Journal of

Agricultural Science
and Technology A
Volume 5, Number 1, January 2015 (Serial Number 43)

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 Journal of
Agricultural Science
and Technology A
Volume 5, Number 1, January 2015 (Serial Number 43)

Contents
Research Papers
1 Evaluation and Selection of Date Palm Varieties from Seedling Progeny in Saudi Arabia
Ibrahim Abdoulhadi Al-Abdoulhadi

8 Influence of Water Harvesting Practices on Farmer’s Productivity in Semi-Arid Areas of Nigeria

Johnson Kayode Adewumi, Adeyinka Sobowale and Are Kolawole

15 Soluble Carbohydrates Repress the Cellulolytic Activity of Clostridium cellulovorans and

Eubacterium cellulosolvens
Benjamin Gay Blair and Kevin Lee Anderson

25 Solute Transportin Sand Columns as Affected by Effluent Surface Tension

Seval Sünal and Sabit Erşahin

30 Identification and Diagnostics of Plant-Symbiotic and Phytopathogenic Bacteria

Nataliya Vladimirovna Punina, Mikhail Anatolievich Remnev and Alexey Fedorovich Topunov

40 Inclusion Levels of Fermented Apple Bagasse on in Vitro Rumen Fermentation of Alfalfa Hay
Yamicela Castillo-Castillo, Oscar Ruiz-Barrera, Eduviges Burrola-Barraza, Claudio Arzola-Alvarez,
Agustin Corral-Luna, Carlos Rodriguez-Muela and Manuel Murillo-Ortiz

47 Smallholder Pigs Production Systems in Tanzania

Eliakunda Kimbi, Faustin Lekule, James Mlangwa, Helena Mejer and Stig Thamsborg

61 Animal Behavior in a Fully Automatically Controlled Dairy Farm

Anja Gräff, Renate Luise Dörfler, Manfred Höld, Jörn Stumpenhausen and Heinz Bernhardt

68 Changes in Profitability of Chicken Broiler Production in 2008-2013

Ryszard Gilewski, Henryk Runowski and Stanisław Wężyk

75 Erasing the Asian Longhorned Beetle with Determined Actions, but at High Costs—A Case
Report
Severin Schwendener, Urs Kamm and Markus Hochstrasser
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 1-7
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.001
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Evaluation and Selection of Date Palm Varieties from

Seedling Progeny in Saudi Arabia

Ibrahim Abdoulhadi Al-Abdoulhadi

Date Palm Research Centre, P. O. Box 43, Al-Hassa 31982, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Abstract: A survey was conducted in 2011 in the major date growing regions of Saudi Arabia to identify and evaluate date palms
with fruit characteristics preferred by the producers and consumers. The regions in the Kingdom surveyed for this purpose were
Al-Zulfi, Al-Hassa, Najran, Al-Madinah Al-Munawarah and Al-Qassim. Seventy palms from seedlings were initially identified for
the study based on the following fruit characteristics, i.e., fruit length, breadth, weight, color, taste, texture, sugar content, external
appearance and also the market value. Subsequently, 12 palms (Al-Afiah, Duhiba, Adbah, Aliah, Shamshula, Masifat Al-Asedy,
Suwaid, Batlyah, Al-Nassar, Hussan, Sukariyat Al-Zulfi and Al-Hamat) mainly from the Zulfi and Riyadh regions were found to
meet the required standards with potential for commercial date farming. Among these, fruits of Adbah had the highest total sugars of
72.9% followed by Duhiba with a total sugar content of 71.9%. Fruit length was maximum (49.1 mm) in the variety Aliah, while the
fruits of the variety Hussan recorded the maximum weight of 19.5 g. Furthermore, it is pertinent to mention that fruit size of the 12
selected cultivars was generally large and comparable to Majdool, a well-known date palm cultivar of North Africa. The fruits of the
selected cultivars were also tasty and can be stored separately.

Key words: Fruit characteristics, Phoenix dactylifera, seedling date palm, Saudi Arabia.

1. Introduction genotype, environment, season and cultural practices.

The fruit typically characterizes the variety [3]. The
Date palm Phoenix dactylifera L. is an important
global date production has increased from just 1.8
fruit crop in the palm family (Arecaceae) cultivated in
million tons in 1962 to 7.5 million tons in 2013 [4].
the arid regions of the world including the Arabian
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia produces about 1.3
Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa since
million tons of dates annually, accounting for 17% of
pre-historic times where it is closely associated with
the global date production [4] and ranking third in the
the life and culture of the people. It is estimated that
world in terms of production. Besides being a very
there are 100 million date palms cultivated in an
good source of food, dates are reported to have several
estimated 1 million ha of which 60% exist in the Arab
medicinal qualities, i.e., antibacterial, antifungal,
world. Ten countries in the Middle East and North
antitumor, antiulcer and immuno-modulatory
Africa account for 90% of the world’s production. The
properties. Recently, the antioxidant activity of some
geographical dispersal of dates by seeds is the oldest
cultivars was investigated and attributed to phenolic
and most prevalent; the progeny commonly are
compounds [3, 5-7].
designated as seedling dates [1]. In the Americas, the
It has been estimated that there are 3,000 cultivars
first date palm plantings were from seeds carried from
of date palm worldwide [8], but it is widely suspected
Spain and North Africa [2]. The date palm fruit is a
that many of the names represent synonyms [2]. Saudi
drupe and exhibits a high diversity in texture, shape,
Arabia has a rich diversity of about 400 date cultivars,
color and chemical composition depending on the
of which 10 varieties are popular, have a high
consumer preference in different regions of the
Corresponding author: Ibrahim Abdoulhadi Al-Abdoulhadi,
M.Sc., research field: date palm production. E-mail: Kingdom [9] and are propagated by offshoots as
hadiibrahim@hotmail.com.
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 8-14
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.002
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Influence of Water Harvesting Practices on Farmer’s

Productivity in Semi-Arid Areas of Nigeria

Johnson Kayode Adewumi1, Adeyinka Sobowale1 and Are Kolawole2

1. Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta 110001, Nigeria
2. Faculty of Management and Social Sciences, Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida University, Lapai 911101, Nigeria

Abstract: Rain water harvesting practices and their effects on the productivity of farming systems in the semi-arid areas of Nigeria
have been investigated using participatory rural appraisal (PRA) technique. There was no direct water harvesting interventions by
government agencies in the area. Farmers take advantage of naturally existing depressions and abandoned burrow pits close to their
farmlands to harvest rain water for surface irrigation using petrol engine pumps. The reservoirs surveyed were found to be grossly
inadequate in the drought period. Water budget analysis revealed that evaporation and seepage losses from reservoirs were high in
both agro-ecological zone considered. The application of rain water harvesting practices was found to have increased farmers income
by 61% and 125% in the Sahel and Sudan Savannah agro-ecological zones, respectively. Governments at all levels in these areas
need to support these farmers in order to boost their production to achieve food security in these drought prone areas. Farmers lack
timely access to farm credit and agricultural inputs; the indigenous water harvesting practices identified need to be enhanced with the
aid of agricultural engineering extension services.

Key words: Rainfall, water harvesting, irrigation, drought, productivity, farming systems.

1. Introduction Northern Nigeria, farmers still draw water from rivers

for domestic and agricultural uses [4]. While datasets
The most important external environmental effects
relating to surface water resources, land-cover and
on agriculture are related to the availability and
areas equipped for irrigation are said to be available
quality of water. Water is essential to maximize both
[5], the relative contribution of irrigation to
crop yield and quality; this resource has assumed
agricultural production is still subjective in Nigeria [6].
tremendous importance, especially in the semi-arid
However, it should be pointed out that despite the
areas of Nigeria, where drought and environmental
relatively small productivity extent of groundwater
degradation has seriously affected agricultural
irrigation compared to conventional rain fed farming
production and livelihood. There are many indications
and surface/gravity flow irrigation, especially in the
that water is becoming an increasingly scarce resource
rain forest and Guinea Savannah region of Nigeria, it
[1, 2] and surface water and groundwater flows are
represents a unique alternative for management of
changing due to changes in climate and land use in
scarce water resources in support of small scale
Nigeria. Access to water is now recognized as a
agricultural production and rural livelihoods in
prerequisite for poverty reduction [3] and it is the
drought prone areas of the country.
most important determinant of increase in agricultural
The Natural Resources Council of Nigeria
output and rural development.
(NARESCON) describes drought-prone areas in
As a result of lack of adequate infrastructure in
Nigeria as those lying above latitude 11° North in the
country [7]. The area comprises of the Sudan
Corresponding author: Adeyinka Sobowale, Ph.D., Savannah and the Sahel Savannah agro-ecological
research fields: land and water engineering. E-mail: sobowalea
@funaab.edu.ng. zones of Nigeria (Fig. 1). The changing trend of global
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 15-24
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.003
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Soluble Carbohydrates Repress the Cellulolytic Activity

of Clostridium cellulovorans and Eubacterium
cellulosolvens

Benjamin Gay Blair1 and Kevin Lee Anderson2

1. Department of Biology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville AL 36265, USA
2. Department of Biology, Arkansas State University, Beebe AR 7201, USA

Abstract: Studies have provided indirect evidence that cellulolytic activity of some anaerobic bacteria is repressed by carbohydrates,
such as glucose. This effect is known as carbon catabolite repression (CCR). Previous work has found that cellulolytic activity of
Clostridium cellulovorans and Eubacterium cellulosolvens are regulated. Many cellulolytic systems of these organisms are expressed
only in the presence of cellulose or cellobiose (the disaccharide of cellulose). Some of these cellulose-induced systems also appear
subject to CCR when more soluble substrates, such as glucose, are also available. To determine if such repression directly effects
cellulolytic activity of C. cellulovorans and E. cellulosolvens, these organisms were cultivated in media containing a glucose analog.
We then measured the ability of low levels of analog to inhibit growth of the organisms when cellobiose or cellulose were the energy
substrates. Our results found that growth of both C. cellulovorans and E. cellulosolvens in cellobiose-containing medium are strongly
inhibited by glucose analogs. In addition, both organisms exhibited delayed and slower growth in cellulose-containing medium when
a glucose analog was added. These results provide direct demonstration that these cellulolytic bacteria are subject to CCR. This
repression of cellulolysis may affect both of these organisms’ ability to serve as industrial platforms for biomass degradation, and
may interfere with the contribution of E. cellulosolvens toward animal digestion of cellulose. These results were also in sharp
contrast to what has been reported regarding CCR activity in Clostridium cellulolyticum, which actively expresses cellulases in the
presence of low levels of glucose.

Key words: Cellulolytic, anaerobic bacteria, catabolite repression, cellulolysis, cellulose degradation.

1. Introduction the biomass, especially when such resources are

limited. A significant group of these cellulolytic
Plant polysaccharides are the earth’s most abundant
organisms are anaerobic bacteria, which are found in a
form of renewable biomass. Cellulolytic
wide variety of ecological niches. Thus, it is important
microorganisms have a significant role in this biomass
to understand how these bacteria regulate their
renewal and the global carbon cycle. Many biofuel
hydrolytic activity and obtain optimal cellulolysis (i.e.,
platforms, livestock production strategies and
growth using cellulose as the substrate).
recycling protocols also rely upon the successful
Cellulolytic bacteria employ a variety of regulatory
performance of these microorganisms. Yet, consistent
systems that can affect their cellulolytic activity and
and high yield cellulolytic activity has frequently
thereby alter their rate of cellulose degradation. This
proven a challenge in these areas.
would subsequently alter their overall contribution to
Microbes regulate their cellulolytic activity to more
biomass recycling and plant digestion. Understanding
efficiently utilize all available energy sources within
how these regulatory events can alter bacterial
cellulolysis is necessary for a greater understanding of
Corresponding author: Kevin Lee Anderson, Ph.D., technological, ecological and agricultural advances of
assistant professor, research field: microbiology. E-mail:
klanderson@asub.edu. biomass conversion.
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 25-29
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.004
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Solute Transportin Sand Columns as Affected by

Effluent Surface Tension

Seval Sünal and Sabit Erşahin

Department of Forest Engineering, School of Forestry, Çankırı Karatekin University, Çankırı 18100, Turkey

Abstract: Transport of nonreactive solutes in soils is principally controlled by soil properties, such as particle-size distribution and
pore geometry. Surface tension of soil water yields capillary forces that bind the water in the soil pores. Changes in soil water surface
tension by contaminants may affect flow of soil water due to decreased capillary forces, caused by lowered soil water surface tension.
This study aimed at assessing solute transport in sand columns as affected by effluent surface tension. Miscible displacement (MD)
tests were conducted on sand columns repacked with sands sieved from 2.0, 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 mm screens. The MD tests were
conducted with 0.05 M bromide solutions prepared using water with surface tension adjusted to 72.8, 64, 53.5 and 42 dyne/cm2.
Obtained breakthrough curves were modeled with the convection-dispersion equation (CDE) model. Coefficient of hydrodynamic
dispersion and pore-water velocity responded inconsistently across decreased particle-sizes and water surface tensions and this was
attributed to non-uniform effect of lowered effluent surface tension on solute transport in different pore-size distribution.

Key words: Breakthrough curve, hydrodynamic dispersion, convection dispersion equation, pore-water velocity, miscible
displacement.

1. Introduction hydrodynamic dispersion, advection and retardation of

the solutes. The widespread use of CDE models in
Contamination of groundwater and surface water
interpreting chemical transport phenomena in natural
systems by industrial, municipal and agricultural
porous media is well documented elsewhere [7].
chemicals has focused considerable attention on solute
Miscible displacement (MD) tests have long been
transport in soils [1]. Solute transport in a porous
used to evaluate the solute transport characteristics of
medium is controlled by properties of the porous
porous media [8-12] and many others. The MD tests
medium and solutes. Pore geometry is the primary soil
can lead to an understanding of the physical, chemical
characteristic that control solute transport [2].
and microbiological processes that control solute
Interaction between transported solute and particle
dispersion, convection and retardation in soils [13, 14].
surfaces has a strong control on transport and retention
MD tests are used for assessment of the qualitative
of solutes in soils [3].
and quantitative aspects of chemical transport in
Many models have been developed to describe
disturbed and undisturbed soil columns and lysimeters
transport of water and solutes through porous media
[10, 11, 15]. These tests give information on response
[3]. Convection-dispersion equation (CDE) model is
of hydrodynamic dispersion (D) to soil physical
one of the most commonly used models [4]. The CDE
characteristics, diffusion and ion changes and sorption
model is widely used in modeling breakthrough
in soils. For example, asymmetric BTCs obtained
curves (BTCs) of solutes from disturbed and
from miscible displacement of a nonreactive solute
undisturbed soils [5, 6]. The CDE can account for
(i.e., chloride) indicate effect of physical
nonequilibrium on solute transport. Physical
Corresponding author: Seval Sünal, Ph.D., research fields: nonequilibrium arises when soil water content,
soil physics and hydropedology. E-mail:
sevalsunal@karatekin.edu.tr. properties of soil texture, structure and pore-size
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 30-39
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.005
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Identification and Diagnostics of Plant-Symbiotic and

Phytopathogenic Bacteria

Nataliya Vladimirovna Punina1, Mikhail Anatolievich Remnev2 and Alexey Fedorovich Topunov1
1. A. N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry RAS, Moscow 119071, Russia
2. The Federal State Unitary Enterprise All-Russia Research Institute of Automatics, Moscow 127055, Russia

Abstract: Rapid and reliable diagnostics and identification of pathogenic and symbiotic bacteria are at the top of the agenda. In the
first case, they are important to control and prevent crop damages, and thus reduce economic losses. In the second, it’s necessary to
design and monitor quality of biofertilizer to raise its effectiveness and crop capacity. Development of accurately, rapidly, technically
and commercially accessible methods remains a critical problem for the bacteria with comprehensive phylogenetic structure. In this
work, we investigated pathogenic Xanthomonas and Ralstonia and symbiotic Sinorhizobium. The aim of this investigation was to
examine the applicability of the novel methods for phylogenetic study, identification and diagnostics of closely related species of
these genera. The conventional phenotypic and genotypic (16S rRNA, gyrB) methods were applied as referents. Novel polymerase
chain reaction (PCR)-based approaches, single-adapter amplified fragment length polymorphism (saAFLP) and comparative analyses
of hin-region and Xcc0006-0007 sequences, were first employed for the investigations. Phenotypic tests, 16S rRNA and gyrB
analysis distinguished bacteria at the genus level, but failed to identify them to the species robustly. The new methods identified
bacteria at the inter-species level more precisely. This identification agreed with the accepted genera’s classifications. The only
exceptions were X. fuscans & X. citri and X. perforance & X. euvesicatoria which clustered together. The further outcome of this
study was achieved hin-region-based genus-specific PCR primers for the express-diagnostics of the genera. Summary, these new
methods can be applied for genome-based phylogeny investigations and as convenient and accurate tools for identification and
routine laboratory diagnostics of these comprehensive genera.

Key words: Hin-region, saAFLP, Xanthomonas, Rhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Ralstonia.

1. Introduction beneficial associates and symbiotic microbes for

biofertilizer design; (3) to provide surveillance and
Plan-associated bacteria share a long history with
control for both pathogenic and beneficial bacteria,
plants and profound impact on the health and
and thus prevent a bacterial diseases and increase a
agricultural yield of crop [1]. There are two main
crop yield.
groups of bacteria based on their adverse/beneficial
For a long time, bacterial classification has been
effects on the host plants: pathogens and mutualists
based largely on culture and biochemical tests,
[2]. Investigation of the plant-bacterial interactions
DNA-DNA hybridization, and 16S rRNA gene
and microorganism’s taxonomic classification are the
sequencing analysis [3]. Nowadays, classification,
most important and developing directions of the
identification and diagnostics integrate also new
present biology [1]. The received knowledge can be
techniques to determine both phenotypic and
used in agricultural and biotechnological sectors: (1)
genotypic characteristics [3-7]. The use of multilocus
to diagnose most prevalent and most economically
sequence typing (MLST), multilocus sequence
important pathogens and prevent plant diseases; (2) to
analysis (MLSA) and protein-typing are becoming
identify and describe most common groups of
very important for delineation of plant pathogenic and
Corresponding author: Nataliya Vladimirovna Punina, symbiotic bacteria at species level and lower level [8].
Ph.D., research fields: microbiology and molecular biology. Over the last few years, these methods were improved
E-mail: hin-enkelte@yandex.ru.
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 40-46
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.006
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Inclusion Levels of Fermented Apple Bagasse on in Vitro

Rumen Fermentation of Alfalfa Hay

Yamicela Castillo-Castillo1, Oscar Ruiz-Barrera2, Eduviges Burrola-Barraza2, Claudio Arzola-Alvarez2, Agustin

Corral-Luna2, Carlos Rodriguez-Muela2 and Manuel Murillo-Ortiz3
1. Department of Veterinary Medicine, Multidisciplinary Division, Autonomous University of Juarez City, Nuevo Casas Grandes,
Chihuahua 31803, México
2. College of Animal Science and Ecology, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, Chihuahua 31453, México
3. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Juarez University of the State of Durango, Durango 34620, Mexico

Abstract: The aim of this study was to assess the effect of inclusion of fermented apple bagasse (FAB) obtained through solid state
fermentation on pH, ammonia nitrogen (N-NH3), volatile fatty acids (VFA) content, in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD), lactic
acid and microbial counting of alfalfa hay under in vitro rumen environment; four levels of FAB were evaluated (0, 0.25, 0.50 and 0.
75 g/dry matter of FAB) replacing 1.5 g dry matter (DM) of alfalfa hay and incubated at different fermentation times (0, 4, 8, 12 and
24 h) using a complete random design with repeated measures on time. Counts of live yeast colonies (6.08, 6.33, 6.24 and 6.51
CFU/mL expressed as log 10) was higher when FAB was included in the different levels up to the 12 h of fermentation (P < 0.0001);
lactic acid content also increased as FAB was included in the different levels (10.61, 13.86, 16.84 and 14.57 µg/mL) up to the 12 h of
incubation (P < 0.001). Nevertheless, the other variables measured as pH, N-NH3, VFA, IVDMD, total bacteria and fungi counts,
were not affected by the treatments. It is concluded that substitution of FAB by alfalfa hay in an in vitro rumen ecosystem positively
modified live yeast colonies and lactic acid concentration, without effect on the other fermentative and microbial parameters of the in
vitro rumen environment, but considering mixes of FAB and alfalfa hay as a quality ingredient for the feeding of ruminants.

Key words: Apple bagasse, alfalfa, microbial, solid state fermentation.

1. Introduction matter (DM) digestibility and improved patterns of

rumen fermentation when he supplemented two types
The search for alternate food sources to feed
of foods produced by SSF in cattle consuming
livestock, to reduce conventional food imports and to
elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum). In the state
reduce production costs has been of prime importance
of Chihuahua, one of the main foods for dairy cattle is
to researchers in recent years. Apple bagasse is a
alfalfa hay because of its high nutritional value,
waste product of the juice extraction industry that
mainly its high crude protein (CP) content (18%-20%)
provides low protein content [1] and is considered a
[6]; however, its market value is too high and out of
pollutant to the environment. Its use as a food source
reach to many low-income producers, therefore cost
for ruminants has been improved through a process of
effective alternatives must be found as partial
solid state fermentation (SSF), which improves the
replacement in the diets of ruminants. The objective of
quality and quantity of protein as well as the
this study was to study the effect of inclusion of
digestibility of fiber [2, 3]. Many studies show that
fermented apple bagasse (FAB) in SSF in the
foods that undergo SSF are processed successfully by
digestive physiology and microbial quality of fibrous
ruminants [4, 5]. Ramos [5] found increases in dry
materials, such as, alfalfa hay in an in vitro rumen
system, as well as its feasibility as an ingredient in
Corresponding author: Oscar Ruiz-Barrera, Ph.D., research
feed for ruminants.
field: animal nutrition. E-mail: oscarruiz80@gmail.com.
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 47-60
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.007
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Smallholder Pigs Production Systems in Tanzania

Eliakunda Kimbi1, Faustin Lekule2, James Mlangwa3, Helena Mejer4 and Stig Thamsborg4
1. Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI), Uyole, P.O. Box 6191, Mbeya 53126, Tanzania
2. Department of Animal Science and Production, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3004, Morogoro 67125, Tanzania
3. Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3021, Morogoro 67125,
Tanzania
4. Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlaegevej 100,
DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark

Abstract: Pig production is becoming increasingly important in Eastern Africa in recent years. Two studies were carried out in
Mbozi and Mbeya rural districts to characterise smallholder pig production systems and associated pig management practises. A
participatory rural appraisal (PRA), involving 279 pigs-keeping households in nine villages and a cross sectional survey using a
random sample of 300 pig farmers in 30 villages of the study districts, were used to collect data. Important economic activities were
crop farming, livestock keeping, petty business, casual labour and artisan works in that order. The mean farm size and number of pigs
per household was 2 ± 2.7 ha and 4.9 ± 4.2 pigs, respectively. The largest categories of pig herd structure were breeding females
followed by piglets. Age, marital status, household size and land size of household head had significant influence on the pig herd size
(P < 0.05). Pig farmers practised three main types of pig management systems, namely, total confinement, semi confinement and free
range/herding. Each system had specific management practices in relation to feeding and housing. The frequencies of these systems
varied significantly (P < 0.01) by socio-economic factors, such as, educational status of household head, land size and herd sizes of
pigs, goats and cattle. The authors recommend effective use of locally available resources and careful consideration of existing
farming systems for sustainable development of smallholder pig production.

Key words: Smallholder, pig management, systems and practices.

1. Introduction and Asia [8-12].

Pig farming in Tanzania is mainly carried out by
Tanzania is an agrarian country, with which about
smallholder farmers, involving over 500,000 rural
80% of its labour force are engaged in agriculture
households, representing about 22.4% of agricultural
production and over 80% of its population lives in
households [3]. Most pigs are kept in high altitude
rural areas dependent on mainly crop and livestock
areas, where the human population density is high and
enterprises to support their livelihoods [1]. Out of the
the land is of high agricultural potential. About 54%
5.8 million agricultural households in Tanzania, about
of the pigs in the country are thus found in the
40% are keeping livestock. Cattle, goats and poultry
Southern highlands of Tanzania (SHT) regions
are traditionally the major livestock kept. However, in
(Mbeya, Iringa, Rukwa and Ruvuma) [3]. In these
the last two decades, pig production has shown
areas, smallholder pig farming plays an important role
remarkable growth in terms of pig population, pork
in securing livelihoods of rural communities and
production and consumption [2-4]. Similar
availability of meat to rural and urban areas. Similar
developments have been observed in other parts of
roles of smallholder pig farming has also been
Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) countries [5-7]
reported in other ESA countries [6, 13-15], and other
developing countries such as India [11], Vietnam [10]
Corresponding author: Eliakunda Kimbi, Ph.D., research
fields: smallholder farmers and livestock production systems. and China [16, 12].
E-mail: cekimbi@yahoo.com.
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 61-67
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.008
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Animal Behavior in a Fully Automatically Controlled

Dairy Farm

Anja Gräff1, Renate Luise Dörfler1, Manfred Höld2, Jörn Stumpenhausen2 and Heinz Bernhardt1
1. Technische Universität München, Center of Life and Food Sciences, Agricultural Systems Engineering, Am Staudengarten 2,
D-85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
2. Hochschule Weihenstephan-Triesdorf, University of Applied Sciences Weihenstephan-Triesdorf, Faculty of Agricultural and
Nutritional Sciences, Am Hofgarten 1, D-85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany

Abstract: As there are increasing numbers of small farms in Germany, it is necessary for them, to keep the workload as small as
possible by enhancing the use of automatism. Important as those energetic-technical capabilities and features in a modern dairy farm
are, the final decision when using automatic machinery depends on the animal itself and its behavior. As a result, all
animal-physiological criteria, animal protection and animal welfare have to be taken into consideration. Therefore tests have been
done to investigate dairy cattle behavior on suddenly occurring energy failures, fluctuations or postponements due to a load
management. The experiments have been taken in four different stables. In each stable, 12 “focus cows” have been selected. Their
daily stress response was measured by a heart rate monitor and faecal cortisol metabolites. Video observation showed modifications
in behavior, escape or avoidance reactions; pedometers recorded the movement activity. These scientific experiments will
demonstrate cattle behavior in situations driven by a power load management, but no statistically significant effects on the usual daily
routine are being expected.

Key words: Cattle behavior, cortisol, heart rate variability, power load management, smart grid, Germany.

1. Introduction agricultural operations and other investors in

1.1 Background
The nuclear disaster of Fukushima in 2011 has led
to the phasing-out of nuclear energy in Germany until
2022 and has initiated therefore the change towards
sustainability.
Hence, the German Federal Government will
address the following specific objectives: to increase
the share of renewable energy of almost 25% (2012)
up to 45% by 2025 and up to 60% by 2035 [1]. To
avoid far energy transports, the German government
promotes regional renewable energy concepts.
In addition, energy from small-sized wind energy
plants, photovoltaic and biogas will be increasingly
fed in a decentralized way by private households,
Corresponding author: Anja Gräff, M.Sc., research field:
interaction of robot systems with farm animals. E-mail:
anja.graeff@wzw.tum.de.
renewable energy into the grid. This will change the
electricity grid from its original function as a pure
electrical distribution network to an electricity grid,
which can transport electrical power in both
directions.
The transmission system operators for electricity
must guarantee net stability despite varying supply
according to sunshine duration or wind force. The
main method to store excessive energy currently in
use is with pumped-storage power plants. Today,
battery storage technology is almost fit for series
production.
However, it must also be considered how the
energy at consumer level can be used “intelligently”,
i.e., how peak currents can be avoided in consumption
in standalone operation as well as for the energy fed
into the grid. This also applies for dairy farms. On the
one hand, the agricultural businesses produce energy
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 68-74
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.009
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Changes in Profitability of Chicken Broiler Production in

2008-2013

Ryszard Gilewski1, Henryk Runowski2 and Stanisław Wężyk1

1. AVICONS, Warsaw 185-03, Poland
2. Faculty of Economics, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw 02-787, Poland

Abstract: The profitability of broiler chicken production depends on many interrelated factors, such as the size of the farm, farming
system, the genetic potential, feed price and the quality of chicken meat obtained as a final product, e.g., meat, and a strategy of their
sales on the domestic and foreign market. Economic analysis were conducted in randomly selected farms growing commercial
broilers, from April 2008 to March 2013 (28 cycles all together), at the same time in three buildings, with 46 thousands to 54
thousands one-day chickens. In the analyzed period, broilers were reared for 35-50 d. The average slaughter body mass ranged from
2.36 kg to 2.99 kg with feed conversion ratio (FCR) 1.68 kg of feed/kg of body weight gain to 1.78 kg of feed/kg of body weight gain.
Stock mortality at that time ranged from 3.5% to 6.4%. On the basis of macroeconomic data, a clear relationship between the
increase in the period particularly from 2004 onwards, prices of feed 33.6% and the purchase price of livestock 22.5% in the case of
the evaluated farms were found. These values were 27.9% and 31.7%, respectively. From the analysis of the relationship between
different types of broiler production costs, it was concluded that the main determinant of the profitability of live poultry production
was the cost of feed and first of all was the prices of feed. This means that the boom in live poultry production is variable, resulting in
consequences for production and income.

Key words: Broiler chickens, profitability, export.

1. Introduction poultry exports to third countries, where it supplied

63.5 thousand tons in the first half of 2014, compared
As a result of access to the international market
with 56.8 thousand tons in 2013 [2].
since Poland joining European Union (EU) in 2004,
The factor limiting the volume of broiler chickens
the production of broiler chickens increased
production, was the implementation of EU directive
significantly. At the same time, the average
(2007/43/EC) in 2010, setting out the maximum
consumption of poultry meat per capita has been
weight of chickens 42 kg of body weight/m2 of the
systematically increasing. It is currently (2014)
floor area in broiler. Broiler producers initially feared
exceeding 27 kg/capita/annum. According to the
that the implementation of the above directive will
National Poultry Council—The Chamber of
reduce the profitability of chickens meat production,
Commerce [1] in 2014, domestic production of
but the results of the inspections carried out by
poultry meat will increase by 8%-10% and it will
veterinary services showed that the producers had
exceed 2 million tons, out of which almost 30%, i.e.,
quickly adapted to EU requirements, with the
approximately 650 thousand tons will be exported. In
appropriate level of the welfare of broiler houses.
the export of poultry meat, Poland occupies the third
The profitability of broiler chicken production
place in the world, after the US and Brazil, and ranks
depends on many mutually interrelated factors [3], the
third in the EU after France and the Netherlands in
size of the farm, farming system, the genetic potential
of chickens kept for meat, the quality and price of feed

Corresponding author: Ryszard Gilewski, Ph.D., research
fields: poultry breeding and rearing. E-mail: ryszard.gilewski
and the quality of the final products, i.e., meat or its
@wp.pl.
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A 5 (2015) 75-79
doi: 10.17265/2161-6256/2015.01.010
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Erasing the Asian Longhorned Beetle with Determined

Actions, but at High Costs—A Case Report

Severin Schwendener1, Urs Kamm2 and Markus Hochstrasser3

1. AWEL, Amt für Abfall, Wasser, Energie und Luft, Sektion Biosicherheit (SBS), Walcheplatz 2, Zürich 8090, Switzerland
2. ALN, Abteilung Wald, Forstdienst, Weinbergstrasse 15, Zürich 8090, Switzerland
3. Strickhof, Fachstelle Pflanzenschutz, Eschikon 21, Lindau 8315, Switzerland

Abstract: In 2012, an infestation of Asian Longhorned Beetle (ALB) was detected in Winterthur (Canton Zurich, Switzerland). With
more than 140 adult beetles and several hundred eggs and larvae, the infestation was by far the most extensive in Switzerland. Based
on long-term experiences made in Braunau (Austria), where the first ALB infestation in Europe occured, the beetle was fought with
extensive actions: removal of all infested trees, preventive removal of potential host trees and installation of a focus- and a buffer
zone. Transport of plant material out of these zones was banned and a close monitoring regime including specialised dogs put in
place. As a result of these efforts, there were no adult beetles and only a few living larvae detected 2013. Neither larvae nor beetles
were found in 2014. However, costs are high: 700,000 Swiss francs were spent in 2012 alone, not including hundreds of working
hours spent by employees of the Canton Zurich. The previewed monitoring programme between 2013 and 2017 is estimated to cost
another 2.8 million Swiss francs, if no more living beetles are detected. The experiences from Winterthur thus show that elimination
of a relatively small ALB infestation with determined actions is likely possible in short time. However, the high costs demonstrate
the need for strong boarder controls or alternative packaging materials for imports from infested regions (China). In addition, a
concept for small communities with limited resources is needed.

Key words: Infestation, zone, focus, buffer, transport, monitoring, elimination, resources.

1. Introduction  early stage. Our goal is to provide authorities in

similar situations with a set of measures that have
Asian Longhorned Beetle (ALB) is one of the most
proven successful before and that might be used to
dangerous plant pests worldwide, causing millions of
deal with comparable ALB infestations.
dollars of damage and being the reason for thousands of
trees cut in urban space [1]. ALB was introduced into 2. Case Description
the United States in the early or mid nineties, and has
The first living beetles were discovered in June
since then become a major economical and ecological
2012 by members of the city gardening office in
problem in the US, Canada and Europe [2], where it
Winterthur, a city of some 100,000 inhabitants near
was introduced first in Braunau (Austria) in 2001. Its
Zurich [5]. Compared to earlier infestations in the US,
broad host spectrum, its ability to attack completely
in Canada or Europe [6], the infestation was
vital trees and its larvae’s capability of final
discovered at an early stage (likely in its third
development even in dead timber enhance ALBs spread
generation) and was therefore smaller in extent.
and the damage it causes after infestation [3, 4].
Nevertheless, it was by far the most extensive
Here, we report the case of an ALB infestation in
infestation in Switzerland: more than 140 living
Switzerland, which was discovered at a relatively
beetles and several hundred eggs were discovered.
The infestation occurred in an industrial area, where a
Corresponding author: Severin Schwendener, M.Sc.,
research field: biosafety. E-mail: new street had been constructed a couple of years
severin.schwendener@bd.zh.ch.