For isentropic releases, an equilibrium flash model can be used to determine

the final temperature, composition and phase splits at ambient pressure. Clearly,
if the pathway stays in the gas or liquid phase, it is modeled accordingly. How-
ever, if a phase change is encountered, then two-phase flow may need consider-
ation in modeling the release. A pure liquid will flash at its normal boiling point,
while a mixture will flash continuously and with varying compositions over the
range from its dew point to bubble point temperatures.
For releases of gases through pipes, either adiabatic or isothermal flow
models are available (Levenspiel, 1984; Crowl and Louvar, 1990). For releases
of gases at the same source temperature and pressure, the adiabatic flow model
predicts a larger, i.e., conservative, flowrate, while the isothermal model predicts
a smaller flowrate. The actual flowrate is somewhere in between these values. For
many problems, the flowrates calculated by each approach are close in value.

Hole Size. A primary input to any discharge calculation is the hole size. For
releases through a relief system, the actual valve or pipe dimension can be used.
For releases through holes, the hole size must be estimated. This must be guided
by hazard identification and incident enumeration and selection processes
(whether this would be a flange leak, medium size leak from impact, full-bore
rupture, etc.). No general consensus is currently available for hole size selection.
However, a number of methodologies are suggested:
• World Bank (1985) suggests characteristic hole sizes for a range of process
equipment (e.g., for pipes 20% and 100% of pipe diameter are proposed).
• Some analysts use 2 and 4-inch holes, regardless of pipe size.
• Some analysts use a range of hole sizes from small to large, such as 0.2,1,4
and 6 inches and full bore ruptures for pipes less than 6 inches in diameter.
• Some analysts use more detailed procedures. They suggest that 90% of all
pipe failures result in a hole size less than 50% of the pipe area. The follow-
ing approach is suggested:
-For small bore piping up to I W use 5-mm and full-bore ruptures.
-For 2-6" piping use 5-mm, 25-mm and full-bore holes.
-For 8-12" piping use 5-, 25-, 100-mm and full-bore holes.
-For a large hole in a pressure vessel—assume a 10-min discharge of the
contents. A complete failure is discouraged. Also, assume complete fail-
ure of incoming and outgoing lines and check if discharge of the contents
through these lines will be less than 10 min. If less than 10 min, assume
10 min.
-For pumps, look at the suction and discharge lines. Consider a seal leak,
5-, 25-, and 100-mm holes, depending on line sizes.
 Leak Duration. The Department of Transportation (1980) LNG Federal
Safety Standards specified a 10-min leak duration; other studies (Rijnmond Public
Authority, 1982) have used 3 min if there is a leak detection system combined with
remotely actuated isolation valves. Other analysts use a shorter duration. Actual
release duration may depend on the detection and reaction time for automatic iso-
lation devices and response time of the operators for manual isolation. The rate of
valve closure in longer pipes can influence the response time. Due to the water
hammer effect, designers may limit the rate of closure in liquid pipelines.

Other Issues. Other special issues to consider when analyzing discharges

include the following.
• Time dependence of transient releases: Decreasing release rates due to
decreasing upstream pressure.
• Reduction in flow: Valves, pumps, or other restrictions in the piping that
might reduce the flow rate below that estimated from the pressure drop
and discharge area.
• Inventory in the pipe or process between the leak and any isolation device.
Fundamental Equations. Discharge rate models are based on a mechanical
energy balance. A typical form of this balance is

(2.1)

where
P is the pressure (force/area)
p is the density (mass/volume)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (length/time2)
gc is the gravitational constant (force/mass-acceleration)
z is the vertical height from some datum (length)
v is the fluid velocity (length/time)
/ is a frictional loss term (Iength2/time2)
Ws is the shaft work (mechanical energy/time)
m is the mass flow rate (mass/time)
The frictional loss term, ^ef, in Eq. (2.1) represents the loss of mechanical
energy due to friction and includes losses due to flow through lengths of pipe; fit-
tings such as valves, elbows, orifices; and pipe entrances and exits. For each fric-
tional device a loss term of the following form is used

(2.2)