Computer Networks and E-Copmmerce

Today the world scenario is changing. Data Communication and network have changed the way
business and other daily affair works. Now, they rely on computer networks and internetwork. A
set of devices often mentioned as nodes connected by media link is called a Network. A node can
be a device which is capable of sending or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network like a computer, printer etc. These links connecting the devices are called
Communication channels.

A Computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other
shared resources can include a printer or a file server.

Network Applications

 Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network

 They provide numerous advantages:
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging

Computer network is a telecommunication channel through which we can share our data. It is
also called data network. The best example of computer network is Internet. Computer network
does not mean a system with control unit and other systems as its slave. It is called a distributed
system

A network must be able to meet certain criteria, these are mentioned below:

1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Scalability

Performance

It can be measured in following ways:

 Transit time: It is the time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
 Response time: It is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.

Other ways to measure performance are:

1. Efficiency of software
2. Number of users
3. Capability of connected hardware

Reliability
It decides the frequency at which network failure take place. More the failures are, less is the
network's reliability.

Security

It refers to the protection of data from the unauthorised user or access. While travelling through
network, data passes many layers of network, and data can be traced if attempted. Hence security
is also a very important characteristic for Networks.

Properties of Good Network

1. Interpersonal Communication: We can communicate with each other efficiently and

easily example emails, chat rooms, video conferencing etc.
2. Resources can be shared: We can use the resources provided by network such as
printers etc.
3. Sharing files, data: Authorised users are allowed to share the files on the network.

Data Communication

The exchange of data between two devices through a transmission medium is Data
Communication. The data is exchanged in the form of 0’s and 1’s. The transmission medium
used is wire cable. For data communication to occur, the communication device must be part of a
communication system.

Effectiveness of a Data Communication can be measured through the following features:

1. Delivery: Delivery should be done to the correct destination.
2. Timeliness: Delivery should be on time.
3. Accuracy: Data delivered should be accurate.

Components of Data Communication

1. Message: It is the information to be delivered.
2. Sender: Sender is the person who is sending the message.
3. Receiver: Receiver is the person to him the message is to be delivered.
4. Medium: It is the medium through which message is to be sent for example modem.
5. Protocol: These are some set of rules which govern data communication.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also called
communication mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three
types of transmission mode. They are:

 Simplex Mode
 Half duplex Mode
 Full duplex Mode
SIMPLEX Mode

In this type of transmission mode data can be sent only through one direction i.e. communication
is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is
done in Simplex Systems.

Examples of simplex Mode is loudspeaker, television broadcasting, television and remote,

keyboard and monitor etc.

HALF DUPLEX Mode

In half duplex system we can send data in both directions but it is done one at a time that is when
the sender is sending the data then at that time we can’t send the sender our message. The data is
sent in one direction.

Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages
are sent in both the directions.

FULL DUPLEX Mode

In full duplex system we can send data in both directions as it is bidirectional. Data can be sent in
both directions simultaneously. We can send as well as we receive the data.

Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Different Types of Computer Networks

A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems located at different

places. In a computer network, two or more computers are linked together with a medium and
data communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and sharing resources.

The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as a server. In
the network the individual computers, which access shared network resources, are known as
workstations or nodes.

Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of the geographical area in two broad
categories.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network

Networks used to interconnect computers in a single room, rooms within a building or buildings
on one site are called Local Area Network (LAN). LAN transmits data with a speed of several
megabits per second (106 bits per second). The transmission medium is normally coaxial cables.
LAN links computers, i.e. software and hardware, in the same area for the purpose of sharing
information. Usually LAN links computers within a limited geographical area because they must
be connected by a cable, which is quite expensive. People working in LAN get more capabilities
in data processing, work processing and other information exchange compared to stand-alone
computers. Because of this information exchange most of the business and government
organisations are using LAN.

Major Characteristics of LAN

 Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the
network.
 High degree of interconnection between computers.
 Easy physical connection of computers in a network.
 Inexpensive medium of data transmission.
 High data transmission rate
Advantages of LAN are as follows:
 The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does
not affect the functioning for other computers.
 Addition of new computer to the network is easy.
 High rate of data transmission is possible.
 Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other computers.

Disadvantages of LAN:
If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.
Use of LAN
 Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used
 File transfers and Access
 Word and text processing
 Electronic message handling
 Remote database access
 Personal computing
 Digital voice transmission and storage

2. Metropolitan area network

Metropolitan area network or shortened by MAN. A network in a city with high speed data transfer,
which connects various locations such as campuses, offices, government, and so on. MAN network is a
combination of several LANs. The MAN range of between 10 to 50 miles, this MAN is a network that
tepaMetropolitan area network or shortened by MAN. A network in a city with high speed data transfer,
which connects various locations such as campuses, offices, government, and so on. MAN network is a
combination of several LANs. The MAN range of between 10 to 50 km, MAN this is the right network to
establish a network between offices in the city between the factories / establishments and headquarters
that are within his reach.
Advantages of MAN
The biggest advantage of MANs is the bandwidth (potential speed) of the connecting links.

This means that resources (such as databases and files) shared on the network can be accessed
extremely quickly.

Some installations allow multiple users to share the same high-speed Internet connection,
thereby sharing the cost of the service and securing a better quality of service through collective
bargaining and economies of scale.

Disadvantages of MAN
The key disadvantage of MANs is the cost of the cutting-edge technology employed. Also, this
equipment generally has to be installed for the first time, as the copper traditionally used for the
phone network is generally considered to be too slow to be annexed for this purpose.

The cost is what inhibits the geographical reach of MANs, which is also another drawback.

3. Wide Area Network

The term Wide Area Network (WAN) is used to describe a computer network spanning a
regional, national or global area. For example, for a large company the head quarters might be at
Delhi and regional branches at Bombay, Madras, Bangalore and Calcutta. Here regional centers
are connected to head quarters through WAN. The distance between computers connected to
WAN is larger. Therefore the transmission medium used is normally telephone lines, microwaves
and satellite links.

Characteristics of WAN:
1. Communication Facility: For a big company spanning over different parts of the country
the employees can save long distance phone calls and it overcomes the time lag in
overseas communications. Computer conferencing is another use of WAN where users
communicate with each other through their computer system.

2. Remote Data Entry: Remote data entry is possible in WAN. It means sitting at any location
you can enter data, update data and query other information of any computer attached to
the WAN but located in other cities. For example, suppose you are sitting at Madras and want
to see some data of a computer located at Delhi, you can do it through WAN.

3. Centralised Information: In modern computerised environment you will find that

big organisations go for centralised data storage. This means if the organisation is spread
over many cities, they keep their important business data in a single place. As the data
are generated at different sites, WAN permits collection of this data from different sites and
save at a single site.

In modern computerised environment you will find that big organisations go for centralised data
storage. This means if the organisation is spread over many cities, they keep their important
business data in a single place. As the data are generated at different sites, WAN permits
collection of this data from different sites and save at a single site.
Examples of WAN are as follows:
Ethernet: Ethernet developed by Xerox Corporation is a famous example of WAN. This
network uses coaxial cables for data transmission. Special integrated circuit chips called
controllers are used to connect equipment to the cable.
Arpanet: The Arpanet is another example of WAN. It was developed at Advanced
Research Projects Agency of U. S. Department. This Network connects more than 40 universities
and institutions throughout USA and Europe.

Network Topology
Types of Network Topology
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the
network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology
1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected
to each other. Mesh has n(n-2)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding
Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic,
to re-configure the failed nodes.
Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to
unwanted load over the network.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example
if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
Computer networks can be logically classified as 1) Peer-to-Peer networks and 2) Client-Server
networks

Peer-to-Peer networks

A Peer-to-Peer network has no dedicated Servers. Here in Peer-to-Peer network, a number of

workstations (or clients) are connected together for the purpose of sharing devices, information
or data. All the workstations are considered as equal. Any one computer can act as client or
server at any instance. This network is ideal for small networks where there is no need for
dedicated servers, like home networks, small business networks, or retail shops. The Microsoft
term for Peer-to-Peer network is “Workgroup”.

There is no limitation for the number of computers in a peer-to-peer network. But Peer-to-Peer
implementations are meant for small networks. Typically a Workgroup contain less than 10
workstations.

Normal Workstation Operating Systems are Windows 95/98 (obsolete), Windows ME (obsolete),
NT Workstation (obsolete), Windows 2000 professional (obsolete), Windows XP, Vista,
Windows 7, Windows 8/8.1, Ubuntu Desktop, RHEL Desktop etc.

Advantages of peer to peer:

 Easy set up
 Each connected computer can act as a server so no need for a dedicated server
 Failure doesn’t affect all computers
  Less expense
 Less configuration and implementation time

Disadvantages of peer to peer:

 Easy access to any computer

 Security is only as strong as whatever security is in place on each computer
 Backup has to be done on each computer
 No control of access to data as there is no server
 Easy remote access can lead to compromised systems

Client-Server Networks

Peer-to-Peer computer networks are good for small business organizations. For example: A small
pharmacy outlet, An automobile service center, A small clinic etc. The main disadvantage of
Peer-to-Peer networks are listed below.

• Everything is kept distributed in different computers.

• User generated files are stored in individual computers. Data backup is extremely difficult.

• Each computer has its own user database. There is no centralized user & user privilege
management. Users need to remember their user ids and passwords in every computer. Managing
network users is extremely difficult.

As the organization's network grows, they must gradually upgrade their Peer-to-Peer network to
Client-Server based network.

The Client/Server computer network model is made-up of Client computers and Server
computers. Now we need to understand the terms Client and Server.

What is a Client? A computer which is seeking any resource from another computer is a Client
Computer. You can think a client as a computer in your network, where a network user is
performing some network activity. For Example: Downloading a file from a File Server,
Browsing Intranet/Internet etc. The network user normally uses a client computer to perform his
day to day work.

What is a Server? If a computer has a resource which is served to another computer, it is a

Server computer. The client establishes a connection to a Server and accesses the services
installed on the Server. A Server is not meant for a network user to browse in internet or do
spreadsheet work. A Server computer is installed with appropriate Operating System and related
Software to serve the network clients with one or more services, continuously without a break.

In a Client-Server network, high-end servers, installed with the Network Operating System
(Server Operating System) and the related software, serve the clients continuously on a network,
by providing them with specific services upon request.
Client-Server networks require dedicated servers. Server hardware is more costly than normal
Desktop computers. Client-Server networks cost more than peer-to-peer networks. Network
Operating System (Server Operating System) is also costlier than Desktop Operating Systems.

Different types of Servers used in networks are listed below.

File Server: File servers are used to store the user documents and files centrally. An ideal file
server should have a large amount of memory and storage space, fast hard-disks, multiple
processors, fast network adapters, redundant power supplies etc.

The main advantage of keeping network user files and electronic documents centrally in a file
server is that the network user files and documents can be managed (backup'd) easily. Think
about managing network user files and electronic documents kept distributed inside user
workstations in a network consists of thousands of computers! Nearly impossible.

Print Server: Print Server, which redirects print jobs from client computers to specific printers.

Mail Server: Mail Servers are used to transmit emails using email protocols. Most widely used
email transmission protocol is SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). Mail Servers exchange
emails between different domains.

Application Server: Common computer applications or programs which are required by

different network users can be run in a central server, which enables multiple network users to
access common network applications from the network. Typically Application Servers run
business logic. Which means, every business is different and the Application Server is the Server
Software which controls the business process? Some examples for Application Server Software
are SAP BASIS, Web Logic, and Web Sphere etc.

Database Server: Database Server allows authorized network clients to create, view, modify
and/or delete an organization's data, stored in a common database.

Directory Servers: Directory Servers allows the central administration and management of
network users and network resources. Directory Servers provide the basic functions of network
security, Authentication, Authorization and Accounting.

Advantages of client/server networks

 Central management – all of the resources of the network are available from one server
 Easy configuration – Systems on the network are simple to set up and can make
troubleshooting easier
 Scalability – because of a centralised system, it can be easy to add more resources &
clients.
 Security – There are fewer security issues to deal with as all of the information is stored
on a server and it’s primarily the server that has to worry about securing data and setting
permissions.

Disadvantages of client/server networks

 Server Faults – If there is a fault on the server all of the clients would go down too
  Crashes – If the server cannot handle large amounts of traffic due to too many concurrent
log-ins or file transfers, it can cause system crashes
 Cost – Initial start-up costs can be expensive and you’d also have to have a systems administrator
to configure and oversee the network

Comparing Client/Server and Peer-to-Peer Networking

Item Client/Server Peer-to-Peer
Resources are managed by each system with
Via user/group lists of shared resources. Depending on the OS, resources
permissions Via user/group lists may be controlled by separate passwords for each
Access of permissions to only the shared resource or by a user list stored on each
control resources granted, and different system with shared resources. Some OSs do not
users can be given different use passwords or user/group lists, thus enabling
levels of access. access to shared resources for anyone accessing
the network.
Varies; if password protection is employed,
anyone who knows the password can access a
shared resource. If no passwords are used, anyone
High; access is controlled by
Security who can access the workgroup can access shared
user or by group identity.
resources. However, if user/group names are
used, security is comparable to a client/server
network.
High; the server is dedicated and
Performance Low; servers often act as workstations.
doesn’t handle other tasks.
High; specialized high-
Hardware Low; any workstation can become a server by
performance server hardware
Cost sharing resources.
with redundancy features.
Higher; license fees per user are
Software Cost Lower; client software is included with OS.
part of the cost of the server OS.
Centralized on the server;
managed by network
Decentralized; managed by users. Backup devices
Backup administrator. Backup by device
and media are required at each workstation.
and media only required at
server.
Yes; duplicate power supplies,
hot-swappable drive arrays, and
No true redundancy among peer “servers” or
even redundant servers are
Redundancy clients; failures require manual intervention to
common; network OS normally
correct, with a high possibility of data loss.
is capable of using redundant
devices automatically.

MANAGING E‐BUSINESS INFRASTRUCTURE

The Internet
Internet is the world’s largest computer network. The internet is a network or more precisely
“Inter-network” of hundreds of connecting networks made up of different types of computers all
over the world that can share messages and information with one another. Internet is a global
network of computers.
The Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before.
Anybody can access the Internet and can use the resources available on the Internet.
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks that
transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP)It is a “network of
networks” that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government
networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online
chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other resources of the World Wide Web
[WWW]
The different purposes of Internet are as follows:‐
1. Sending and receiving E-mails ( It is an instantaneous way of sending and receiving messages,
called electronic mail round the world at minimal price)
2. Finding information on any topic or can be used as an educational tool.
3. Helps in participating in discussion on wide range of topics
4. Used to send data in the form of files from one computer to other with the facility called FTP
[File Transfer Protocol]
5. It is used for research purpose.
6. Internet provides a great learning experience
Internet Protocols
The most commonly used protocols are
1. Transmission Control Protocol/ internet protocol (TCP/IP)
2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
3. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
4. Telnet
5. Gopher
6. Wide Area Information Service (WAIS)

The different uses of internet in Business:

Business Use of Internet:
Business concerns use internet for a variety of purpose. Some of the major uses of interest in the
business field are enumerated below.
1. Access to database: Internet is highly useful to a business to access complex databases. For
example with the help of internet, a company can access financial database.
2. Electronic Commerce: Now days, commercial on interest are becoming popular. Buying and
selling products and services on interest is called electronic commerce. Companies can carry out
electronic commerce including advertising, selling, buying, distributing products and providing
after sales service.
3. Electronic Mail: A major use of internet in the field of business is for speedy communication.
The electronic mail (E-mail) is widely used by companies to communicate faster between
companies, customers, workers and outsiders.
4. Companies area also making use of interest to conduct both audio and video
conferencing to discuss important issues by executives locating at distant places.
5. Worldwide audience: The Internet is a worldwide network allowing the business to reach
people all over the world. It helps to capture the attention of customers even very expensive
advertising could not achieve.
6. Provide product information: Internet gives customers direct access to information about
your products. Some people prefer to collect information about products by themselves. The
Internet has a great ability to make information about your company’s products or services
available to potential customers.
7. Save on literatures costs: Providing the information on-line reduces the need to print and
mail product literature, thereby resulting in significant cost reductions.
8. Provide easy access to customer service representatives: Human interaction cannot to
totally replace by even the best graphical interface. When customers have a question, or would
like to speak with a person, provide a list of contacts and phone numbers or allow them to send
e-mail directly to customer service representative, requesting that they be contacted.
9. Recruit new employees: Many companies provide current information about job openings
and attract talented people from places they could not reach otherwise.
10. Provide on-line service: Many products and services can be delivered over the Internet.
Online service will become an even brighter option for many businesses. Since the transaction is
electronic, billing and inventory control can be automated, increasing accuracy and reducing
your accounting and product storage costs.
11. Eliminate the middleman: Middlemen exist in some industries where there are barriers to
direct contact between producers and consumers. The Internet is a vehicle for removing these
barriers. This lower price for consumers and increases profits for producers.
12. Entertainment programs: Media and entertainment companies use the internet to broadcast
audio and video, including live radio and television programs.

Intranets and Extranets

Intranets
An intranet is an internal, secured business environment, which uses HTML and TCIP protocols
like the Internet, but operates on a LAN [Local Area Network]. If the LAN Provides access to
the Internet, the Intranet resides behind a firewall, with no gateway to, or from the Internet. If a
gateway exists, it is not an intranet, but an extranet.
An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet protocols and network connectivity
to insecurely share part of organizations information or operations with its employees. Growth of
Internal networks based on Internet technologies known as the Intranet is out spacing the growth
of the global internet itself. An Intranet is a company- specific network that uses software
programs based on the Internet TCP/IP Protocol and common Internet user interfaces such as the
web browser. Intranet is the application of Internet technologies within an organization private
LAN or WAN Network.
The Intranet environment is completely owned by the enterprise and is generally not accessible
from the Internet at large. An Intranet incorporates a working, interactive custom environment to
serve the business model, with familiar internet-like functionality and navigation. An intranet can
be as basic or comprehensive as need dictates.
Advantages of Intranet:

1. Workforce productivity: Intranets can be very beneficial in increasing the work force
productivity because employees can easily collaborate and share information. Intranets can help
users to locate and view information faster and use applications relevant to their roles and
responsibilities. With the help of a web browser interface, user can access data held in any
database the organization wants to make available, anytime and from anywhere within the
company workstations. Intranet also increase the ability of employee’s by performing their job
confidently very fast, and accurately. It also helps to improve the services provided to the users.
2. Information sharing: Intranet permits business companies to share out information to
employees according to their need or requirements. Employees may also link to appropriate data
at their expediency.
3. Communications: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an
organization. Easy and instant communication can be done by intranets in the situations where
emergency call for conferences is made. The well known examples of transportation are chat, e-
mail, and blogs. An actual world example of Intranet is Nestle had a number of food processing
plants.
4. Web publishing: Web publishing is another important advantage which allows organizations
to up-to-date and maintains the online information as required and anytime. Employees can stay
updated with the latest business update and standards, policies and orders. Web publishing allows
bulky corporate knowledge to be maintained and easily accessed throughout the company using
hypermedia and Web technologies. Example include: employee manuals, benefits documents,
company policies, business standards, newsfeeds, and even training, can be accessed using
common Internet standards. Because each business unit can update the online copy of a
document, the most recent version is always is always available to employees using the intranet.
5. Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used as a platform for
developing and deploying applications to support business operations and decisions across the
internet worked enterprise.
6. Time saving: Another advantage of Intranet is time saving because there is no need to
maintain physical documents such as procedure manual, requisition forms, and internet phone
list. As organizations using intranets in their networks can distribute information on website
rather than posting and dispatching manually which save a lot of time and effort.
7. Cost savings: Intranet working has reduced the cost of the business because all the things and
tasks that were done physically can be done easily with web media involved in the networks.
Publishing and online information providing has noticeably reduced the printing and manual
publishing cost including the transportation cost.
8. Same information: Through Intranet common corporate culture every user can view the
similar information.
9. Team work: Intranet offer improve teamwork through which teamwork is enabled and all
certified users can get access to information.
10. Customized site: Intranet is a Web-based tool that permits users to produce a customized site
according their requirements. We can pull all Internet actions and most wanted contented into a
single page which make easier to access.
11. Platform Independence: Another great advantage is the platform independence which means
that intranet works doesn’t restrict any software specification typically UNIX, Windows. All is
required is the access to the global web to view the internal websites. There is no need to install
same operating system in all the connected computers.

Drawbacks of intranet
1. Cost: Setting up an intranet incurs a cost. Some of this is the direct hardware and software
cost. Indirect costs are more difficult to estimate. These include time spent defining the intranet’s
purpose and choosing which intranet capabilities are essential for the organization. The cost of
maintaining the intranet is a major consideration and budgets for upgrading hardware is another
element.
2. Security: Unauthorized access to the intranet is a security issue. An organizational intranet
relies on privacy and confidentiality to prevent outsiders accessing sensitive information. An
intranet structure should not allow universal access to all information, and people should only
have access appropriate to their position in the organization. Connections between an intranet
and the Internet potentially compromises security, by allowing virus infections or system
hacking. Staff members should change their passwords regularly and security audits should
check the firewall.
3. Productivity: Information overload is another disadvantage because it reduces productivity.
Staff members may end up having to read so much that work decreases. Also, departmental
heads may rely on e-mails rather than direct contact with staff to circulate information.
4. Training: An intranet is a new budget item it itself for any organization. However, added to
this cost, management needs to consider two additional ones. First, the staff needs training to
ensure workers know how to use the system effectively. In some organizations, a few staff
members may resist learning how to share information via the intranet, or try to continue using
older methods of disseminating information.

Extranet
Extranet is a business to business intranet that allows limited controlled, secure access between a
Company’s internet and authorized users from remote locations. The information stored on the
web of one organization can be shared by other organizations if they are in good terms.
Extranet is also a private network of an organization. However, it allows trusted external partners
or clients such as suppliers, customers and business partners to access the network. An intranet
extended to trusted external parties becomes an extranet. An external party would have limited
access to the network compared to an internal employee of the organization.
An extranet can be viewed as part of a company’s Intranet that is extended to users outside the
company .An extranet can be understood as a private intranet mapped onto the Internet or some
other transmission system not accessible to the general public, but is managed by more than one
company’s administrator. Extranet is an extension of an intranet which makes the later accessible
to outside companies or individuals with or without an intranet. Parts of an intranet are made
available to customers to business partners for specific applications. The links between an
intranet and its business partners are achieved through TCP/IP, the standard internet protocol.
Extranets provide the privacy and security of an intranet while retaining the global reach of the
internet. Business to business E-commerce is growing on Extranets.
Companies gain competitive advantage through speedier transactions and access newer markets,
as also by simplified and faster distribution of information, products and services.
Advantages of Extranet
1. Provide Information: Extranets are used to provide information to business partners, clients,
special customers, or anyone else who need access to information that would not be meant for
the general public. Extranets can contain special pricing information for retailers, resellers, or
wholesalers. Extranets might contain detailed product specifications and instructions, resources
for product reps, or information on their product’s latest features.
2. Sharing of information: Extranets provide an extremely convenient method for sharing
information with business partners and clients. For example, clients know exactly where to find
all of the information relating to the projects. The client page can be accessed by anyone in the
organization who need to review and have input into the project. Client pages can be accessed
from anywhere in the world at any time.
3. Updated content: Another benefit or extranet is the the extranet’s content is always current.
Printed material presents the risk that old, out of date information might be in circulation. In
contrast extranets “live” in only the place, and therefore the content they contain is always the
most up to date. Companies can save a lot of time and money by replacing frequently changing
printed versions of information with extranet versions.
4. Eliminate the inefficiencies: The use of an extranet eliminates the inefficiencies of this
process. Instead of maintaining a printed book, the extranet contain the information. This allows
the person responsible for the information to keep the extranet current, and anyone who needs
the information to access it from there. Additionally, the information is always available right
when they need it, rather than of having to wait for an updated book, or a returned call to confirm
information.
5. Convenience: Extranets provides much convenience to exchange information with business
partners. Since extranets are usually accessible 24 hours per day and there is relatively no
downtime, associates, clients, vendors and other business partners can communicate with
business at a time that is convenient for them.
6. Increased Efficiency: Because of direct access to information, the use of extranets can
improve efficiency and increase productivity. For example, a customer can get answers to
question regarding the policy information without having to wait for a response from customer
service staff. Direct access to business information via extranet enable users’ change and update
their personal information. This not only increase productivity but also helps to reduce error.
7. Security: Security is an added advantage of extranet because organization can control the
accessing of site and thus gets information regarding the details of parties who access to our data.
To grant access to external associates, organization must create openings in our firewalls.
Multiple openings in our firewalls create higher risks for unauthorized entries.
8. Cost saving: While start-up costs may be significant, firm may experience reductions in other
expenses areas due to extranet. For example, because your affiliates have direct access to
documents on your network, costs associated with mailing or faxing information are significantly
reduced or eliminated.
Disadvantages
1. Costly: Extranets can be costly to apply to maintain within an organization.
2. Protection: One of big problem is the protection of extranets when dealing with precious
information. System access should be controlled and checked properly to protect the system and
information going into the incorrect hands.
3. Decrease personal contact: Extranets can decrease personal face-to-face contact with clients
and business partners. This can cause a lack of communication between employees, clients and
organization.

The Internet Standards

At the technical and developmental level, the Internet is made possible through creation, testing
and implementation of Internet Standards. These standards are developed by the Internet
Engineering Steering Group, with appeal to the Internet Architecture Board, and promulgated by
the Internet Society as international standards. The RFC Editor is responsible for preparing and
organizing the standards in their final form. The standards may be found at numerous sites
distributed throughout the world, such as the Internet Engineering Task Force.
An Internet Standard [STD] is a normative specification of a technology or methodology
applicable to the Internet. Internet Standards are created and published by the Internet
Engineering Task Force[IETF].An internet Standard is a special Request for Comments [RFC] or
set of RFCs. The definitive list of Internet Standards is maintained in Internet Standards
document STD 1: Internet Official Protocol Standards.

INTERNET PROTOCOLS
A communication protocol allows different kinds of computers using different operating systems
to communicate with one another. It is highly essential because Internet is not made up of
computer system.
Instead there are great diversities found in the computers used on the internet. The user
connected on any network on the Internet can communicate with others or software located on
any other network connected to the internet using common set of protocols. An internet protocol
is a set of standards or rules for exchanging information between computer systems in a network.
The most commonly used protocols are:-
1. Transmission control Protocol/Internet Protocol [TCP/IP]
It is actually a collection of protocols that govern the way data travel from one computer to
another across networks. A user connected on any network on the Internet can communicate with
people or software located on any other network connected to the internet using this common set
of protocols. On the internet, the protocol that permits two internet connected computers to
establish a reliable connection is called TCP/IP.
2. File Transfer Protocol [FTP]
FTP is the protocol or set of rules, which enables files to be transferred from one computer to
another computer.FTP works on the client/server principle. A client program enables the user to
interact with a server in order to access information and services on the server computer. Files
that can be transferred are stored on server computers. A client can access these files only
through a client application program. This program helps a client computer to locate the required
file to be transferred and starts the process of transfer.
3. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol [HTTP]
HTTP is an internet standard or set of rules that allows the exchange of information on the World
Wide Web. Hyper text is a method of preparing and publishing text, ideally suited to the
computer, in which users can select their own text. To prepare hyper text, the whole material
should be divided into small segments such as single pages of text. These small segments are
called nodes. Then hyper links are embedded in the text. When the user clicks on a hyper link,
the hyper text software displays a different node. The process of navigating among the nodes
linked in this way is called browsing. A collection of nodes that are interconnected by hyper links
is called a web. A Hyper text is prepared using Hyper Text Markup Language [HTML].The html
codes are used to create links. Http is also based on the client/server principle. It allows the client
computer to contact with server computer and make a request. The server accepts the connection
requested by the client and sends back a response. An Http request identifies the information or
text that the client is needed and it tells the server to supply the text.
4. Telnet
Telnet is an Internet protocol or set of rules that enables internet users to connect to another
computer linked to the internet. This process is also called as remote login. The user’s computer
is referred to as the local computer and the computer being connected to is referred to as remote
or host computer. Once access is established between local and host computer, local computer
can give commands do that they are executed in the host computer.
5. Gopher
Gopher is a protocol linked to the internet to search , retrieve and display documents from
remote sites on the internet, It is a menu based program that helps the user to find files,
programs, definitions and other topics that the user specifies. Gopher protocol allows the user to
free from the troubles of specifying the details of host, directory and file names. Instead, the user
can browse through menus and press Enter when he finds some interesting topic. Gopher is
interacting with a large number of independently owned computers around the world.
6. Wais
Wais stands for Wide Area Information Service. WAIS is a internet search tool and describes as a
protocol for computer to computer information retrieval. It is a program that permits the user to
search information worldwide based on a service of key words. WAIS has the capability of
simultaneously searching in more than one database.

Feature of the Internet Infrastructure

1. Globalism:‐ The future of the Internet global distribution of information and knowledge at
lower and lower cost will continue to lift the world community for generations to come. People
will have access to any information they wish, get smarter sooner, and be more aware of the
world outside their local environment. A better informed humanity will make better macro- level
decisions, and an increasingly integrated world will drive international relations towards a global
focus.
2. Communities: This internet communication revolution results into a new uniting community.
The Internet will increasingly be used for communications within communities as much as
across countries. Local communities will organize in virtual space and take increasing advantage
of group communication tools such as mailing lists, new groups, and web sites, and towns and
cities will become more organized and empowered at the neighborhood level.
3. Virtual Reality: With the continued increase of computer capability every couple of years, the
ability of technology to process the complex environment that humans live in – “ reality” – will
continue to increase, and will be increasingly integrated with the Internet.
Three dimensional graphics will become more sophisticated, and virtual reality interfaces such as
viewers and physical feedback systems will become more realistic. The increasingly
sophisticated virtual experiences will continue to change how we understand the nature of reality,
experience, art and human relations.
4. Bandwidth: Large increases of bandwidth in the 10 Mbps range and up will continue to be
deployed to home users through cable, phone and wireless networks. High resolution audio,
video, and virtual reality will be increasingly available online and on demand, and the cost of all
kinds of Internet connections will continue to drop.
5. Wireless: The future of Internet wireless communication is the endgame. Wireless frequencies
have two great advantages. (a) There are no infrastructure start‐up or maintenance costs
other than the base stations and (b) It frees users to become mobile, taking Internet use
from one dimension to three. Wireless Internet Networks will offer increasingly faster services
at vastly lower costs over wider distances, eventually pushing out physical transmission systems.
6. Grids.: The future of the Internet grid movement is as inevitable as the spread of the Internet
seems now. The connection of thousands of computers on the Internet together to solve
problems, often called grid computing will continue to evolve and change many areas of human
Endeavour.
7. Integration The integration with an increasing number of other technologies is as natural as a
musician’s experimentation with notes. The internet will become increasingly integrated with
phones, televisions, home appliances, portable digital assistants, and a range of other small
hardware devices, providing an unprecedented, nearly uniform level of integrated data
communications. Users will be able to access, status, and control this connected infrastructure
from, anywhere on the Internet.

The OSI Model

ISO stands for International organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open
System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model. The ISO-OSI model is
seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete communication system.
Functions of Different Layers:
Layer 1: The Physical Layer:
1. It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.
2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer:

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical
layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this
layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame
traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame
buffers are full.
Layer 3: The Network Layer :
1. It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

Layer 4: Transport Layer :

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this
layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller
units and passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.

Layer 5: The Session Layer :

1. Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different
applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and
are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

1. Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will
understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the
application layer.
3. Languages (syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this
condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer:

1. It is the topmost layer.
2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail
services, directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application
layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.

Merits of OSI model:

1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

Demerits of OSI model:

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.
2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.