Applied Research Quality Life (2016) 11:49–64

DOI 10.1007/s11482-014-9354-y

Chinese Tourist Vacation Satisfaction

and Subjective Well-being

Yi Chen & Xiaoxiao Fu & Xinran Y. Lehto

Received: 4 August 2014 / Accepted: 18 August 2014 / Published online: 3 September 2014
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht and The International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies
(ISQOLS) 2014

Abstract While the effects of vacation on tourists have been frequently discussed in
the Western context, research endeavors to understand such effects in a non-Western
context are rather limited. The current study aimed at investigating Chinese tourists’
subjective well-being and its potential changes associated with vacation experiences.
The survey of 302 Chinese tourists confirmed the positive effect of satisfaction with
service aspects of travel/tourism phases on satisfaction with travel/tourism services, the
positive effect of trip reflections and satisfaction with travel/tourism services on
satisfaction with travel experiences, and the direct positive effect of satisfaction with
travel experiences on travelers’ SWB. This study further explored the corresponding
roles of travel duration and frequency. The results suggested a moderating effect of
vacation duration on the link between tourist satisfaction and SWB; vacation frequency
did not have such an effect. Theoretical and managerial implications of the findings
were discussed, followed by recommendations for future research.

Keywords Chinese tourist . Travel duration, Travel experience . Travel frequency . Travel
satisfaction . Subjective well-being

Introduction

The question of “What constitutes a good life?” has been contemplated for millennia in
both Western and Eastern philosophies (Diener and Suh 2000). Although the search for
a good life persists through the ages, only over the last few decades has the empirical
research on individuals’ well-being become a systematic academic endeavor. By

Y. Chen (*) : X. Y. Lehto

School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue University, 900 W. State Street, West Lafayette,
IN 47907-2115, USA
e-mail: yichenhtm@gmail.com

X. Fu
Department of Tourism, Events & Attractions, Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of
Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32819, USA
50 Y. Chen et al.

definition, subjective well-being (SWB) refers to “all of the various types of evalua-
tions, both positive and negative, that people make of their lives” (Diener 2006, p. 153).
It consists of several major components, including global life satisfaction, contentment
with specific life domains, presence of positive affect (pleasant moods and emotions),
and absence of negative affect (unpleasant moods and emotions) (Diener 2006).
Although the conceptualization and operationalization of an individual’s SWB has
been the subject of considerable debate, scholars have reached a consensus that SWB
is likely to have both stable and changeable components (Busseri, Sadava, and
Decourville 2007; Eid and Diener 2004; Headey and Wearing 1992). The activities
in which an individual participates may exert influence on such components, which in
turn enhance or diminish the degree of SWB.
The tourism industry operates on the premise that vacation is a beneficial element
complementing everyday life; that is, taking a holiday is a healthy pursuit both mentally
and physically during one’s leisure time (Hobson and Dietrich 1994). An increasing
number of promotional campaigns have suggested that travel, vacation, or any tourism
experience may have a positive impact on a traveler’s SWB. Holiday-taking individuals
are found to be generally happier with their families, financial status, and health,
compared to nonholiday-taking individuals (Gilbert and Abdullah 2002, 2004). Such
effects even took place prior to the actual holiday-taking behavior. It was found that
vacationers anticipating their holidays reported a higher degree of happiness than
nonvacationers did (Nawijn, Marchand, Veenhoven, and Vingerhoets 2010). Thus,
taking a holiday generally seems to have the potential to enhance the level of happiness
of those enjoying their vacation, inhibiting or subduing negative emotions (Gilbert and
Abdullah 2004). Specifically, travelers’ SWB was found to be associated with the
vacation experience and their satisfaction with it. For example, Neal, Sirgy, and Uysal
(1999) provided evidence that one of the SWB components—overall life satisfaction—
is a positive function of the satisfaction with a trip experience. Furthermore, such a
relationship can be moderated by the length of the trip (Neal, Uysal, and Sirgy 2007).
While these studies’ findings testified to the important role of vacation in enhancing the
overall well-being of tourists, further research questions have been raised regarding the
association between tourist satisfaction and their SWB.
First, as a multidimensional construct, SWB encompasses both cognitive evaluation
of life satisfaction and affective assessment of moods and emotions. It may be difficult
to envision whether one trip can affect the long-term assessment of life satisfaction
(Neal et al. 2007). Therefore, it would be meaningful to examine how tourist satisfac-
tion influences the different levels of SWB. In other words, would certain dimensions
of SWB be more sensitive to effects induced by vacation? Second, do vacation duration
and frequency, which are two critical travel characteristics, have moderating effects on
such relationships? Third, the majority of studies on tourists’ SWB have been conduct-
ed in the Western context, while current endeavors to understand the effects of vacation
on tourists in a non-Western context, such as China, are limited. In recent decades,
China has attached increasing importance to the beneficial role of leisure and tourism in
the lives of its citizens. While the greater availability of leisure time and improved
personal financial status in China have contributed to the country’s exponential tourism
growth and enhanced the Chinese way of life, research concerning Chinese vaca-
tioners’ SWB is rather minimal. If SWB to some extent “represent[s] a judgment of
the culture from an internal perspective, from the viewpoints of the members of that
Chinese Tourist Vacation Satisfaction and Subjective Well-being 51

society” (Diener and Suh 2000, p. 4), then the degree to which SWB arises is inevitably
influenced by the values, norms, and dispositions in a certain culture. The main purpose
of the current study was to fill these research gaps by investigating Chinese tourists’
SWB and its potential changes associated with vacation experiences. It is hoped that
this study’s findings will advance the SWB literature and carry potential implications
for destination marketing and management and public policy initiatives.

Literature Review

Vacation Effect on SWB

Subjective well-being refers to all types of evaluations, both positive and negative, that
people make about their lives. It includes reflective cognitive evaluations, such as life
satisfaction, work satisfaction, interest and engagement, and affective reactions to life
events, such as joy and sadness (Andrews and Withey 1976). It can be considered an
umbrella term for the different valuations people make regarding their lives, the events
happening to them, their bodies and minds, and the circumstances in which they live
(Diener 2006). The promotion of individual well-being has been a major concern of
many studies. For example, researchers have demonstrated interest in residents’ per-
ceptions on community services and conditions in various life domains (Sirgy,
Widgery, Lee, and Yu 2010). Such perceptions were found to influence residents’
overall perception of community well-being, their commitment to the community, and
overall life satisfaction. The sample respondents had a keen interest in their own SWB;
most were also concerned about the well-being of certain other individuals.
The research on SWB has witnessed progress in the development of theories,
measurement scales, and methodologies (e.g., Clarke, Islam, and Paech 2006; Sirgy
and Lee 2006). A number of related constructs have been proposed by researchers from
a variety of perspectives. The commonly agreed SWB components include a predom-
inant theme of positive mood and emotional states within an individual’s subjective
experience and a cognitive evaluation of the conditions and circumstances of his or her
life (Eid and Larsen 2007). In defining and measuring SWB, recent studies adopted a
holistic view and acknowledged its multidimensional nature. According to Diener
(2000), SWB consists of several major components, including global life satisfaction,
contentment with specific life domains, the presence of frequent positive affect, and the
relative absence of negative affect.
Researchers often distinguish between the cognitive and affective components of the
broad concept of SWB (Diener 1984; Diener, Suh, Lucas, and Smith 1999). On the one
hand, life satisfaction and domain satisfaction are considered the cognitive components
since they are based on evaluative beliefs and attitudes about one’s life. They are termed
as cognitive well-being. On the other hand, affect, both positive and negative, assesses
the emotional components of SWB and reflects the amount of pleasant and unpleasant
feelings that one experiences in life. They are known as affective well-being. Changes in
the cognitive or affective components may lead to changes in SWB (e.g., Uysal, Perdue,
and Sirgy 2012). Cognitive well-being and affective well-being have been considered as
distinct constructs due to their different variability over time (Eid and Diener 2004) and
relationships with other variables (e.g., Schimmack, Schupp, and Wagner 2008).
52 Y. Chen et al.

The effects of taking vacation on human health and well-being have become a topic
of increased attention and debate in recent years. In tourism literature, existing studies
suggest that holidaymaking has impacts on travelers’ life satisfaction, as well as on
reducing burnout and work and family stress (Gilbert and Abdullah 2004). Researchers
have commonly found that taking a holiday is beneficial to tourists’ SWB. In a
qualitative study, Hunter-Jones (2003) showed vacation’s positive effects on such
aspects as personal health, social effectiveness, personal identity, and sense of
independence among a group of cancer patients. Sirgy, Kruger, Lee, and Yu (2011)
argued that sources of positive and negative affects associated with specific travel
experiences played a significant role in tourists’ overall sense of well-being. In two
studies concerning whether the anticipation (Gilbert and Abdullah 2002) and the
activity of (Gilbert and Abdullah 2004) holidaymaking have any influence on the
SWB of vacationers, SWB was operationalized as comprising three components:
positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction. In the first study, the researchers
found that the anticipation of a favorable event/holiday trip affected the respondents’
SWB equilibrium. Those who anticipated going on a holiday were much happier with
their life as a whole; they experienced less negative or unpleasant feelings and more
positive or pleasant feelings. The second study revealed that holidaymaking changed
the travelers’ perceived level of well-being. A comparison between the holiday-taking
group and nonholiday-taking control group provided evidence that the former experi-
enced higher levels of well-being before and after their trips, compared to the latter.
While SWB’s multidimensionality has been proposed, how its different dimensions
change as a result of vacation and whether there are various vacation effects on the
diverse SWB dimensions have not been thoroughly investigated yet. For a better
comprehension of SWB in the context of holidaymaking, it is crucial to examine
how the different dimensions of SWB change due to vacation-taking. Additionally,
since current studies about vacation effects on SWB were mostly conducted in the
Western context, an examination of how vacation-taking influences SWB in the Eastern
context is needed. Researchers have documented the many ways that Eastern culture
such as Chinese differs from its Western counterpart such as American. The present
study was conducted in the context of China, where far-reaching changes have taken
place both socially and economically, with the country’s opening up to the outside
world. Since China has been recognized as a market with tremendous buying potential
(e.g., Fu, Lehto, and Cai 2012; Lehto, Fu, Li, and Zhou 2013), this study’s findings
may serve as guidelines for better service provision to Chinese customers.

Satisfaction with Travel Experiences

Customer satisfaction is one of the most frequently investigated topics in general

business research and in the hospitality and tourism field in particular, due to its linkage
to the repatronage intention and willingness to recommend to others. The existing
tourist satisfaction research has mostly approached satisfaction from a global perspec-
tive, without zooming into the specific aspects of the tourist experience. In many
studies, the most common question soliciting tourist satisfaction is “Are you satisfied
with your travel experience?”, which denotes a global assessment of tourist percep-
tions. However, such simplification of tourist satisfaction overlooks the nature of the
tourism industry, which consists of a variety of stakeholders in public and private
Chinese Tourist Vacation Satisfaction and Subjective Well-being 53

sectors (Gunn 1988). The tourism experience refers to the interaction between tourists
and a variety of facilities, services, and attitudes from multiple firms within the tourism
system (Smith 1993). If tourism is considered a system and a tourist’s satisfaction is
derived from the multiphased tourism experience, then satisfaction experienced during
vacation should be multifaceted, including such time periods as pre-trip planning, on-
site visitation, and post-trip reflection. Based on Leiper’s (1990) system theory, Neal
and Gursoy (2008) postulated that a tourist’s satisfaction with the travel experience is
the totality of the contentment with each service aspect of the tourism system, including
pre-trip, on-site, and transit route services. Each link is important as it is likely to have a
significant impact on overall satisfaction. If dissatisfaction occurs with any service
aspect, the overall satisfaction may be negatively affected. Therefore, to truly under-
stand overall satisfaction, tourist approval of a trip’s specific service facets should be
examined. This theoretical disposition was shared in other studies. For example, based
on the goal theory, Sirgy (2010) posited that tourist satisfaction with specific service
facets adds to the explanation and better prediction of overall tourist satisfaction. Neal,
Sirgy, and Uysal (1999) explored the impact of satisfaction with tourism services on
overall life satisfaction. Satisfaction with different aspects of tourism services, includ-
ing pre-trip, en route, and return trip services, was hypothesized to have a significant
influence on the satisfaction with travel/tourism services. It was revealed that overall
satisfaction with travel/tourism services, together with trip reflections, exerted a signif-
icant influence over the overall contentment with travel/tourism experiences. Although
some studies have demonstrated how satisfaction with certain aspects of the trip
affected tourist satisfaction (e.g., Geva and Goldman 1991), few studies have sought
to address the whole spectrum of travel experiences, which may interact with tourist
satisfaction. Other than this line of research, most studies still treat satisfaction with the
destination experience as a global measure. Such an approach fails to consider how
satisfaction with different aspects of the trip, such as pre-trip services and transit routes,
would affect overall tourist approval.

Influence of Vacation Duration and Frequency

Lounsbury and Hoopes (1986) defined vacation as “a cessation of work, a time when a
person is not actively participating in his or her job. It is a time when a person is free to
pursue other interests, and therefore a time when the work situation might lose
importance compared to other domains of experience such as family and personal
leisure” (p. 393). Despite their desire for such a respite from the daily routine,
individuals often face the issue of allocating the total number of vacation days over
time and space. Additionally, various types of constraints, including institutional,
financial, social, and personal, limit the possibilities for pursuing or actually material-
izing the desire to take a vacation. However, the entitlement of vacation time within a
year has structural differences across world regions. Both the length and concentration
of vacation consumption patterns vary among and even within nations. For example, in
Finland, workers are entitled to a 30-day minimum of paid vacation plus up to 14 paid
holidays a year. In Thailand, Canada, Taiwan, and the United States, employees get
fewer vacation days; in some developing countries, such as China, people have paid
public holidays only. Moreover, there is a trend toward shorter vacations in many
societies due to time pressures and income polarization (Richards 1999). It has been
54 Y. Chen et al.

suggested that as vacation became a more important life sphere for most people, the
market growth shifted toward second and third vacations or short breaks (Richards
1999).
The two temporal dimensions of vacation duration and frequency are critical
factors for understanding the effects of vacation on SWB. Vacation duration is
defined as the number of consecutive days of a particular holiday period, while
vacation frequency refers to the number of vacations taken within a given time
period, such as a year (Bargeman, Joh, and Timmermans 2002). The limited
existing literature suggests that the length of a vacation is associated with
tourists’ SWB. Toda et al. (2004, 2006) examined the effects of both short-
term (two nights) and long-term travel (eight nights) on health-related lifestyle
factors, behavioral patterns, perceived stressors, and stress reactions. They found
that a long stay in a spa ameliorated the stress of travelers with poorer lifestyles,
poorer health factors, or stressful life events. For shorter-term leisure trips,
travelers who scored high on health factors, behavioral patterns, perceived
stressors, and stress reactions were more likely to experience a reduction in
negative mental stress and to feel uplifted or fulfilled.
Vacation frequency is a construct related to vacation duration, both indicating
quantity (Iwasaki, Mannell, Smale, and Butcher 2005). As Gilbert and Abdullah
(2004) noted, frequent vacations replenish the small-effect sizes of a vacation
that could dissipate quickly. Iwasaki (2002) found that a higher frequency of
leisure participation appeared to promote positive, immediate adaptational out-
comes such as coping effectiveness, coping satisfaction, and stress reduction,
irrespective of the presence of stress or levels of stressors. A high frequency of
leisure participation also seemed to have a positive impact on mental health,
regardless of the stress level in the respondents’ lives. Greater levels of frequen-
cy and enjoyment in leisure travel appeared to act as a buffer against the
negative impact of stressors.
A review of existing literature on travel duration and frequency suggests their
generally positive relationship with SWB. While vacation duration and frequency are
crucial in analyzing the expenditure and household demand for vacation (e.g., Fleischer
and Rivlin 2009), they are also important variables in predicting tourists’ SWB.
However, past research on travel duration and frequency mostly focused on specific
SWB outcomes such as stress level and mental health, largely neglecting these vari-
ables’ overall influence on travelers’ SWB. Against this backdrop, this study aimed to
investigate the different vacation consumption patterns, specifically the influence of
vacation duration and frequency on Chinese tourists’ SWB.

Objectives

As illustrated in Fig. 1, this study intended to examine the effects of tourists’ satisfac-
tion on SWB, as well as the strength of the linkages among satisfaction with travel/
tourism services, satisfaction with travel experiences, and SWB, moderated by travel
duration and frequency. Based on existing studies on travelers’ SWB, satisfaction, and
effects of vacation duration and frequency on SWB, the following hypotheses were
proposed.
Chinese Tourist Vacation Satisfaction and Subjective Well-being 55

Sasfacon with Service H1 Sasfacon with

Aspects of Travel/Tourism Travel /Tourism
Phases Services
 Pretrip services
 Enroute services
 Desnaon services H2
 Return services

H3 Sasfacon with Duration (H5)

Trip Reflecons
Travel Experience Frequency (H6)

 Perceived freedom from control

 Perceived freedom from work H4
 Involvement
 Arousal Subjecve Well-
 Mastery
 Spontaneity being
 Global Life Sasfacon
 Sasfacon with
Specific Life Domains
 Affect

Fig. 1 The effect of tourist satisfaction on subjective well-being

H1: Satisfaction with travel/tourism services is a positive function of satisfaction with

the service aspects of the travel/tourism phases (i.e., pre-trip, en route, destina-
tion, and return-trip services).
H2: Satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences is a positive function of satisfaction
with travel/tourism services.
H3: Satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences is a positive function of satisfaction
with trip reflections.
H4: Subjective well-being is a positive function of satisfaction with travel/tourism
experiences.

H4a: Global life satisfaction is a positive function of satisfaction with travel/

tourism experiences.
H4b: Satisfaction with specific life domains is a positive function of satisfaction
with travel/tourism experiences.
H4c: Affect is a positive function of satisfaction with travel/tourism
experiences.
H5: The effect of tourist satisfaction on SWB increases as the trip duration
increases.

H5a: The effect of satisfaction between the service aspects of travel/tourism

phases and travel/tourism services increases as the trip duration
increases.
H5b: The effect of satisfaction between travel/tourism services and experiences
increases as the trip duration increases.
H5c: The effect of satisfaction between trip reflections and travel/tourism expe-
riences increases as the trip duration increases.
H5d: The effect of satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences on SWB increases
as the trip duration increases.
H6: The effect of tourist satisfaction on SWB increases as the trip frequency
increases.

H6a: The effect of satisfaction between the service aspects of travel/tourism

phases and travel/tourism services increases as the trip frequency
increases.
56 Y. Chen et al.

H6b: The effect of satisfaction between travel/tourism services and experiences

increases as the trip frequency increases.
H6c: The effect of satisfaction between trip reflections and travel/tourism expe-
riences increases as the trip frequency increases.
H6d: The effect of satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences on SWB increases
as the trip frequency increases.

Methodology

Sample

The data used in the study was drawn from a large project about Chinese SWB
undertaken in a southeastern city in China from January to March 2009. Participants
(N=151) were asked to rate their travel satisfaction and SWB after their trips. From a
total of 302 surveys, 147 were completed by respondents who took frequent vacations
(more than two vacations during the three-month period), and 155 by respondents who
took infrequent vacations (two vacations or less during the three-month period).
Among the respondents, 110 took long vacations (more than 3 days) and 186 took
short vacations (3 days or less). The categorization of short/long duration and frequent/
infrequent travel was adopted from previous studies (e.g., Sharma 2005, p. 62–79) due
to its practical, two-fold implications. First, defining a short vacation as comprising
3 days or less and a long vacation as more than 3 days differentiates the weekend
getaway from other types of travel. Previous research found that the main purposes of a
weekend-getaway trip are rest, relaxation, and escape from routine. It has become
increasingly prevalent among younger generations, especially Generation X and Y
travelers (The Conference Board of Canada 2008; Wu, Zhu, and Xu 2000). In
comparison, longer vacations mainly attract baby boomers (born between 1946 and
1964), many of whom retire early and can afford more time and money for travel.
Second, such a classification was based on the travel-related characteristics of the target
population. A recent study by Lehto et al. (2013) found that the average trip length for
Chinese family travelers, a major market segment in China, was 4 days. Taking shorter
vacations is gaining popularity in China, where people tend to combine weekends with
a public holiday (Wu et al. 2000). Therefore, the division of short/long duration in this
study better fits the target market’s current travel patterns and could possibly help
destination marketing organizations provide appropriate travel packages for both the
weekend getaway and long vacation markets. The definition of frequent and infrequent
vacationers is in line with that from the United States Department of Health and Human
Services, which refers to a frequent traveler as an employee who travels six or more
times per fiscal year (HHS Travel Manual 2008). Within the cited three-month
timeframe, frequent travelers had more than 1.5 (rounded to two) vacations.

Measures

This study utilized the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) developed by Diener,
Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985) to assess global life satisfaction and
Chinese Tourist Vacation Satisfaction and Subjective Well-being 57

contentment with specific life domains. The instrument for measuring positive
affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) was based on Affectometer 2, a 20-item
scale developed by Kammann and Flett (1983), with separate items (10 items
each) for measuring PA and NA. The overall level of well-being is conceptual-
ized as the extent to which positive or pleasant feelings predominate over
negative or unpleasant feelings. The measurements of travel satisfaction were
adapted from Neal et al. (1999, 2004, 2007) studies. Six subjective conditions of
leisure identified by Unger and Kernan (1983) were used to measure trip
reflections.

Analysis Procedure

The structural equation modeling (SEM) technique was employed using the
analysis of moment structures (AMOS) to test the proposed hypotheses. First,
SEM was used to examine the overall relationships between travelers’ satisfaction
and SWB. The goodness of fit and path coefficients were used for SEM, testing
the first, second, third, and fourth hypotheses. Second, the same structural model
was used to estimate separately for short-duration and long-duration travel groups
to examine the moderating effect of vacation duration, and separately for frequent
and infrequent travel groups to examine the moderating effect of vacation
frequency.

Results

Respondent Demographics

All respondents were 18 years or older, with 40.1 % male and 59.9 % female. The
majority were between 31 and 59 years old (74.1 %), 83.3 % were married, and
63.3 % had a monthly household income of RMB 3,000–10,000 (approximately
$439–1,465). In terms of education, 30.2 % had a bachelor’s degree, followed by
an undergraduate/associate degree (25.5 %) and a graduate degree and above
(18.1 %).

Measurement Model

With the individual measurement models for the research constructs identified,
SEM was conducted to test the proposed relationships between tourist satisfac-
tion and SWB. The results of SEM, with the root-mean square error residual
(RMR) of 0.03, indicated that the suggested model fit the observed data.
Generally, an RMR value less than 0.05 is considered a very good fit
(Marcoulides and Schumacker 1996). The goodness-of-fit index (GFI) and the
adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) were better than the suggested criteria of
0.90 and 0.80, respectively (Bentler 1990; Browne and Cudeck 1992;
Marcoulides and Schumacker 1996). Although the goodness-of-fit statistic was
significant, indicating that the model did not fit the data perfectly well
(χ2=209.755, df=81, p=0.000), the ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom
58 Y. Chen et al.

was below the recommended value of 3 (CMIN/df=2.590), suggesting a rela-

tively good fit (Tabachnick and Fidell 1996).
Figure 2 shows the estimated path coefficients of the overall model. All the path
coefficients were significant at the 0.001 level, supporting hypotheses 1 to 4. More
specifically, the results showed that the path from satisfaction with the service aspects
of travel/tourism phases to satisfaction with travel/tourism services was 0.22
(p<0.001), supporting hypothesis 1. The paths from satisfaction with travel/tourism
services and satisfaction with trip reflections to satisfaction with travel/tourism experi-
ences were 0.21 and 0.39, respectively (p<0.001 for both paths), supporting hypotheses
2 and 3. The path from satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences to travelers’ SWB
was 0.22 (p<0.001), supporting hypothesis 4.
These results are highly consistent with those of Neal et al. (2004) study that
indicated a direct impact of satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences on life satis-
faction (beta = 0.19). They also found that satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences
is a positive function of satisfaction with trip reflections (beta = 0.60), travel/tourism
services (beta = 0.25) and the service aspects of travel/tourism phases (beta = 0.97).
The paths’ effect sizes are relatively similar, except that the satisfaction with the service
aspects of travel/tourism phases has a much stronger effect (beta = 0.97 vs. path
coefficient = 0.22) in Neal et al. (2004) study.

Test of the Moderating Effect of Duration and Frequency

A multigroup comparison analysis by SEM was performed to examine whether travel

duration and frequency have moderating effects on the relationship. The objective of
the multigroup comparison analysis was to determine whether the path coefficients for
the relationships between travelers’ satisfaction and SWB were equal between the long-
duration and short-duration groups, as well as between the frequent and infrequent
groups. The appropriate structural parameters were first constrained to be equal across
groups, and then these parameter equality constraints were removed to freely estimate
the paths between travel satisfaction and SWB. The χ2 test in AMOS was used to
examine whether the paths between travel satisfaction and SWB were different between
the subgroups (the long-duration vs. the short-duration group and the frequent vs.
infrequent group). If the change in the χ2 value is statistically significant, it suggests
that some equality constraints do not hold across the two types of travelers (Byrne
2004).

Sasfacon with Service 0.22 Sasfacon

Aspects of Travel/Tourism with
Phases Travel/Tourism

0.21
0.39 Sasfacon
Trip Reflecons with Travel
Experience

0.22

Subjecve Well-
being
Fig. 2 Tourist vacation satisfaction and SWB: Path coefficient for all travelers
Chinese Tourist Vacation Satisfaction and Subjective Well-being 59

Table 1 presents the results of the multigroup comparison analysis and model fit
indices. The >.90 incremental fit index (IFI), the >.90 comparative fit index (CFI), and
the <.05 root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) suggested a relatively
good fit of the constraint-free model and the constraint model for the effects of both
duration and frequency (Bentler 1990; Browne and Cudeck 1992). The result of the χ2
difference comparison provided evidence of a significant difference between the long-
duration and short-duration travel groups in the relationship between travel satisfaction
and SWB (Δ χ2 / Δ df=0.57, p<.05), suggesting significant moderating effects of
travel duration. No significant difference existed between the frequent and infrequent
travel groups in the relationship between travel satisfaction and SWB (Δ χ2 / Δ df=
1.11, p>.05), suggesting that travel frequency did not have a moderating effect.
Figures 3 and 4 present the path coefficients of vacation satisfaction and SWB for
long-duration and short-duration travel groups, respectively. For both groups, the
influence of satisfaction with service aspects of travel/tourism phases on satisfaction
with travel/tourism services, and the influence of satisfaction with travel/tourism
services and trip reflections on satisfaction with travel experiences were both significant
at the p=0.05 level. The path coefficients from satisfaction with service aspects of
travel/tourism phases to satisfaction with travel/tourism services (0.41) and from
satisfaction with travel/tourism services to satisfaction with travel experiences (0.24)
for the long-duration travelers were higher than those for the short-duration travelers
(0.24 and 0.14, respectively). The path coefficient from trip reflections to satisfaction
with travel experiences for the long-duration travelers (0.38) was slightly lower than
that for the short-duration travelers (0.46). The positive influence of satisfaction with

Table 1 Chi-Square Difference Test for the Moderating Effect of Duration and Frequency

Hypothesized Factor loadings, variances and error Comparison

model covariances, constraint model

Duration Comparative fit index (CFI) 0.926 0.928

Incremental fit index (IFI) 0.927 0.929
Root mean square error of 0.05 0.047
approximation (RMSEA)
χ2 624.942 640.918
Df 252 280
Δ χ2 15.976
Δ df 28
Sig. 0.03
Frequency CFI 0.915 0.914
IFI 0.916 0.915
(RMSEA) 0.054 0.051
χ2 688.309 719.525
Df 252 280
Δ χ2 31.216
Δ df 28
Sig. 0.69
60 Y. Chen et al.

travel experiences on SWB was only significant for the short-duration travelers at the
p=0.05 level. These results seem to indicate that for short-duration travelers, although
the influence of satisfaction with service aspects of travel/tourism phases on satisfaction
with travel/tourism services and the influence of trip reflections and satisfaction with
travel/tourism services on satisfaction with travel experiences were less than those for
long-duration travelers, their satisfaction with travel experiences influences their SWB.
The results of this study and those of Neal et al. (2004) both identified the
moderating effect of travel duration on the relationship between travelers’ satisfaction
and SWB, although they used different approaches. First, Neal and colleagues’ study
did not single out the moderating effect of travel duration on the relationship between
satisfaction with the service aspects of travel/tourism phases and satisfaction with
travel/tourism services, the relationship between satisfaction with trip reflections and
satisfaction with travel experiences, and the relationship between satisfaction with
travel/tourism services and satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences. In the current
study, the moderating effect of duration was identified in these relationships. The
discrepancies in the results between the two studies may be due to their different ways
of defining travel duration. The current study’s division of short/long duration differ-
entiates how travelers’ satisfaction and trip reflections influence travel experiences. Due
to time limitation, the weekend getaway travelers had fewer opportunities of interac-
tions with destination service providers. Therefore, they were less satisfied with the
travel/tourism services. These travelers also engaged less in travel activities and had
limited travel experiences, such as relaxing, pursuing their interests, and meeting
people. Therefore, they had lower levels of satisfaction with their travel experiences.
Categorizing vacation length by whether it exceeds 6 or 7 days may not identify such
differentiation, since remaining in destinations for over 3 days may provide tourists
enough time to experience the travel activities and services.
Second, while Neal et al. (2004) detected the moderating effect of the length of stay
on the relationship between satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences and satisfaction
with leisure life, their results suggested that for short-duration travelers (who spent six
or fewer nights on the trip), satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences lessened their
satisfaction with leisure life; for long-duration travelers (who spent seven or more
nights on their trip), satisfaction with travel/tourism experiences increased their satis-
faction with leisure life. The current study did not find such a moderating effect.
Instead, it examined the direct impact of satisfaction with travel experiences on SWB
and found that short-duration travel experiences contribute to travelers’ SWB.

Sasfacon with Service 0.41 Sasfacon with

Aspects of Travel/Tourism Travel /Tourism
Phases Services

0.24

0.38 Sasfacon with

Trip Reflecons Travel
Experience

Subjecve Well-
being
Fig. 3 Tourist vacation satisfaction and SWB: Path coefficient for long-duration travelers
Chinese Tourist Vacation Satisfaction and Subjective Well-being 61

Sasfacon with Service 0.24 Sasfacon with

Aspects of Travel/Tourism Travel/Tourism
Phases Services

0.14

0.46 Sasfacon with

Trip Reflecons Travel
Experience

0.29

Subjecve Well-
being
Fig. 4 Tourist vacation satisfaction and SWB: Path coefficient for short-duration travelers

However, long-duration travelers’ satisfaction does not translate into higher SWB; other
factors, such as types of travel activities, may better predict this group’s SWB.

Conclusions and Implications

This study investigated the relationship between travelers’ satisfaction and SWB and
the corresponding roles of travel duration and frequency. The results confirmed the
positive effect of satisfaction with service aspects of travel/tourism phases on satisfac-
tion with travel/tourism services, the positive effect of trip reflections and satisfaction
with travel/tourism services on satisfaction with travel experiences, and the direct
positive effect of satisfaction with travel experiences on travelers’ SWB. The findings
also revealed the moderating effect of vacation duration on the link between tourist
satisfaction and SWB; vacation frequency does not have such an effect.
This research contributes to the existing knowledge base about tourist behavior and
experience in several ways. First, it is among the first to offer empirical evidence
regarding the influence of tourist satisfaction on SWB in the Eastern context. A major
limitation of existing SWB studies was that the majority were conducted with Western
participants. This study’s findings advanced the understanding of SWB in an Eastern
setting. Similar to their Western counterparts, the Chinese travelers’ satisfaction with
services and trip reflections contributed to their contentment with their travel experi-
ences, which in turn enhanced their SWB. The extent of the influences was also similar
across the two contexts.
Second, this study provided promising new information on how vacation duration
influenced the association between travel satisfaction and SWB. While long-duration
travel helped tourists transfer satisfaction with the service aspects of travel/tourism
phases into contentment with the overall travel/tourism services and travel experiences,
it did not help the latter’s contribution to a higher level of SWB. Finally, the study
represents one of the first attempts to explore the influence of travel frequency on the
association between tourist satisfaction and SWB, with the results suggesting no
moderating effect. For more frequent travels, greater satisfaction with travel/tourism
services did not guarantee enhanced travel experiences, nor did they result in higher
levels of SWB. Such findings extend the current understanding on the influence of
travel patterns, including travel duration and frequency, on the connection between
travel satisfaction and SWB.
62 Y. Chen et al.

The study also points to several practical implications by confirming that taking a
holiday serves as a form of leisure experience, which helps individuals enhance their
SWB. First, the results suggest that the important role of travel satisfaction in SWB
holds true not only for Western travelers, but also for their Eastern counterparts. Such
findings can provide strategic directions for China’s public policymakers and destina-
tion managers in the travel/tourism industry. Common practices used in the Western
context to improve satisfaction with the service aspects of travel/tourism could be
applied in China or other Eastern countries to enhance tourists’ contentment with
overall travel/tourism services or experiences. Moreover, since the scale used measured
multidimensions of SWB, tourism packages can be designed, promoted, or incorpo-
rated into the current inventory for a targeted SWB intervention. Of particular impor-
tance is the service aspect. Quality service at different travel phases needs to be assured
to fulfill tourists’ needs and preferences, thus enhancing their satisfaction with the total
experience and SWB.
Second, duration and frequency have long been considered important vacation-
related, behavioral variables that facilitate market segmentation (Bargeman, Joh, and
Timmermans 2002). By linking vacation duration and frequency to changes in tourists’
SWB, the study reveals vital information for industry practitioners to design various
vacation packages and for public administrators to develop appropriate policies based
on the requirements of different vacationer segments of the population. For instance, as
suggested in previous studies, the older generation tends to take longer holidays than
the younger people do. Considering that a longer vacation indicates stronger linkages
among satisfaction with the service aspects of travel/tourism phases, travel/tourism
services in general, and travel experiences, providing high-quality services before,
during, and upon return from a trip would ensure older vacationers’ pleasure in travel
services and experiences more easily, compared to the younger generation’s case.
Moreover, for shorter holidays, trip reflections contribute more to satisfaction with
travel experiences. Therefore, for younger travelers and during weekend getaway trips,
enhancing trip reflections with methods such as cultivating a more relaxed and intimate
environment or designing activities with high-involvement levels would be crucial for
enriching contentment with travel experiences.
Some limitations of this study need to be acknowledged. First, it had a relatively
small sample size. Although the ratio of its sample size to the estimated parameters
exceeded the recommended 5:1 level (Bentler 1993; Bentler and Chou 1987), a larger
sample size would enhance the robustness of the research model used, as well as that of
the proposed models for future studies. Second, this study formed travel duration
subgroups based on practical considerations. Future research may use travel duration
as a continuous moderator for a more in-depth understanding of the role of vacation
duration and frequency in travelers’ SWB.

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