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The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different

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multifarious origins of earthquakes:
Implications

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 Journal of Palaeogeography, 2017, 6(1): 12e44 (00111)

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Multi-origin of soft-sediment deformation structures and seismites

The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with

different types of breccias as seismites amid
the multifarious origins of earthquakes:
Implications
G. Shanmugam

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX
76019, USA

Abstract At present, there are no criteria to distinguish soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS)
formed by earthquakes from SSDS formed by the other 20 triggering mechanisms (see a companion paper in
Vol. 5, No. 4 of this journal by Shanmugam, 2016). Even if one believes that earthquakes are the true
triggering mechanism of SSDS in a given case, the story is still incomplete. This is because earthquakes
(seismic shocks) are induced by a variety of causes: 1) global tectonics and associated faults (i.e., mid-
ocean ridges, trenches, and transform faults); 2) meteorite-impact events; 3) volcanic eruptions; 4)
post-glacial uplift; 5) tsunami impact; 6) cyclonic impact; 7) landslides (mass-transport deposits); 8) tidal
activity; 9) sea-level rise; 10) erosion; and 11) fluid pumping. These different causes are important for
developing SSDS.
Breccias are an important group of SSDS. Although there are many types of breccias classified on the basis of
their origin, five types are discussed here (fault, volcanic, meteorite impact, sedimentary-depositional,
sedimentary-collapse). Although different breccia types may resemble each other, distinguishing one type
(e.g., meteorite breccias) from the other types (e.g., fault, volcanic, and sedimentary breccias) has important
implications. 1) Meteorite breccias are characterized by shock features (e.g., planar deformation features in
mineral grains, planar fractures, high-pressure polymorphs, shock melts, etc.), whereas sedimentary-
depositional breccias (e.g., debrites) do not. 2) Meteorite breccias imply a confined sediment distribution
in the vicinity of craters, whereas sedimentary-depositional breccias imply an unconfined sediment distribu-
tion, variable sediment transport, and variable sediment provenance. 3) Meteorite, volcanic, and fault
breccias are invariably subjected to diagenesis and hydrothermal mineralization with altered reservoir quality,
whereas sedimentary-depositional breccias exhibit primary (unaltered) reservoir quality. And finally, 4)
sedimentary-collapse breccias are associated with economic mineralization (e.g., uranium ore), whereas
sedimentary-depositional breccias are associated with petroleum reservoirs. Based on this important group of
SSDS with breccias, the current practice of interpreting all SSDS as “seismites” is inappropriate. Ending this
practice is necessary for enhancing conceptual clarity and for advancing this research domain.

E-mail address: shanshanmugam@aol.com.

Peer review under responsibility of China University of Petroleum (Beijing).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jop.2016.09.001
2095-3836/© 2016 China University of Petroleum (Beijing). Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Petroleum
(Beijing). This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 13

Keywords Breccias, Earthquakes, Faults, Global tectonics, Meteorite impacts, Seismites, Soft-sediment
deformation structures (SSDS)

© 2016 China University of Petroleum (Beijing). Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China
University of Petroleum (Beijing). This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Received 29 July 2016; accepted 7 September 2016; available online 15 November 2016

3) Volcanic eruptions (Moran et al., 2008).

1. Introduction 4) Post-glacial uplift (Fjeldskaar et al., 2000).
5) Tsunami impact (Tappin et al., 2001).
This article is a companion to my earlier paper 6) Cyclonic impact (Meng et al., 2013).
“The seismite problem” (Shanmugam, 2016). The 7) Landslides (Mass-transport deposits) (Pankow
purpose of the original paper was to explain that there et al., 2014).
are no objective criteria to recognize earthquakes as a 8) Tidal activity (Barruol et al., 2013).
unique triggering mechanism (among 20 others) of 9) Sea-level rise (Brothers et al., 2013).
soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS) (Fig. 1). 10) Erosion (Steer et al., 2014).
Even if one recognizes earthquakes as the mechanism 11) Fluid pumping (Zhang et al., 2013).
that contributed to the origin of SSDS, the geological
story is still incomplete. This is because earthquakes Given these alternatives, simply naming a deposit
are generated by a multitude of causes. Selected ex- as “seismites” without identifying the root cause of
amples are: seismic shock responsible for the deformation is
incomplete in understanding the geological origin of
1) Global tectonics (Kearey et al., 2009; Ruff, 1996). SSDS. An analogy in the field of clinical diagnosis
2) Meteorite-impact events (Collins et al., 2005). would be like a doctor of medicine diagnosing a

Fig. 1 Selected types of triggers, state of liquefaction, and soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS). There are 21 triggers and they are
all directly or indirectly responsible for sediment transport, deposition, and liquefaction. In reflecting published literature, earthquakes and
tectonic activity are listed as two different types. However, earthquakes and volcanism are an integral component of global tectonics (Kearey
et al., 2009). Note that both tectonic and non-tectonic triggers go through liquefaction in developing SSDS. Also note that earthquake is one
of many triggers that can develop SSDS. SSDS are not seismites. Thin blue arrows: One or more sediment transport processes with or without
flow transformations (Fisher, 1983). Thick gray arrow: Final deposition. See Shanmugam (2006a, 2006b, 2008a, 2008b, 2012a, 2013b, 2015,
2016) for discussion of examples of triggers shown here (Basilone et al., 2014, Beck, 2009, Boulton et al.,2001, Gradmann et al., 2012,
Malkawi and Alawneh, 2000, Obermeier et al., 2002, Scholz et al., 2011, Shanmugam, 2012b, Shanmugam, 2013a, Shanmugam et al.,
1988, Simms, 2003). Figure from Shanmugam (2016).
14 G. Shanmugam

patient with stomach pain as “stomach disease”,

without pinpointing the root cause as “gastric can-
cer”. Similarly, an in-depth understanding of the
origin of earthquakes is vital. Therefore, the primary
purpose of this paper is to provide a catalogue of
natural and anthropogenic phenomena responsible for
causing earthquakes. An equally important objective
is to explain the academic and economic implications
of recognizing the specific origin of breccias associ-
ated with SSDS. In accomplishing these two goals, I
relied mostly on empirical data on earthquakes,
meteorite impacts, and volcanoes gathered by the
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration (NASA), the National
Geophysical Data Center/World Data Service (NGDC/
WDS), and the Smithsonian Institution. All data used in
this article are already available in the public domain.
Relevant references on seismite research, totalling
268, have been included in the companion paper
(Shanmugam, 2016).
2. Earthquakes and faults
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS, 2016) defines
that “Earthquake is a term used to describe both sud-
den slip on a fault, and the resulting ground shaking
and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or by
volcanic or magmatic activity, or other sudden stress
changes in the Earth”. The term seismicity refers to the
frequency, intensity, and distribution of earthquakes in
a given area. Although both terms are used synony-
mously, seismicity has a time component.
The occurrence of earthquakes can be explained by
the elastic rebound theory (Fig. 2A), which was
developed after the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake
(Reid, 1910). Fig. 2B illustrates the distribution of
compressional and dilational P wave first motions
about an earthquake. According to Kearey et al.
(2009), the velocity equation for P and S waves is
that the P velocity is about 1.7 times greater than the S

Fig. 2 A − Elastic rebound mechanism showing earthquake (fault) generation (elastic rebound theory). (a) A block of rock traversed by a pre-
existing fracture (or fault) is being strained in such a way as eventually to cause relative motion along the plane of the fault. AB horizontal
line = Marker indicating the state of strain of the system. Broken vertical line = Location of the fault. (b) Relatively small amounts of strain can
be accommodated by the rock. (c) When the strain reaches the level at which it exceeds the frictional and cementing forces opposing
movement along the fault plane. (d) Finally, fault movement occurs instantaneously. Figure from Kearey et al. (2009); B − Distribution of
compressional and dilational P wave first motions about an earthquake. Figure from Kearey et al. (2009); C − Three types of basic faults along
which earthquakes are generated. Credit: USGS; colored version from Wikipedia.
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias
velocity in the same medium. Consequently, for an
identical travel path, P waves arrive before S waves.
Fig. 2C shows the three basic types of faults along
which earthquakes are generated. Faults represent
the main mechanical discontinuities within the elas-
ticebrittle Earth's upper crust. They accommodate
tectonic deformation by slipping, mostly during
earthquakes (Scholz, 1990). Sibson (1977) explained
the physical factors that affect the genesis of the
various fault rocks in terms of frictional properties,
temperature, effective stress normal to the fault and
differential stress. He explained their relations to the
energy budget of fault zones, the main velocity modes
of faulting, and the three types of faulting, which
include strike-slip, normal, and thrust (Fig. 2C). Allen
(1975) discussed practical difficulties of delineating
thrust faults in the field after an earthquake.
3. Multiple origins of earthquakes
3.1. Global tectonics
Earthquakes are an integral component of global
tectonics (Kearey et al., 2009). The underpinning
Fig. 3 A digital tectonic activity map of the Earth showing tectonism and volcanism during the past one million years. Note the distribution
of different types of faults (see Legend on the lower right corner of the map). Also note that earthquakes and volcanism are an integral
component of global tectonics. Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland 20771. Figure from Lowman et al. (1999).
15
tenet of global tectonics is that all aspects of tectonic
activity involve faulting and related earthquakes. A
digital tectonic activity map of the Earth shows the
occurrence of various types of faults along plate
boundaries (Fig. 3). Empirical data also show that
epicenters of earthquakes (Fig. 4) and volcanoes are
preferentially associated with plate boundaries. Both
divergent and convergent plate boundaries are sites of
frequent earthquakes.
In explaining the theory of plate tectonics, Isacks
et al. (1968) divided the lithosphere into three inter-
locking blocks or pates. Their boundaries are (Fig. 3):
1) Transform faults (Fig. 3).
2) Ocean ridges (Fig. 4).
3) Trenches (Fig. 5).
All three types are associated with faults and
earthquakes. For example, the National Geophysical
Data Center/World Data Service (NGDC/WDS , 2016)
has compiled information on destructive earthquakes
from 2150 B.C. to the present that have Magnitude 7.5
or greater. The mid-oceanic ridges (MOR) are one of
the longest active seismic belts where most of the
earthquake epicenters are located continuously within
16 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 4 Map showing locations of epicenters (358,214 events during 1963e1998) along plate boundaries. Credit: NASA, DTAM project team
(http://denali.gsfc.nasa.gov/dtam/seismic/).

Fig. 5 Cross-section of a subduction zone (trench) showing locations of seismicity (shaded areas). All plotted seismicity locations have had at
least one large earthquake (M > 7.5). Figure from Ruff (1996).
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias
a narrow axial zone (Rundquist and Sobolev, 2002).
According to Goslin et al. (2005), the seismicity of the
northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge was recorded by two hy-
drophone networks moored in the sound fixing and
ranging (SOFAR) channel, on the flanks of the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, north and south of the Azores. During
a period of operation (05/2002e09/2003), the north-
ern ‘SIRENA’ network, deployed between latitudes
40
200 N and 50
300 N, recorded acoustic signals gener-
ated by 809 earthquakes on the hotspot-influenced
Reykjanes Ridge. Tryggvason (1973) documented that
the seismicity of the Iceland region is concentrated
along the crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and in two
shear zones connecting the two ends of the eastern
volcanic zone in Iceland to the ridge crest on both sides
of Iceland (Fig. 6).
Ruff (1996, p. 91) states that “Subduction zones
generate most of the world's seismicity, and all of the
largest earthquakes”. A cross-section of a subduction
zone illustrates the close link between seismicity and
subduction (Fig. 5). Perhaps, the best known transform
fault is the San Andreas Fault, which extends roughly
1300 km through California (USA) and even northern
Mexico. It forms the tectonic boundary between the
Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and its
motion is right-lateral strike-slip. Examples of three
earthquakes associated with this fault system are:
1) 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake: January 9, 1857.
Magnitude: 7.9 Mw (Stover and Coffman, 1993).
Fig. 6 A − Distribution of volcanoes along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Iceland region. Credit: USGS; B − Distribution of earthquakes along
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Iceland region. Figure from Tryggvason (1973). Note that earthquakes and volcanism are an integral component
of global tectonics.
17
2) 1906 San Francisco earthquake: April 18, 1906.
Magnitude: 7.8 Mw (ASCE, 1907).
3) 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake: October 17, 1989.
Magnitude: 6.9 Mw (Stover and Coffman, 1993).
In addition, earthquakes are known to occur away
from plate boundaries, such as in Central Australia
(Fig. 7). Consequently, earthquakes are omnipresent.
3.2. Meteorite-impact events
The role of meteorite impact on sedimentation is a
taboo topic, particularly in petroleum exploration
(Shanmugam, 2012a). But meteorite impacts have
been well documented worldwide (Fig. 8). The top ten
meteorite-impact structures in the world are listed in
Table 1. In North America, meteorite impacts of
various ages have been documented (Fig. 9). The ki-
netic energy calculated for impactors varying from 4 m
to 1000 m in diameter is given in Table 2. The 1908
“Tunguska event” in Siberia is considered to be the
largest impact event on Earth in recorded history. Early
estimates of the energy of the air burst range from 10
to 15 megatons of TNT (Shoemaker, 1983). Schulte
et al. (2010) reviewed the geological significance of
the third largest Chicxulub asteroid impact at the K−Pg
boundary on the northern Yucatan, Mexico (Fig. 9).
This K−Pg event generated major mass movements not
only directly by the impact-induced seismic shock
(Bralower et al., 1998; Busby et al., 2002; Day and
18 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 7 World seismicity map. Earthquakes represented are (1) M5.51, 1900e2002, (2) M3.51, 1990e2008, US lower 48 and Hawaii, and (3)
M4.51, 1990e2009, Alaska. Credit: USGS (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/seismicity/). Accessed November 18, 2010.
Figure from Shanmugam (2012a), with permission from Elsevier. Copyright Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G. Shanmugam. License
Number: 3943960750294. License Date: September 7, 2016.

Maslin, 2005; Norris and Firth, 2002), but also by the
impact-triggered tsunamis (Claeys et al., 2002;
Shanmugam, 2012a; Smit et al., 1996). The kinetic
energy derived by the impact is estimated at
~5 × 1030 erg, which is equivalent to 108 Mt of TNT or a
Richter-magnitude 13 earthquake (Covey et al., 1994).
Therefore, seismic shocks associated with impacts are
indeed formidable. Indeed, the great magnitude of
extraterrestrial collisions were capable of causing
widespread extinctions worldwide (Becker, 2002).
3.3. Volcanic activity
Volcanic earthquakes are the direct result of the
movement of magma (Lahr et al., 1994). Volcanoes are
a major cause of earthquakes along modern (Fig. 10)
and ancient continental margins. The Smithsonian
Institution map reveals the importance of volcanoes
worldwide along plate boundaries and some conti-
nental margins (Fig. 10). The 1980 Mount St. Helens
eruption and the subsequent 2004 eruption have been
well documented by the U.S. Geological Survey (Moran
et al., 2008; Tilling et al., 1990).
Seismicity data, for example, were collected
from numerous stations located in the Mount St.
Helens seismic network when swarm began on
September 23, 2004 (Fig. 11). Empirical data show
that nearly every volcanic eruption is preceded by an
increase in seismicity (i.e., by an earthquake swarm)
(Waite et al., 2008). The origins of volcanic earth-
quake swarms are discussed by Roman and Cashman
(2006). Iceland is a region of not only volcanoes but
also earthquake swarms along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
(Fig. 6).
3.4. Glacial activity
Fjeldskaar et al. (2000) discussed the importance
of postglacial uplift, neotectonics, and related seis-
micity in Fennoscandia (Fig. 12).
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 19

Fig. 8 Frequency of small asteroids roughly 1e20 m in diameter impacting Earth's atmosphere. Credit: NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology (http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-397). Accessed July 19, 2016.

Table 1 Top ten impact structures in the world that include the Chicxulub (see Fig. 9) in Yucatan, Mexico. Data from PASSC (Planetary and
Space Science Centre), University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada (http://www.passc.net/EarthImpactDatabase/
NorthAmerica.html). Accessed April 5, 2011.
Rank Diameter Crater name Location Latitude Longitude Age (Ma)
km (mi)
1 300 (186) Vredefort South Africa S 27
000 E 27
300 2023 ± 4
2 250 (155) Sudbury Ontario, Canada N 46
360 W 81
110 1850 ± 3
3 170 (106) Chicxulub (Fig. 9) Yucatan, Mexico N 21
200 W 89
300 64.98 ± 0.05
4 100 (62) Popigai Russia N 71
390 E 111
110 35.7 ± 0.2
5 100 (62) Manicouagan Quebec, Canada N 51
230 W 68
420 214 ± 1
6 90 (56) Chesapeake Bay Virginia, U.S.A. N 37
170 W 76
010 35.5 ± 0.3
7 90 (56) Acraman South Australia S 32
010 E 135
270 ~590
8 80 (50) Puchezh-Katunki Russia N 56
580 E 43
430 167 ± 3
9 70 (43) Morokweng South Africa S 26
280 E 23
320 145.0 ± 0.8
10 65 (40) Kara Russia N 69
060 E 64
090 70.3 ± 2.2
km = kilometer, mi = mile; 1 km = 0.621 mi.

West et al. (2010) presented evidence for glacial
seismicity in Alaska (Fig. 13). They presented a
framework for interpreting small glacier seismic
events based on data collected near the center of
Bering Glacier, Alaska, in the spring 2007. They
found that extremely high microseismicity rates (as
many as tens of events per minute) occurred largely
within a few kilometers of the receivers. A high-
frequency class of seismicity was distinguished by
dominant frequencies of 20e35 Hz and by impulsive
arrivals.
3.5. Tsunami impact
Tsunamis are oceanographic phenomena that
represent a water wave or series of waves, with long
wavelengths and long periods, caused by an impulsive
vertical displacement of the body of water by earth-
quakes, landslides, volcanic explosions or extrater-
restrial (meteorite) impacts. Earthquakes commonly
generate tsunamis through the transfer of the large-
scale elastic deformation associated with ruptures to
20 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 9 Map showing sites of meteorite impacts in North America, including the Chicxulub (K−Pg) in the Yucatan Peninsula. Credit: PASSC
(Planetary and Space Science Centre), University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada (http://www.passc.net/
EarthImpactDatabase/NorthAmerica.html). Accessed April 5, 2011. Figure from Shanmugam (2012a), with permission from Elsevier. Copy-
right Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G. Shanmugam. License Number: 3943960750294. License Date: September 7, 2016.

potential energy within the water column (Geist,
2005). Aspects of tsunamis are discussed by
Shanmugam (2008b).
On July 17, 1998, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake
generated a series of catastrophic tsunami waves that
hit the north coast of Papua New Guinea. Tappin et al.
(2001) attributed this tsunami to submarine slumps.
Tsunamis generated submarine slumps, which in turn
triggered tsunamis. The importance here is that large-
scale mass movements are closely associated with
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 21

Table 2 d Properties of impact events with varying diameters of impactors (stony asteroids). From Marcus et al. (2010). See also Collins
et al. (2005). All based on density of 2600 kg/m3, speed of 17 km/s, and an impact angle of 45
. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Impact_event. Accessed July 25, 2016.
Impactor Kinetic energy at atmospheric entry Kinetic energy at airburst Airburst altitude Average frequency (years)
diameter
4 m (13 ft) 3 kt 0.75 kt 42.5 km (139,000 ft) 1.3
7 m (23 ft) 16 kt 5 kt 36.3 km (119,000 ft) 4.6
10 m (33 ft) 47 kt 19 kt 31.9 km (105,000 ft) 10
15 m (49 ft) 159 kt 82 kt 26.4 km (87,000 ft) 27
20 m (66 ft) 376 kt 230 kt 22.4 km (73,000 ft) 60
30 m (98 ft) 1.3 Mt 930 kt 16.5 km (54,000 ft) 185
50 m (160 ft) 5.9 Mt 5.2 Mt 8.7 km (29,000 ft) 764
70 m (230 ft) 16 Mt 15.2 Mt 3.6 km (12,000 ft) 1900
85 m (279 ft) 29 Mt 28 Mt 0.58 km (1900 ft) 3300
100 m (330 ft) 47 Mt 3.8 Mt 1.2 km (0.75 mi) 5200
130 m (430 ft) 103 Mt 31.4 Mt 2 km (1.2 mi) 11,000
150 m (490 ft) 159 Mt 71.5 Mt 2.4 km (1.5 mi) 16,000
200 m (660 ft) 376 Mt 261 Mt 3 km (1.9 mi) 36,000
250 m (820 ft) 734 Mt 598 Mt 3.8 km (2.4 mi) 59,000
300 m (980 ft) 1270 Mt 1110 Mt 4.6 km (2.9 mi) 73,000
400 m (1300 ft) 3010 Mt 2800 Mt 6 km (3.7 mi) 100,000
700 m (2300 ft) 16,100 Mt 15,700 Mt 10 km (6.2 mi) 190,000
1000 m (3300 ft) 47,000 Mt 46,300 Mt 13.6 km (8.5 mi) 440,000
km = kilometer, m = meter, mi = mile, ft = foot; 1 km = 0.621 mi; 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

Fig. 10 Map showing volcanoes of the world. Large red triangles show volcanoes with known or inferred Holocene eruptions; small red
triangles mark volcanoes with possible, but uncertain Holocene eruptions or Pleistocene volcanoes with major thermal activity. Data on
Global Volcanism: 1968e2002 (Venzke et al., 2002). Credit: Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program (http://www.volcano.si.edu/
world/find_regions.cfm). Accessed November 18, 2010. Figure from Shanmugam (2012a), with permission from Elsevier. Copyright Clearance
Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G. Shanmugam. License Number: 3943960750294. License Date: September 7, 2016.
22 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 11 A − Photograph showing Mount St. Helens lava dome. Originally published as the cover photo of the U.S. Geological Survey Pro-
fessional Paper 1750 (Moran et al., 2008); B − Location of stations in Mount St. Helens seismic network. Black triangles correspond to Pacific
Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN) stations in place when swarm began on September 23, 2004; and red triangles correspond to stations
installed after eruption began. Inset map shows crater stations superimposed on digital elevation model from April 19, 2005. Most crater
stations were added after start of 2004 eruption. Many newly added stations operated for short periods; at most, six crater stations were
operational at any one time.

seismicity (Pankow et al., 2014; Parsons et al., 2014;
Tappin et al., 2014). As noted earlier, the Chicxulub
asteroid impact at the K−Pg boundary on northern
Yucatan, Mexico (Fig. 9) had generated not only major
mass movements directly by the impact-induced
seismic shock (Bralower et al., 1998; Busby et al.,
2002; Day and Maslin, 2005; Norris and Firth, 2002),
but also by the impact-triggered tsunamis (Claeys
et al., 2002; Smit et al., 1996).
3.6. Cyclonic impact
Tropical cyclones are meteorological phenomena.
Structurally, tropical cyclones are large, rotating sys-
tems of clouds, winds, and thunderstorms. In the
Northern Hemisphere the rotation is counterclock-
wise, but in the Southern Hemisphere the rotation is
clockwise due to the Coriolis force. The destructive
power of cyclones was discussed by Shanmugam
(2008b). Meng et al. (2013) reported that a statisti-
cally significant increase of seismicity rate was found
when Hurricane Irene (August 2011) passed by the
epicentral region, located in Louisa County, Virginia,
where an Mw 5.8 earthquake struck in 2011. Meng et al.
(2013) offered a possible explanation for the increase
in seismicity: The atmosphere pressure drop unloaded
the surface, which brought the reverse faults closer to
failure.
3.7. Landslides (mass-transport deposits)
Landslides represent mass-transport deposits
(MTD) (Shanmugam, 2015). Although it is well docu-
mented that earthquakes invariably cause faulting and
related MTD, MTD can also trigger earthquakes. One of
the best documented case studies is by Pankow et al.
(2014) in Utah (Fig. 14). Pankow et al. (2014) sum-
marized the results as follows:
“On the evening of 10 April 2013, a massive land-
slide occurred at the Bingham Canyon copper mine
near Salt Lake City, Utah, USA. The northeastern
wall of the 970-m-deep pit collapsed in two distinct
episodes that were each sudden, lasting ~90 s, but
separated in time by ~1.5 h. In total, ~65 million
cubic meters of material was deposited, making the
cumulative event likely the largest non-volcanic
landslide to have occurred in North America in
modern times. Fortunately, there were no fatalities
or injuries. Because of extensive geotechnical
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 23

Fig. 12 Earthquakes in Fennoscandia during different periods of observation. Figure from Fjeldskaar et al. (2000), with permission from
Pergamon Press (Elsevier). Copyright Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G. Shanmugam. License Number: 3943820304821. License
Date: September 7, 2016.

surveillance, mine operators were aware of the
instability and had previously evacuated the area.
The Bingham Canyon mine is located within a dense
regional network of seismometers and infrasound
sensors, making the 10 April landslide one of the
best recorded in history. Seismograms show a
complex mixture of short- and long-period energy
that is visible throughout the network (6e400 km).
Local magnitudes (ML) for the two slides, which are
based on the amplitudes of short-period waves,
were estimated at 2.5 and 2.4, while magnitudes
based on the duration of seismic energy (Md) were
much larger (>3.5). This magnitude discrepancy,
and in particular the relative enhancement of long-
24 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 13 Left: Map of lower Bering Glacier experiment overlain on Landsat imagery. Triangles mark locations of seismic stations. Right:
Seismic event classes from Bering Glacier and Augustine Volcano. A − Sample waveforms from Bering Glacier. Dominant frequencies are shown
along left side; B − Sample waveforms from Augustine Volcano; C − Distribution of dominant frequencies at Bering Glacier; D − Distribution of
dominant frequencies at Augustine Volcano. Figure from West et al. (2010).

period energy, is characteristic of landslide seismic
sources. Interestingly, in the six days following the
landslide, 16 additional seismic events were
detected and located in the mine area. Seismo-
grams for these events have impulsive arrival
characteristics of tectonic earthquakes. Hence, it
appears that in this case the common geological
sequence of events was inverted: Instead of a large
earthquake triggering landslides, it was a landslide
that triggered several small earthquakes”. Details
are illustrated in Fig. 14.
3.8. Tidal activity
Barruol et al. (2013) through deployment of a
seismic network along the Ade
lie and George V coasts
in East Antarctica during the period 2009e2012 pro-
vided the opportunity to monitor cryoseismic activity
and to obtain new insights on the relationship between
tidal cycles and coastal glacier dynamics. They re-
ported numerous icequakes (50,000 events within 10
months; and can be up to 100 events/hour) and a clear
tidal modulation. Barruol et al. (2013) suggested that
they result from ice friction and fracturing around the
rocky peak and from the glacier flexure in response to
the falling and rising tides at its grounding area.
Tidal forces themselves are powerful enough to
cause SSDS. For example, in a convincing case study
advocating an alternative tidal origin to seismic
origin of SSDS, Greb and Archer (2007, p. 435)
summarized that “Turnagain Arm is a semidiurnal
hypertidal estuary in southeastern Alaska with a
recorded tidal range of 9 m. Contorted bedding and
flow rolls preserved in tidal sediments within the
estuary have previously been interpreted as resulting
from the Mw 9.2 Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964.
Horizons of flow rolls between undeformed beds in
sediments and rock strata have been used to infer
ancient earthquakes in other areas. Although many
types of soft-sediment deformation structures can be
formed by earthquakes, observations of sedimenta-
tion on tidal flats in the inner parts of Turnagain Arm
in the summers of 2003 and 2004 show that a wide
range of soft-sediment deformation structures,
similar to those inferred to have been formed by
earthquakes, can form in macrotidal estuaries in the
absence of seismic shock. During sedimentation rate
measurements in 2004, soft sediment deformation
structures were recorded that formed during one
day's tide, either in response to overpressurization of
tidal flats during rapid tidal drawdown or by shear
stress exerted on the bed by the passage of a 1.8 m
tidal bore. Structures consisted of flow rolls, dish
structures, flames, and small dewatering pipes in a
bed 17 cm thick. In the future, if the flow rolls in
Turnagain Arm were found in isolated outcrops across
an area 11 km in length, in an estuary known to have
been influenced by large-magnitude earthquakes,
would they be interpreted as seismites? These ex-
amples show that caution is needed when using ho-
rizons of flow rolls to infer paleoseismicity in
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 25

Fig. 14 Landslide-triggered earthquakes in Utah on April 11, 2013. A − Index map of the United States showing the state of Utah; Credit:
Wikipedia; B − University of Utah seismic and infrasound network, and location of the Bingham Canyon mine; C − Photograph of the 11 April
2013 rock avalanche (copyright Kennecott Utah Copper, used with permission). Elevation of the crest and toe of the slide are shown, as well as
an estimate of the runout distance along the arcuate travel path. A group of large haul trucks damaged by the slide can be seen at lower left;
D − Seismic and acoustic waveforms recorded at NOQ (13 km from slide), the closest broadband seismic station. Seismic traces are vertical
component-velocity in different frequency bands (broadband, high-passed at 1 Hz, low-passed at 0.1 Hz); acoustic traces are infrasonic beams
steered toward the mine in a pass band of 0.5e5.0 Hz. Gray-shaded boxes indicate time period with coherent signal originating from the
mine. Amplitude scales are consistent for each pass band (i.e., they are consistent across each row). B, C, and D from Pankow et al. (2014).
Credit for B, C, and D: GSA.

estuarine deposits because many of the mechanisms 3.9. Sea-level rise

(tidal flux, tidal bores, slumping, flooding) that can
cause deformation in rapidly deposited, unconsoli-
dated silts and sands, are orders of magnitude more
common than great earthquakes”. Other studies also
attributed the origin of SSDS to tidal processes
(Tessier and Terwindt, 1994).
Brothers et al. (2013, p. 979) investigated the
causal relationships between rapid sea-level rise,
flexural stress loading, and increased seismicity rates
along passive margins (Fig. 15). They found that
Coulomb failure stress across fault systems of passive
26 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 15 Conceptual models for flexural loading of continental margin following rapid eustatic sea-level rise. A − Margin configuration prior to
sea-level rise; B − Configuration following rapid sea-level rise. Added loading of water on shelf induces flexural bending stresses on underlying
elastic plate (red arrows represent compression; blue arrows represent tension). Figure from Brothers et al. (2013).

continental margins may have increased more than

1 MPa during rapid late Pleistoceneeearly Holocene
sea-level rise, an amount sufficient to trigger fault
reactivation and rupture. These results suggest that
sea-levelemodulated seismicity may have contributed
to a number of poorly understood but widely observed
phenomena. These phenomena include 1) increased
frequency of large-scale submarine landslides during
rapid, late Pleistocene sea-level rise; 2) emplacement
of coarse-grained mass-transport deposits on deep-sea
fans during the early stages of marine transgression;
and 3) the unroofing and release of methane gas
sequestered in continental slope sediments.

3.10. Erosion

Conventionally, deep tectonic processes over a

seismic cycle are considered as the only persistent
mechanism driving the stress loading of active faults.
However, Steer et al. (2014) showed via a mechanical
model (Fig. 16) that at the timescale of a seismic
cycle, erosion also significantly influences the stress
loading of thrust faults. The authors have shown that
erosion rates of about ~0.1e20 mm/year, as docu-
mented in Taiwan, China, can raise the Coulomb stress
by ~0.1e10 bar on nearby thrust faults over the inter-
seismic phase. Such stresses are probably sufficient to
trigger shallow seismicity or promote rupture of deep
continental earthquakes up to the surface.
3.11. Fluid pumping
Zhang et al. (2013) presented a case study in which
earthquakes were induced by fluid pumping. In this
study, a series of Mb 3.8e5.5 induced seismic events in
the midcontinent region, United States, resulted from
Fig. 16 Mechanism of Coulomb stress loading of a thrust fault by
surface erosion. Distribution of stress increment Ds (here purely
illustrative) induced by a punctual erosion at the surface, increasing
both the tangential Dt (driving effect) and the normal stresses Dsn
(unclamping effect). Figure from Steer et al. (2014).
injection of fluid either into a basal sedimentary
reservoir with no underlying confining unit or directly
into the underlying crystalline basement complex. The
authors speculated that the earthquakes probably
occurred along faults that were likely critically
stressed within the crystalline basement. These faults
were located at a considerable distance (up to 10 km)
from the injection wells.
Another example is the Three Gorges Project in
China where earthquakes are generated by the reser-
voir (Yao et al., 2013). Although human-induced
earthquakes are included here for completeness, they
are irrelevant for interpreting ancient rock record.
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 27

Helwig, 1970; Kirkland and Anderson, 1970; Logan,

4. Origins of breccias and their
implications
4.1. Types of breccias
Breccias are broken angular fragments of minerals
and rocks that comprise an important kind of SSDS. There
are many types of breccias based on their genesis, which
include 1) frictional wear in fault zones (Sibson, 1986), 2)
sediment transport and deposition (Shanmugam, 2012a),
3) sediment loading (Shanmugam, 2016), 4) sediment
collapse due to dissolution (Friedman, 1997), 5) volca-
nic/pyroclastic activity (Fisher, 1984), 6) meteorite
impact (Bischoff et al., 2006), and 7) hydrothermal ac-

brak, 1997). In this review, five important types
tivity (Je
(fault, volcanic, meteorite impact, sedimentary-
depositional, and sedimentary-collapse) are considered.
The origin of SSDS has been a challenge ever since
they were recognized (Allen, 1984; Collinson, 1994;
1863; Maltman, 1984, 1994). Obermeier et al.
(2005) discussed the importance of liquefaction-
induced SSDS created by earthquakes. Such SSDS
include angular clasts or breccias (Fig. 17). Although
seismic shear waves are considered to be the com-
mon cause of liquefaction and related deformation
(Greene et al., 1994), Holzer and Youd (2007) re-
ported that excess pore-water pressure and lique-
faction at the Wildlife Liquefaction Array (California)
in 1987 were caused by deformation associated with
both high-frequency strong ground motion and 5.5-s-
period Love waves. However, not all breccias are
formed by earthquakes (e.g., sedimentary breccia
deposited by debris flows; breccias caused by
solution-collapse, etc.). Importantly, not all earth-
quakes are formed by a single cause (e.g., tectonic
versus meteorite-impact events). The following dis-
cussion and case studies illustrate the challenges and
implications associated with interpreting five types

Fig. 17 Schematic section showing the occurrence of seismic-liquefaction induced SSDS. This scenario is applicable to both subaerial and
submarine environments that are subjected to seismic shaking. Note angular mud clasts or breccias in sand injections. Originally from
Obermeier et al. (2005). Figure from Shanmugam (2012a), with permission from Elsevier. Copyright Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee:
G. Shanmugam. License Number: 3943960297024. License Date: September 7, 2016.
28 G. Shanmugam

of breccias. Although, these breccias may appear
similar, there are distinct differences.
4.2. Fault breccias
This is the most common type associated with
tectonic earthquakes, and thus it is often called tec-
tonic breccias. Other synonyms are earthquake brec-
cias (Rowe et al., 2013) and dilational fault breccias
(Melosh et al., 2014). Woodcock et al. (2014) recog-
nized different types of breccias along fault zones in
South Wales (Fig. 18) based on the degree of disag-
gregation of the protolith, and on the percentage of
large (>2 mm) clasts in the overall rock volume.
These types are:
1) Mosaic breccias (Fig. 19A).
2) Chaotic breccias (Fig. 19B).
3) Crackle breccias (Fig. 19A and C).
4) Megabreccias with very large clasts (>1 m in diam-
eter) (Fig. 19A).
Based on the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program
(IODP) Expedition 316 cores in the Nankai Trough
Seismogenic Zone (Japan), Sakaguchi et al. (2011)
studied the origin of earthquake-induced mud brec-
cias along subduction zones. An important type of
earthquake-induced SSDS is “intraclast breccia layers”
formed by tectonic faults in the Dead Sea Basin (Agnon
et al., 2006). In fact, Seilacher (1969) first used the
fault-graded beds as the basis for introducing the ge-
netic term “seismites”.
Sibson (1986) discussed brecciation processes in
fault zones as well as associated hydrothermal miner-
alization. Processes commonly associated with fault
zones are:
1) Brecciation, microcracking, creation of new void
spaces (porosity) and dilatancy (Sibson, 1986;
Woodcock et al., 2014).
2) Cataclasis and the generation of fault gouge
(Engelder, 1974; Sibson, 1977).
3) Hydrothermal mineralization (Sibson, 1986).

Fig. 18 A − Geological map of the Pembrokeshire Peninsula, southwest Wales, United Kingdom, with 30 breccia localities associated with
faults; B − Location and geological context of main map. Figure from Woodcock et al. (2014), with permission from Elsevier. Copyright
Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G. Shanmugam. License Number: 3943690558071. License Date: September 7, 2016.
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 29

Fig. 19 A − Outcrop photograph showing breccia zones related to vertical cross faults at Flimston Bay (locality 1, Fig. 18). Photo by Sid
Howells; B − An example of chaotic breccia at Bullslaughter east (locality 3, Fig. 18); C − An example of crackle breccia at Proud Giltar
(locality 17, Fig. 18). All three figures are from Woodcock et al. (2014), with permission from Elsevier. Copyright Clearance Center's Right-
sLink: Licensee: G. Shanmugam. License Number: 3943690558071. License Date: September 7, 2016.

4) Smearing of clays and creation of fault seals (Caine
et al., 1996; Egholm et al., 2008).
5) Fault sealing and fluid flow in hydrocarbon reser-
voirs (Knipe et al., 1998).
6) Cementation and reduction of porosity (Minor and
Hudson, 2006).
In a detailed field study of chaotic breccia zones
on the Pembroke Peninsula of South Wales (Fig. 18),
Woodcock et al. (2014) documented evidence for
collapse into voids along dilational faults. They have
mapped faults and classified breccia types using 30
localities (Fig. 18). Chaotic breccias and mega-
breccias (Fig. 19A) hosted within the Pembroke
Limestone Group (Visean, Mississippian, Lower
Carboniferous) of southwest Wales are re-mapped
along with spatially-related crackle and mosaic
breccias (Fig. 19B). Of thirteen studied megabreccia
bodies, seven lie along steep, NNW- or NNE-striking
strike-slip faults originating during North−South
Variscan (Late Carboniferous) shortening (Fig. 20A),
though reactivated during later extension. Four
bodies are conformable with EeW striking, steeply-
dipping bedding, and two have irregular or indeter-
minate margins. The bedding parallel zones are
interpreted as the dilational tips of listric normal
faults, and the cross-strike faults as transtensional
transfer zones. Sub-horizontal clast fabrics suggest
brecciation by gravitational collapse into opening
fissures rather than by cataclasis along the faults. The
importance of this case study is that various authors
have offered different mechanisms to explain the
origin of breccias in South Wales (Fig. 20B):
1) Dixon (1921) proposed karstic solution of limestone,
producing large voids into which wall and roof rocks
progressively collapsed (Fig. 20Ba).
2) Hancock (1964) and Thomas (1970) proposed for-
mation by tectonic fragmentation along faults
(Fig. 20Bb).
3) Woodcock et al. (2006) attributed megabreccia
along the Dent Fault, Northwest England, to
collapse of voids produced by dilational fault
displacement (Fig. 20Bc).
4) Walsh et al. (2008) concluded that the mega-
breccias were formed by more than one mecha-
nism, and suggested a phreatic explosion due to
upward escape of thermally-driven superheated
fluids (Fig. 20Bd). This type could also be classified
as volcanic breccias.
30 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 20 A − (a) Diagrammatic map of folds and conjugate strike−slip faults formed by north−south Variscan shortening; (b) Map of postulated
post-Variscan north−south extensional reactivation of Variscan faults and steepened bedding; (c) Cross-section across a dilational normal fault
that steepens to parallel bedding at shallow depths; B − Schematic diagram of four types of breccia formation mechanisms (see text for
details). Breccia types are labeled in this article. Both figures are from Woodcock et al. (2014), with permission from Elsevier. Copyright
Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G. Shanmugam. License Number: 3943690558071. License Date: September 7, 2016.

4.3. Volcanic breccias composed of broken, angular, pyroclastic fragments, is

common in both subaerial (Fig. 21) (Fisher, 1984) and
Volcanic breccias represent not only those that submarine (Head and Wilson, 2003) environments.
occur within the central vent but also that accumulate
from pyroclastic debris flows or lahar on the flanks of a
4.4. Meteorite breccias
volcano. Fisher (1960) classified volcanic breccias into
three major categories based on process of
Meteorite breccias (also known as impact breccias)
fragmentation:
are diagnostic of an impact event such as an asteroid or
comet striking the Earth. Breccias of this type may be
1) Autoclastic breccias.
present on or beneath the floor of the crater, on the rim,
2) Pyroclastic breccias (Fig. 21).
or in the ejecta expelled beyond the crater. Bischoff
3) Epiclastic breccias.
et al. (2006) discussed the nature and origins of mete-
orite breccias. They have described nine types, namely:
Autoclastic volcanic breccias result from internal
processes acting during movement of semisolid or solid
lava; they include flow breccia and intrusion breccia. 1) Primitive, accretionary.
Pyroclastic breccias are produced by volcanic explo- 2) Genomict breccias.
sion and include vulcanian breccia, pyroclastic flow 3) Regolith breccias.
breccia, and hydrovolcanic breccia. Epiclastic volcanic 4) Fragmental breccias.
breccias result from transportation of loose volcanic 5) Impact melt breccias (Fig. 22).
material by epigene geomorphic agents, or by gravity, 6) Granulitic breccias.
and include laharic breccia, water-laid volcanic 7) Polymict breccias.
breccia, and volcanic talus breccia. Other volcanic 8) Monomict breccias.
breccia terms are discussed. The pyroclastic type, 9) Dimict breccias.
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 31

Fig. 21 A − Photograph of Mount St. Helens. Plumes of steam, gas, and ash often occurred at in the early 1980s. Photo by Lyn Topinka. Credit:
Wikipedia; B − Angular pumice blocks near the front of a volcanic debris flow associated with the eruption of the Mount St. Helens on May 18,
1980. This type of deposits is qualified to be classified both as “volcanic breccia” and as “sedimentary−depositional breccia”. Photo by T.A.
Leighley. Credit: USGS (http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/cgi-bin/show_picture.cgi?ID=ID.CVO-F.73ct&SIZE=large), October 17, 1980. Accessed
February 27, 2011. Figure from Shanmugam (2012a), with permission from Elsevier. Copyright Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G.
Shanmugam. License Number: 3950801388442. License Date: September 16, 2016.

Cantarell Oil Field, Mexico: In a rare case study,

Fig. 22 An example of meteorite breccia. Typical texture of an
impact melt clast within an R chondrite. From Bischoff et al. (2006).
See also Bischoff (2000). Credit: University of Arizona Press.
Characteristics of meteorite breccias are discussed
using case studies below. Although limited in number,
the following case studies are useful for understanding
meteorite breccias.
Chicxulub Impact Crater, Yucatan, Mexico (Fig. 23):
An ideal impact breccia sequence with six divisions
(Fig. 24) has been described by Velasco−Villareal et al.
(2011).
Grajales−Nishimura et al. (2000) attributed the origin
of oil-producing (1.3 million barrels per day)
carbonate-breccia reservoir facies in the Cantarell Oil
Field in Mexico to major slumping, caused by the
Chicxulub impact (K−Pg Boundary) and related tsu-
namis. The lower oil-producing breccia unit is nearly
300 m (984 ft) in thickness (Grajales−Nishimura et al.,
2000, their Fig. 2A). It exhibits secondary vuggy
porosity due to dissolution. Its average porosity varies
from 8% to 12% and its permeability is commonly in the
range of 3000−5000 mD. This is the only reported
petroleum-producing reservoir associated with the
Chicxulub event.
Alamo Event, Devonian, Nevada: The Alamo Event
produced diagnostic megabreccias (Fig. 25). Pinto and
Warme (2008) established a crater stratigraphy with
five breccia units that characterize the Rim Realm, in
ascending order: 1) deformed target rocks, 2) injected
dikes and sills, 3) chaotic fallback, 4) smeared fall-
back, and 5) resurge.
Ka€rdla Crater, NW Estonia: Kleesment et al. (2006)
discussed impact-induced features in five boreholes
drilled around the Ka €rdla impact meteorite structure
where breccias are common. Quartz grains with planar
32 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 23 Location of drill boreholes in the Chicxulub Impact Crater showing the position of Yaxcopoil-1 borehole in the southern sector of the
crater. Figure from Velasco-Villareal et al. (2011), with permission from Elsevier. Copyright Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G.
Shanmugam. License Number: 3943800650414. License Date: September 7, 2016.

deformation features and planar fractures, as well as
cracked grains showing lowered crystallinity by X-ray
diffractometry, were recorded.
Meteorite Impact Site (Late Cambrian−Early Ordo-
vician), Permian Basin, Texas: Malone (2015) suggested
a meteorite impact crater involving shattered base-
ment rock and ejecta, which is positioned ideally for
its petroleum potential.
Haughton impact structure, Devon Island, Cana-
dian Arctic: According to Osinski et al. (2005), a
moderate- to low-temperature hydrothermal system
was generated at Haughton by the interaction of
groundwaters with the hot impact melt breccias that
filled the interior of the crater (Fig. 26). Four distinct
settings and styles of hydrothermal mineralization are
recognized at Haughton: 1) vugs and veins within the
impact melt breccias, with an increase in intensity of
alteration towards the base; 2) cementation of brec-
ciated lithologies in the interior of the central uplift;
3) intense veining around the heavily faulted
and fractured outer margin of the central uplift;
and 4) hydrothermal pipe structures or gossans and
mineralization along fault surfaces around the faulted
crater rim. Each setting is associated with a different
suite of hydrothermal minerals deposited at different
stages in the development of the hydrothermal
system.
Moon and other planetary bodies: Meyer (2003)
compiled an excellent collection of samples of lunar
breccias. These breccias are the lithified aggregates of
clastic debris and melt generated by meteorite
bombardment of the lunar surface. Most of the brec-
cias returned by the Apollo missions were formed in
the ancient lunar highlands about 3900e4000 million
years ago. Meyer (2003) also illustrated the geologic
setting of craters (Fig. 27A) and proposed an inverse
stratigraphy on the crater rim (Fig. 27B).
4.5. Sedimentary breccias
There are many types of sedimentary breccias,
namely:
1) Depositional breccias in subaerial environments
(e.g., alluvial fans; McPherson et al., 1987); brec-
cias associated with lahars can be classified both as
volcanic breccias and as sedimentary breccias
(Fig. 21).
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 33

Fig. 24 Impact breccia sequence, composed of six parts, in the Yaxcopoil-1 borehole. See Stoeffler et al. (2004) for original core photo-
graphs. Figure from Velasco-Villareal et al. (2011), with permission from Elsevier. Copyright Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G.
Shanmugam. License Number: 3943800650414. License Date: September 7, 2016.

2) Depositional breccias in marginal-marine environ- 2016). In this review, sedimentary-depositional and

ments (e.g., fan deltas and braid deltas; McPherson
et al., 1987) (Fig. 28).
3) Depositional breccias in deep-marine environments
(Shanmugam, 2012a) (Fig. 29).
4) Post-depositional breccias (Shanmugam, 2016).
5) Non-depositional breccias (Blount and Moore,
1969).
6) Karst-related collapse breccias in caves (Friedman,
1997; Loucks, 2001). Synonyms for collapse brec-
cias are solution or dissolution breccias, karst
breccias, and cave breccias.
A common type of sedimentary breccia is the one
associated with mass-transport deposits (MTD), such as
debris flows in subaerial (Fig. 21), marginal-marine
(Fig. 28), and deep-marine environments (Fig. 29)
(Shanmugam, 2012a). Furthermore, sedimentary brec-
cias can be grouped into two other types: 1) deposi-
tional (i.e., breccias formed during deposition), and 2)
post-depositional (i.e., breccias formed after deposi-
tion during burial and sediment loading) (Shanmugam,
sedimentary-collapse types are considered.
In South China near Guilin, for example, some of
the best developed karst topography with tower karsts
and large caves are evident (Shanmugam, 1990;
Sweeting, 1978; Williams, 1978). Inside these modern
caves, a combination of factors, such as dissolution of
carbonate rocks and fracturing, have led to accumu-
lation of collapse breccias on the floor of the caves
(Fig. 30). Paleocave breccia types are discussed by
Loucks (2001) and by Loucks and Mescher (2001)
(Fig. 31). The economic importance of collapse brec-
cias associated with uranium deposits in pipes is dis-
cussed by Finch (1992) (Fig. 32). The Orphan lode
mine, located within the Grand Canyon National Park
in Arizona (USA), produced 4.6 million pounds of Tri-
uranium octoxide (U3O8) with an average grade of
0.42% of U3O8 from a mineralized, collapse-breccia
pipe during 1956e1969 (Chenoweth, 1986).
Typical diameter of a solution pipe with uranium
ore is about 100 m (Fig. 32). Wenrich and Titley (2008)
proposed a genetic model in which uranium
34 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 25 A − Stratigraphic column showing traditional divisions of Alamo Breccia (Devonian) with megabreccia. Figure from Warme and
Morrow (2009); B − Study area in Nevada (USA) showing towns (squares), Devonian localities (x's), and lateral distribution zones of Alamo
Breccia. Breccia thicknesses: Zone 1, ~130 m; Zone 2, ~60 m; Zone 3, <1e10 m. Figure from Warme and Sandberg (1996); C − Outcrop
photograph showing disintegrating clast in Alamo Breccia. Figure from Warme and Morrow (2009).

Fig. 26 A schematic cross-section showing the nature of the hydrothermal system shortly after the Haughton impact event. Figure from
Osinski et al. (2005).

mineralization is attributed to the Mississippi Valley
Type (MVT) deposits, with a uranium overprint. Char-
acteristics of MVT deposits were discussed by Leach
et al. (2010). Important properties are that:
1) They are epigenetic.
2) They are not associated with igneous activity.
3) They are hosted mainly by dolostone and limestone.
4) The dominant minerals are sphalerite ((Zn,Fe)S),
galena (PbS), pyrite (FeS2), and marcasite (FeS2).
5) They occur in platform carbonate sequences.
6) The ore fluids were basinal brines with ~10e30 wt.
percent salts.
7) They have crustal sources for metals and sulfur.
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 35

Fig. 27 A − Geological setting of impact breccias in a giant impact crater; B − The material that is thrown out of the crater is deposited in a
reverse stratigraphy (shown by numbers 1, 2, and 3) on the rim of the crater. Both figures are from Meyer (2003). Credit: NASA.

Fig. 28 Sedimentary−depositional breccia showing inverse grading (arrow), suggesting deposition from debris flows. There is an abun-
dance of blueschist and other metamorphic clasts. This stratum has been interpreted as fan−delta deposits (Stuart, 1979). San Onofre
Breccia, Miocene, Dana Point, California. Red scale (center of photo) = 15 cm. Figure from Shanmugam (2012a), with permission from
Elsevier. Copyright Clearance Center's RightsLink: Licensee: G. Shanmugam. License Number: 3950801388442. License Date: September
16, 2016.
36
Fig. 29 An example of sedimentary−depositional breccia: Pliocene reservoir sands in upper-slope canyon environments, offshore Krish-
na−Godavari (KG) Basin, India. A − Sedimentological log of core 7 for the interval 2115e2121 m in well 3 showing massive sand with floating
brecciated mudstone clasts; B − Lithofacies 1 core photograph showing brecciated mudstone clasts. Arrow shows stratigraphic position of
photograph. Figure from Shanmugam et al., (2009). Credit: SEPM.
Fig. 30 Development of large caves in the Devonian−Upper
Carboniferous carbonates as part of karst topography near Guilin,
along the banks of Li River, Southern China. Note collapse breccia on
the floor at water level. Figure modified after Shanmugam (1990),
with permission from AAPG.
8) Temperatures of ore deposition are typically 75
C
to about 200
C.
9) The most important ore controls are faults and
fractures, and dissolution collapse breccias.
G. Shanmugam
4.6. Implications
Major differences among the five types of breccias
and their implications are as follows:
1) In general, meteorite breccias are distinguished by
their shock features (e.g., planar deformation in
mineral grains, high-pressure polymorphs, shock
melts, etc.) from fault breccias, which are formed
much more slowly and do not have shock features.
However, ejecta-related breccias that do not
exhibit melt features are difficult to distinguish
from sedimentary−depositional breccias. Also,
Maddock (1983) reported fault-generated pseudo-
tachylytes from the Outer Hebrides Thrust Zone,
Scotland, and explained that the textures were
resulted from the primary crystallization of a clast-
laden melt rather than from the devitrification of a
glass, or from crushing and cataclasis.
2) Meteorite breccias are associated with hydrother-
mal activity, whereas most sedimentary breccias
are not. However, hydrothermal breccias in vein-

brak, 1997).
type ore deposits are present (Je
3) Sedimentary breccias are indicative of primary
porosity and permeability, whereas meteorite
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias
Fig. 31 Paleocave facies showing breccia types. Figure from Loucks (2001).
breccias commonly are subjected to high pressure
and high temperature melt events.
4) Although sedimentary breccias of different origins
may look alike, recognizing breccias in sol-
ution−collapse pipes is vital because of their asso-
ciation with uranium deposits (Fig. 32).
5) Analogous to leaching conditions that developed
caves in South China (Fig. 30), porosity enhance-
ment from chert dissolution beneath Neocomian
unconformity had resulted in favorable reservoir
quality in the Prudhoe Bay Field (i.e., the Ivishak
Formation), North Slope, Alaska (Shanmugam and
Higgins, 1988).
6) Deep-water sandy debrites, with depositional
breccias (Fig. 29), comprise important petroleum
reservoirs worldwide (Shanmugam, 2012a;
Shanmugam et al., 2009).
37
7) In basin analysis, karst breccias are useful in
recognizing erosional unconformities (Shanmugam,
1988).
8) Sedimentary breccias are subjected to sediment
transport and indicative of a variable sediment
provenance, whereas meteorite breccias are
commonly local in origin.
9) Fault breccias and sedimentary breccias exhibit
normal stratigraphy, whereas meteorite breccias
are associated with reverse stratigraphy of the
crater rim.
Perhaps the most important implication is that it is
fundamentally a challenge to interpret the origin of
breccias. As discussed earlier, the same breccias have
been interpreted differently by different authors
as karst breccias, fault breccias, and “explosion”
38 G. Shanmugam

Fig. 32 Schematic cross section of a solutionecollapse breccia pipe in the Grand Canyon Region (USA) showing the distribution of uranium
ore (U ore) in the pipe. Pipe height and diameter are about 915 m and 100 m, respectively. Stratigraphic section modified after Van Gosen and
Wenrich (1989). Figure from Finch (1992). Credit: USGS. See also Dahlkamp (1990).
The fallacy of interpreting SSDS with different types of breccias 39

Fig. 33 Summary diagram showing that SSDS with breccias can be interpreted as five different types with different implications. Note that
sedimentary−depositional breccias are the only type that preserves the depositional porosity and permeability at the time of deposition
without diagenesis. However, sedimentary breccias are subjected to post-depositional diagenesis. For example, all five types are susceptible
to develop secondary porosity (Shanmugam, 1985).

volcanic megabreccias in South Wales (Fig. 20B).
Furthermore, megabreccias have been associated with
both faulting (Woodcock et al., 2014) and meteorite
impacts (Warme and Morrow, 2009). Therefore, clas-
sifying SSDS with breccias as “seismites” unnecessarily
distracts from the primary objective of establishing
the true origin of breccias (Fig. 33), which has direct
implications for understanding petroleum reservoirs
(Fig. 29) and economic ore deposits (Fig. 32).
sedimentaryedepositional breccias) has practical im-
plications for stratigraphy, sedimentology, prove-
nance, diagenesis, and reservoir quality. In moving
forward, it is necessary to abandon the current prac-
tice of interpreting SSDS as seismites routinely.
Acknowledgements

I thank Prof. Zeng-Zhao Feng (Editor-in-Chief of the

5. Concluding remarks
The purpose of interpreting SSDS as seismites is to
explain the precise origin of their deformation. How-
ever, seismicity is omnipresent worldwide and is
associated with a multitude of phenomena, namely
global tectonics, meteorite impacts, volcanic phe-
nomena, oceanographic (tsunami) phenomena, mete-
orologic (cyclone) phenomena, and eustatic (sea level)
events. Therefore, naming SSDS simply as “seismites”,
without identifying the true cause of the seismic
shocks, is fallacious. Importantly, distinguishing
the correct origin of SSDS (e.g., meteorite versus
Journal of Palaeogeography; China University of Pe-
troleum, Beijing) for inviting me to contribute my
earlier review entitled “The seismite problem” and for
encouraging me to write this companion paper as well.
I also thank the JoP editor Dr. Xiu-Fang Hu for her help
with solving submission-related computer problems
and for her initial work during submission process. I
thank the editor Dr. Min Liu (Amy) for her excellent
editing of the manuscript.
Prof. Tian-Rui Song, Institute of Geology, Chinese
Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing; Prof. Hong-
Bo Lü, Department of Geology, China University of
Petroleum, Shandong Province; Dr. D.W. Kirkland,
40
retired Research Scientist from Mobil Oil Corporation,
Texas; and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for
their detailed and helpful comments that considerably
improved the quality of this paper. As always, I am
grateful to my wife, Jean Shanmugam, for her general
comments.
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