. Within the Occupational Health and Safety Management
System5, the employer will have, among others, the following obligations:

1. Define, sign and distribute the Occupational Health and Safety policy through a written
document, sign the Occupational Health and Safety Policy, which should provide a

5
An Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHSMS) is a coordinated and systematic approach to managing
health and safety risks. OHSMSs help organisations to continually improve their safety performance and compliance to health
and safety legislation and standards.
 framework for establishing and reviewing the safety and health objectives in the
workplace.
2. Assignment and Communication of Responsibilities: must assign, document and
communicate the specific responsibilities in Occupational Health and Safety - OSH at
all levels of the organization, including senior management.
3. Accountability within the company: those who have been delegated responsibilities in
the Occupational Health and Safety Management System, have an obligation to render
accounts internally in relation to their performance. This rendering of accounts may be
done through written, electronic, verbal means or those considered by those
responsible. The surrender will be made at least annually and must be documented.
4. Definition of Resources: must define and allocate the financial, technical and personnel
resources necessary for the design, implementation, review, evaluation and
improvement of prevention and control measures, for the effective management of
hazards and risks in place of work and also, so that those responsible for safety and
health at work in the company, the Joint Committee or Occupational Health and Safety
Watch as appropriate, can fulfill their functions satisfactorily.
5. Compliance with the applicable regulatory requirements: it must guarantee that it
operates under compliance with applicable national regulations applicable to
occupational safety and health, in accordance with the minimum standards of the
Mandatory Quality Assurance System of the General System of Occupational Risks.
6. Management of hazards and risks: must adopt effective provisions to develop measures
to identify hazards, assess and assess risks and establish controls that prevent damage
to the health of workers and / or contractors, equipment and facilities.
7. Annual work plan in OSHMS: must design and develop an annual work plan to achieve
each of the objectives proposed in the Occupational Health and Safety Management
System, which must clearly identify goals, responsibilities, resources and schedule of
activities, in accordance with the minimum standards of the Mandatory System of
Quality Assurance of the General System of Occupational Risks.
8. Prevention and promotion of occupational risks: the employer must implement and
develop activities to prevent accidents at work and occupational diseases, as well as
health promotion in the Occupational Health and Safety Management System, in
accordance with the current regulations.
9. Participation of workers: must ensure the adoption of effective measures to ensure the
participation of all workers and their representatives before the Joint Committee or the
 OHS, in the execution of the policy and also that the latter they work and have the time
and other necessary resources, in accordance with the current regulations that are
applicable to them.

Likewise, the employer must inform the workers and / or contractors, their representatives
before the Joint Committee or the Occupational Health and Safety Representative Watch, as
appropriate in accordance with current regulations, on the development of all stages of the
Occupational Health and Safety Management System and, also, must evaluate the
recommendations emanating from these for the improvement of the Occupational Health
Safety Management System.

Rights and Responsibilities of Employees

Employees have equally similar responsibilities in adhering to workplace healthy and safety
guidance, as well as in performing the expected activities to follow in cases of emergency,
dangerous occasions, and hazardous times. Below are the OSHA-approved responsibilities for
employees:

1. As a worker, you should report work-related cases resulting in injury and illnesses in
case your employer fails or declines to do so. The process has it that workers can inform
OSHA anytime in case something hazardous happened in the workplace.
2. In case of punishment or discrimination from the employer, it is the employee’s
responsibility to immediately inform OSHA so necessary sanction will be imposed of
after the issue is accordingly dealt with.
3. It is an employee’s responsibility to assess working conditions as to whether the
workplace is unsafe and unhealthy or otherwise, so necessary actions can be performed
by OSHA in order to protect the safety and the common good of the majority.
4. The employee has the responsibility of confirming whether the company he or she is
engaged with have ever been inspected by OSHA, and if it isn’t, he or she can ask how
likely can it be done in order to promote workplace health and safety.
5. An employee has the responsibility to know Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)
Code of the company so as to eventually learn and understand the most common
industry hazard cited so far.

Both the employer and the employees are supposed to understand every aspect of their
workplace rights and its corresponding responsibilities in order to avoid possible workplace
bullying or discrimination. At the same time, knowing these things will inhibit both parties to
take advantage of unlikable incidents or ignore events that requires immediate attention. At the
end of the day, OSHA is just after the health and safety of everyone making a worker-friendly
environment possible not only for the company owners, but also for the workforce

Drug Testing and Safety. Substance use and abuse in the workplace.

“Approximately 16 percent of emergency room patients injured at work

have alcohol in their system.”

- National study on alcohol-related occupational injuries

The fact that some people use substances such as alcohol or illicit drugs, or that some people
misuse prescription drugs is not new. The awareness that the use and abuse of substances may
affect the workplace just as the workplace may affect how a person uses substances is, however,
increasing in acceptance. Many aspects of the workplace require alertness, and accurate and
quick reflexes. An impairment to these qualities can cause incidents, and interfere with the
accuracy and efficiency of work. Ways that problematic substance use may cause issues at
work include:

 Any impact on a person’s judgment, alertness, perception, motor coordination or

emotional state that also impacts working safely or safety sensitive decisions
 After-effects of substance use (hangover, withdrawal) affecting job performance
 Absenteeism, illness, and/or reduced productivity
 Preoccupation with obtaining and using substances while at work, interfering with
attention and concentration
 Illegal activities at work including selling illicit drugs to other employees,
 Psychological or stress-related effects due to substance use by a family member, friend
or co-worker that affects another person's job performance.

Note that substance use is often thought of as an addiction or dependence, but use can be
anywhere on the spectrum or scale from recreational to frequent to problematic. As a result,
there are varying impacts on lives and work. The CAMH6 use the following “4 c’s” to describe
addiction:

1. Craving
2. Loss of control of amount or frequency of use
3. Compulsion to use
4. Use despite consequences

The effects of various types of substances

Category Examples Examples of General Effects
Alcohol beer, wine, spirits impaired judgement, slowed reflexes, impaired
motor function, sleepiness or drowsiness, coma,
overdose may be fatal
Cannabis marijuana, hashish distorted sense of time, impaired memory,
impaired coordination
Depressants sleeping medicines, inattention, slowed reflexes, depression,
sedatives, some tranquilizers impaired balance, drowsiness, coma, overdose
may be fatal
Hallucinogens LSD (lysergic acid inattention, sensory illusions, hallucinations,
diethylamide), PCP disorientation, psychosis
(phencyclidine), mescaline
Inhalants hydrocarbons, solvents, intoxication similar to alcohol, dizziness,
gasoline headache
Nicotine cigarettes, chewing tobacco, initial stimulant, later depressant effects
snuff
Opiates morphine, heroin, codeine, loss of interest, "nodding", overdose may be
some prescription pain fatal. If used by injection, the sharing of needles
medications may spread Hepatitis B, or C and HIV/AIDS.
Stimulants cocaine, amphetamines elevated mood, overactivity, tension/anxiety,
rapid heartbeat, constriction of blood vessels
(Source: Blume, S.B., Alcohol and Drug Abuse in the Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety 4th
edition, International Labour Office, 1998)

Elements of work that may contribute to the use of substances

Various and numerous organizational, personal and social factors can play a major role why a
person may choose to use a substance. In general, however, some work-related factors can
include:

6
The Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH) is Canada's largest mental health and addiction teaching hospital and
a world leading research centre in this field.
  high stress,
 high demand/low control situations,
 low job satisfaction,
 long hours or irregular shifts,
 fatigue,
 repetitious duties,
 periods of inactivity or boredom,
 isolation,
 lack of opportunity for promotion,
 lack of, remote, or irregular supervision and,
 easy access to substances.

Substance Use and Abuse in Particular Industries

Employers in certain industries may be more at risk for employee substance use and abuse. The
major industry groups with the highest prevalence of illicit drug use in the past month were
accommodations and food services and construction, and those with the lowest prevalence were
the utilities industry, educational services, and public administration.

 About 16.9 percent of workers in the accommodations and food services industry and
13.7 percent of workers in the construction industry reported illicit drug use in the past
month.
 About 3.8 percent of workers in the utilities industry, 4.0 percent of workers in the
educational services industry, and 4.1 percent of workers in the public administration
industry reported past month illicit drug use.
 The major industry groups with the highest prevalence of heavy alcohol use were
construction, arts, entertainment and recreation, and mining, and those with the lowest
were health care and social assistance and educational services.
 About 15.9 percent of workers in the construction industry and 13.6 percent of workers
in the arts, entertainment and recreation industry reported heavy alcohol use in the past
month. In contrast, 4.0 percent of workers in the educational services industry and 4.3
percent of workers in the health care and social assistance industry reported heavy
alcohol use.
Likewise, workers in certain occupations may be more at risk for problems with substance use
and abuse.

 Workers in food service and construction occupations showed a higher prevalence of

illicit drug use during the past month than other occupational groups, while those in
protective service, community and social services, and education and related services
occupations showed the lowest prevalence rates.
 About 17.4 percent of food service workers and 15.1 percent of construction workers
used illicit drugs in the past month.
 About 3.4 percent of protective service workers, 4.0 percent of community and social
services workers, and 4.1 percent of education, training, and library workers used illicit
drugs in the past month.
 Construction occupations and installation, maintenance, and repair occupations showed
higher prevalence of heavy alcohol use in the past month, while community and social
services occupations showed the lowest prevalence rates.
 About 17.8 percent of construction and extraction workers and 14.7 percent of
installation, maintenance, and repair workers reported heavy alcohol use in the past
month. In contrast, 2.8 percent of community and social services workers reported
heavy alcohol use in the past month.

Costs of Substance Use and Abuse to a Business.

The economic impacts of substance use in Canada to businesses or industry have been
traditionally difficult to measure. Many costs are hidden by general absenteeism or illnesses,
"unnoticed" lack of productivity, or inability or reluctance to link substance use directly with
causes of incidents.

Costs to a business may be both direct and indirect. The impact of substance use that have been
reported include:

 safety (fatalities, incidents, etc.)

 absenteeism/sick leave/turnover or presenteeism
 loss of production, and
 workplace violence and harassment.

Additional costs can include:

  tardiness/sleeping on the job
 theft
 poor decision making
 loss of efficiency
 lower morale and physical well-being of worker and co-workers
 increased likelihood of having trouble with co-workers/supervisors
 training of new employees
 disciplinary procedures
 drug testing programs
 medical/rehabilitation/employee assistance programs

The connection between drug testing and occupational health and safety
Born some 30 years ago, drug testing in the workplace connects to occupational safety as a key
component in protecting the safety, health, and welfare of employees, as well as the general
public. Drug testing programs can contribute to the reduction of employee injury- and illness-
related costs, including medical care, sick leave, and disability benefit costs.

A survey of human resource professionals recorded that companies with high workers'
compensation incidence rates reported a drop from 14 percent to 6 percent after implementing
drug testing programs, an improvement of 57 percent.

Drug and alcohol abuse in the workplace causes 65 percent of on-the-job accidents and that 38
percent to 50 percent of all workers' compensation claims are related to the abuse of alcohol or
drugs in workplace. Drug testing programs provide a powerful deterrent to drug use on the job.
Employers who are drug testing are committed to reducing occupational injuries and illnesses
and to sending a clear signal they care about their employees. It is important to distinguish
between drug testing and drug testing programs. A comprehensive drug testing program or
drug-free workplace will include several additional components that will contribute to helping
to improve safety while reducing OSHA7 recordables, injuries, and workers' compensation
claims. These drug-free workplace components are critical to a successful program designed
to be an effective part of a workplace safety plan.

7
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is an agency of the United States Department of Labor.
Congress established the agency under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, which President Richard M. Nixon signed
into law on December 29, 1970.
 Which drugs should the workers be tested for?
Random drug testing is an effective deterrent to employee drug use. Many employers overlook
random drug testing. A pre-employment test is easy to beat for a drug user: They stop using
drugs for a few days. Employers with no random testing will never deter drug use for this
employee and possibly never detect this employee's drug use. Employers not conducting
random drug testing are taking a risk toward workplace accidents and other detrimental effects
of maintaining a substance user on the payroll.

Traditional drug testing programs have evolved over the years. Many are familiar with the
standard five-panel drug test, which includes testing for marijuana, amphetamines,
phencyclidine (PCP), cocaine, and opiates. Drug users are aware of this testing and many have
moved on to other drugs typically not detected. Unfortunately, DOT's regulated drug testing
programs allow only the five-panel drug test. However, employers not regulated by DOT
should look at expanded testing panels. Company policies should be reviewed and updated to
include additional drugs, such as prescription opioid painkillers (such as hydrocodone,
hydromorphone, and oxycodone), antidepressants (i.e., benzodiazepines), and others, including
methamphetamine, methadone, barbiturates, propoxyphene, synthetic cannabinoids (K2,
Spice), and bath salts.

Other changes in drug testing include the specimen types. Many programs now test with oral
fluid or hair as opposed to urine. DOT regulated programs still require a urine test, and state
laws should be reviewed before starting any drug testing program. The particular differences
between urine, hair, and oral fluid are typically based on detection times. Detection times vary
depending on many factors, including drug potency, tolerance, fluid intake at time of test,
method and frequency of marijuana use, body type, metabolism, exercise frequency, and many
others. Oral fluid testing has the shortest detection time, around 1- 3 days; urine is 2-5 days
(sometimes longer for marijuana); it is up to 90 days for hair testing.

Some facts about alcohol in the workplace:

 Workers with alcohol problems were 2.7 times more likely than workers without
drinking problems to have injury-related absences.
  A hospital emergency department study showed that 35 percent of patients with an
occupational injury were at-risk drinkers.

 Breathalyzer tests detected alcohol in 16% of emergency room patients injured at work.

 Analyses of workplace fatalities showed that at least 11% of the victims had been
drinking.

 Large federal surveys show that 24% of workers report drinking during the workday at
least once in the past year.

 One-fifth of workers and managers across a wide range of industries and company sizes
report that a coworker’s on- or off-the-job drinking jeopardized their own productivity
and safety.

Some facts about drugs in the workplace:

 Workers who report having three or more jobs in the previous five years are about twice
as likely to be current or past year users of illegal drugs as those who have had two or
fewer jobs.

 70% of the estimated amount of people in a country who use illegal drugs are employed.

 Marijuana is the most commonly used and abused illegal drug by employees, followed
by cocaine, with prescription drug use steadily increasing.
New risks and future of occupational health and safety

The evolution of society, technological development and the continuous changes in the labor
market are modifying both work methods and the work environment around the world. This
process of change leads to the appearance of new risks.

In this context, OSHA defines as "new and emerging risks" risks that did not previously exist
and that occur because of new processes, new technologies or new workplaces or social or
organizational changes.

As part of the development of a risk prevention culture, an OSHA committee integrated of

different experts has foreseen new emerging risks related to four main areas of occupational
health and safety: physical, chemical, biological and psychosocial.

The development of new technologies, production processes, changes in working conditions

and new forms of employment can create new emerging risks. The development of
nanotechnology, for example, generates new products and processes every day. Nanomaterials
are increasingly common in our daily lives and can be present in products ranging from health
care or biotechnology, to the production of clean energy.

Nanotechnology is also present in the chemical industry, the electronic and military industry,
and even in the agricultural sector and construction. Even though the development of this new
technology offers many advances and benefits, however, its current speed of development
means that, despite ongoing research, there are gaps in knowledge regarding occupational
health and safety.

On the other hand, the development of the biotechnology industry and its associated products
as well as new genetically modified organisms can give rise to new biological risks. In addition,
health, emergency and rescue workers, the agricultural sector or waste management may be
exposed to new infectious diseases, organisms resistant to antimicrobial drugs as well as other
potentially harmful substances such as animal wastes and endotoxins.

New working conditions (for example new models of adjusted production) can generate a
greater workload if ergonomic factors are not considered in its application. The intensification
of the workload and the deterioration of working conditions, in addition to labor migration and
economic instability, can cause new occupational health and safety risks.

The structure of the labor force is changing, for example, during the last decades the average
age of workers has been increasing progressively, in addition to the massive incorporation of
women into the labor market, among others. In addition, relatively new hiring formulas such
as temporary contracts, self-employment, subcontracting and outsourcing are very common
nowadays.

These new forms of hiring have a significant impact on working conditions, making work and
family reconciliation difficult in some cases. All these factors together with others, have led to
a significant increase in cases of work stress as well as other related psychological problems,
ailments that tend to be more frequent during economic crises.

Some emerging risk factors related to ergonomics have also been identified. An example of
this is the incorrect or excessively complex designs of human-computer interaction interfaces.
Conclusion

To sustain the blistering economic growth and for enhancing quality of life as a whole, OHS is
extremely important to emerging economies. However, there are many issues that need to be
overcome in the areas of awareness, education, training, corporate commitment and regulating
compliance. These challenges can be overcome by employing a combination of appropriate
Proactive as well as Reactive strategies. Unfortunately, some employers are barely concerned
with protecting the health and safety of workers and, in fact, there are employers who do not
even know that they have a moral, and often legal, responsibility to protect their workers.
Because of the risks and the lack of attention given to health and safety, accidents and
occupational diseases abound in all parts of the world. The challenge of providing a safe work
environment is best met with the development of an OHSP that provides a foundation for a
culture of safety and makes worker safety a central mission for all employees of an institution.
Inclusion of safety in the development of a new institution is generally easier than integration
of safety into long-established programs. There is always the concern that worker safety and
the attendant OHSP expenses will have adverse effects on finances and process efficiency.
Although economics will have an impact on any animal care and use program, cost alone must
not dictate the scope or relevance of the OHSP implemented at an institution. The simple trade-
off is that employee welfare and reduction in the loss of work time due to workplace injury
will improve employee satisfaction and performance. It is important for staff to know that
management is concerned about their welfare. It is worth noting the importance of raising
awareness among employees, companies, employers and trade unions, among other
organizations, of the constant evolution in occupational health and safety due to the continual
appearance of emerging risks due to the transformation of working conditions or new
technologies. Therefore, occupational health and safety management systems are vital to
prevent possible accidents or other effects in a constantly changing labor system. Finally, it is
also important to note that aging is also a challenge in OHS as for the employee becomes older
loses strength and most of time occupational diseases disables them, not letting to continue
developing some tasks, therefore is necessary to acquire furniture and equipment that adapts to
the needs of the employees, taking into account the necessary conditions to continue
developing the designated task.
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