EETE 2102: ELECTRONICS 1 : DIPLOMA

MINISTRY OF MANPOWER

NIZWA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Engineering Department
Electrical & Electronics Section

TEACHING MATERIAL
(THEORY)
Course Name : ELECTRONICS 1
Course Code : EETE2102
Level : Diploma
Specialization : Electrical Power /Computer /
Electronics & Communications

CHAPTER 1 Part A
Student Name :____________________________
Student ID :____________________________
Section :____________________ ________

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Objectives

1. Understand the basic concepts of electronics and fundamentals of electronic devices.

2. Recognize the PN junction and understand the characteristics and applications PN diodes.

3. Know the structure, types and characteristics of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT).

4. Understand the use of BJT in small signal amplifier circuits.

5. Know the structure, types and characteristics of Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFET) and
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET).

6. Understand the use of JFET and MOSFET in different electronic applications.

Outcomes

1. Recognize and understand the basic concepts of semiconductor materials & how to be used in
active electronic devices.

2. Describe and analyze the diode circuits.

3. Design and test different diode circuits, for example- rectifying, clipping, clamping, logic
circuits etc.

4. Describe, analyze & test a basic bipolar transistor circuit.

5. Design test and repair small signal amplifier circuit using BJT.

6. Describe, analyze & investigate a basic JFET and MOSFET transistor circuits.

7. Design and test MOSFET circuits as a small signal amplifier and digital switches.

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CHAPTER 1 – Part A
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Elements, Compounds & atoms
1.2 Conductors, Semiconductors & Insulators
1.3 Energy bands

2. SEMICONDUCTORS
2.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors
2.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors
2.2.1 N-type:
2.2.2 P-type

3. DIODES
3.1 Biasing & types of biasing
3.1.1 No Biasing
3.1.2 Forward Biasing
3.1.3 Reverse Biasing
3.2 V-I characteristics of various diode models
3.2.1 Ideal Diode Model
3.2.2 Simplified Diode Model
3.2.3 Actual diode Model

4. DIODE CIRCUITS
4.1 RECTIFIERS
4.1.1 Half wave rectifier
4.1.2 Full wave center tapped Rectifier
4.1.3 Full wave bridge Rectifier
4.2 Comparison of HWR, FWR (CT) & FWBR
4.3 Capacitor Filters
4.3.1 Ripple factor

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Elements, Compounds & atoms
All elements are made up of fundamental particles called atoms. Any compound is a mixture of
two or more elements.

According to atomic theory, all electrons in an atom that constitute an element are placed in fixed
energy levels called orbits. The electrons present in the outermost orbit are called the valence
electrons. These valence electrons are loosely bound to the atom. A small external energy can
excite these valence electrons to break the bond and become free electrons. These free electrons
are responsible for any flow of current and are hence called conduction electrons.

1.2 Conductors, Semiconductors & Insulators

Depending upon the electrical properties, materials can be classified into three categories:
Conductors, Insulators & Semiconductors

a. Conductors:

Materials that easily conduct electrical current under normal conditions. Conductors have many
loosely bound valence electrons & free electrons. The best conductors are elemental materials such
as copper, silver, aluminum, gold etc.

b. Insulators:

Materials that do not conduct electrical current under normal conditions. The best insulators are in
the compound form. Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore there are negligible
or very few free electrons in an insulator. Examples: Wood, Glass, Rubber etc.

c. Semiconductors:

A material that has conductivity intermediate to conductors and insulators. In other words a
semiconductor behaves as a conductor if environment is conducive and required conditions are
available else it behaves as an insulator. A semiconductor in its pure state is neither a good
conductor nor a good insulator. Semiconductors may be elemental or in compound form.
Commonly used elemental semiconductors are Silicon and Germanium. The commonly used
compound semiconductor is Gallium Arsenide. The semiconductors are characterized by atoms
with four valence electrons.

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1.3 Energy bands

Fig 1: Energy band diagram of Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators

In a semiconductor electrons are covalent bonded. At sufficiently high temperatures, thermal
energy causes the atoms to vibrate; with sufficient kinetic energy, some of the valence electrons
break their bonds and become conduction electrons. These free electrons enable current flow in
the semiconductor.

The vacancy caused by the movement of a free electron is called a hole. Hole is positively charged
and the charge is equal to that of an electron which is negatively charged.

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2. SEMICONDUCTORS
2.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure semiconductors having very less or no impurity concentration is called intrinsic
semiconductor. A semiconductor in its pure state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator.

2.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors

Extrinsic semiconductors can be made from intrinsic semiconductors by adding controlled amount
of impurity atoms that either constitute negatively charged electrons or positively charged holes to
increase the conductivity. This process of adding impurities is called doping.

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors namely N-type & P-type semiconductor.
2.2.1 N-type:
Addition of a pentavalent impurity atom like Antimony (Sb) [Atomic Number 51=2+8+18+18+5]
or Arsenic (As) [Atomic Number 33=2+8+18+5] to silicon [Atomic Number 14=2+8+4] or
Germanium [Atomic Number 32=2+8+18+4] atoms will result in four of the valence electrons
forming the bond with each other resulting in one electron free (not involved in bonding). In an N-
type Semiconductor electrons are majority carriers while holes are minority carriers.

2.2.2 P-type
Addition of a trivalent impurity atom like Boron (B) [Atomic Number 5=2+3] or Gallium(Ga)
[Atomic Number 31=2+8+18+3] to silicon [Atomic Number 14=2+8+4] or Germanium [Atomic
Number 32=2+8+18+4] atoms will result in three of the valence electrons forming the bond with
each other abd one bond hanging. In other words there is a need of one more electron to form the
fourth bond. This vacancy is called as hole. In an P-type Semiconductor holes are majority carriers
while electroncs are minority carriers.

Fig 2: Doping trivalent and pentavalent impurity to silicon

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3. DIODES
When a section of a P Type material and an N Type material are brought in contact with each other
the device is called PN Junction Diode. The N region is called the cathode and the P region is
called the anode. Diode is a unidirectional device.

Fig 3: Schematic and circuit symbol of diode

3.1 Biasing & types of biasing
The process of applying DC voltage to the device (diode) is called biasing. There are basically
three types of biasing [i] No Biasing [ii] Forward biasing & [iii] Reverse biasing.

3.1.1 No Biasing

Fig 4: PN junction - No Biasing

When a P type is joined with an N type crystal then the free electrons move across the junction to
occupy the free holes and thus vanish. This leaves with the impurity atoms converted to impurity
ions. Since these ions are bonded they are immobile hence called as immobile ions.

These immobile ions are responsible for the Built in potential VB responsible for any further
movement of free electrons and holes across the junction. Thus the region occupied by immobile
ions is called depletion region.

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3.1.2 Forward Biasing

Fig 5: PN junction – Forward Biasing

A diode is forward biased when the +ve terminal of a DC source is connected to anode and the -
ve terminal is connected to cathode. This forces electrons and holes toward the PN junction. The
free electrons near the PN junction are attracted by the +ve terminal of the battery. Similarly holes
are attracted by the -ve terminal of the battery. The +ve charged hole movement constitute a current
IH in the same direction as they are moving. The -ve charged electron movement constitute a
current IE in the opposite direction of movement. Since both IE and IH are in the same direction
they combine to form the forward current I. I = IE + IH

In this case the barrier width or depletion width reduces/decreases

3.1.3 Reverse biasing

Fig 6: PN junction - Reverse Biasing

A diode is said to be reverse biased when the -ve terminal of a DC source is connected to the
anode through a current limiting resistor and the +ve terminal is connected to the cathode .
Reverse biasing widens the depletion region and hence the flow of current is restricted. The
current is zero or in practical cases negligible in the order of µA and the entire bias voltage
appears across the diode.

In this case the barrier width or depletion width increases.

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3.2 V-I characteristics of various diode models

3.2.1 Ideal Diode Model
Voltage across the diode is ignored, the resultant model is called Ideal Diode

Fig 7: Ideal Diode

3.2.2 Simplified Diode Model
Diode will conduct if voltage across the diode is Vdiode (0.7 for Si and 0.3 for Ge). Upto Vdiode the
current through the diode is Zero. The resultant model is called Simplified Diode Model.

Fig 8: Simplified Diode

3.2.3 Actual diode Model
When voltage is applied to a diode in forward bias a small current ( mA ) flows upto Vdiode and in
reverse bias a very small current ( µA ) flows. The resultant model is called Actual Diode Model.

Fig 9: Actual Diode

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Example 1 : Find iD , VD1,VD2, VR If Vs = 10V and R = 3.3kΩ. Assume D1 is Ge and D2 is Si.

Example 2 : Find the current flowing through R1, R2, R3, R4 and Vx if Vs = 10 V, R1 = 1kΩ, R2
= 330Ω, R3 = 2.2kΩ and R4 = 670Ω.
a) Assuming Ideal diode
b) Silicon Diode
c) Germanium diode
d) Reversing the Power supply Vs and all
diodes are silicon

Example 3 : Find the current flowing through each of the resistors. iR1,iR2, iR3. Assume Si diodes

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Note:-

Fig 10: Sine wave Fundamentals

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4. DIODE CIRCUITS
Rectifiers - A rectifier is a circuit that converts AC signal to DC signal.
Clippers - Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers, are used to clip off or remove portions of
signal voltages above or below certain levels.
Clampers - Clamper is a diode circuit used to add or restore a DC voltage level to an input AC
signal.
4.1 RECTIFIERS - There are three types of rectifiers
(1) Half wave rectifier
(2) Full wave rectifier
a) Full wave Rectifier (Center Tapped)
b) Full wave bridge Rectifier
4.1.1 Half Wave Rectifier ( HWR )

Fig 11: Half wave diode rectifier circuit during Positive half cycle Electronics fundamental
circuits, devices and applications by Thomas L Floyd and David L Buchla

Fig 12: Half wave diode rectifier circuit during Negative half cycle (Electronics fundamental
circuits, devices and applications by Thomas L Floyd and David L Buchla)
HWR circuit passes either +ve or –ve half cycle only (one half cycle) of the input AC waveform
to the output. So the output will have only one polarity, either +ve or –ve depending on how the
diode is connected. So the output will be a pulsating DC. So the half-wave rectifier allows
unidirectional current through the load during only one half of the input cycle.

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During +ve half cycle of the input waveform Vin, the diode D is forward biased. So it conducts,
but there is a barrier potential of 0.7 volts for Silicon diode and 0.3 volts for germanium diode.

Vp out = Vp in –Vdiode
During -ve half cycle of the input waveform Vin, the diode D is reverse biased. So it doesn’t
conduct & hence the output Vout is zero.

4.1.2 Full Wave Rectifier (Centre tapped) ( FWR (CT) )

FWR circuit passes both +ve or –ve half cycle of the input AC waveform to the output. The output
will have only one polarity and will be a pulsating DC.

A centre-tapped full-wave rectifier uses two diodes connected to the secondary of a centre tapped
transformer.

Fig 13: Centre-tapped full wave rectifier (Electronics fundamental circuits, devices and
applications by Thomas L Floyd and David L Buchla)
During +ve half cycle of the input signal, point A is +ve & point B is –ve (the polarities of the secondary
voltages). D1 is forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased. So current flows through D1 and load resistor RL.

Fig 14: During positive half cycle D1 is forward biased and D2 is Reverse biased (Electronics
fundamental circuits, devices and applications by Thomas L Floyd and David L Buchla)

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During -ve half cycle of the input signal, point A is -ve & point B is +ve (the polarities of the secondary
voltages). D1 is reverse-biased and D2 is forward-biased. So current flows through D2 and load resistor RL.

Fig 15: During negative half cycle D2 is forward biased and D1 is Reverse biased (Electronics
fundamental circuits, devices and applications by Thomas L Floyd and David L Buchla)
Full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional current through the load during the entire input cycle.

During +ve half cycle : Vp out = Vp in – Vdiode

During -ve half cycle : Vp out = Vp in - Vdiode
Example
Using a 230V/9-0-9 V transformer a Full wave rectifier is built. The Transformer input is 230V
(Vrms) and the output of transformer is 9V-0-9V (Vrms)(center tapped transformer). Vp in to diode
is 12.73V. Vp out of diode is Vp in – Vdiode.

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4.1.3 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier ( FWBR )

FW bridge rectifier circuit passes both +ve or –ve half cycle of the input AC waveform to the
output. The output will have only one polarity and will be a pulsating DC. The bridge rectifier uses
four diodes.

Fig 16: Full wave bridge rectifier During positive half cycle of the input D1 and D2 are forward
biased and conduct current. D3 and D4 are Reverse biased (Electronics fundamental circuits,
devices and applications by Thomas L Floyd and David L Buchla)
During the +ve half cycle, point A is +ve & point B is –ve (the polarities of the secondary voltages).
So diodes D1 & D2 are forward-biased and conduct current in the same direction in the load resistor
RL.

Fig 17: Full wave bridge rectifier during negative half cycle of the input D3 and D4 are forward
biased and conduct current. D1 and D2 are Reverse biased (Electronics fundamental circuits,
devices and applications by Thomas L Floyd and David L Buchla)
During the –ve half cycle, point A is –ve & point B is +ve (the polarities of the secondary voltages).
So diodes D3 & D4 are forward-biased and conduct current in the same direction in the load resistor
RL.

During +ve half cycle : Vp out = Vp in – 2Vdiode

During -ve half cycle : Vp out = Vp in - 2Vdiode

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So the output of rectifiers are not steady DC, but pulsating DC because there is AC content called
ripples present in these outputs; hence called pulsating DC. These pulsations (ripples) can be
removed using Capacitor filters.

Example
Using a transformer a Full wave rectifier is built. The Transformer input is 115V (Vrms) and the
N1=8 and N2=5. Vp in to diode is 101.65V. Vp out of diode is Vp in – 2Vdiode.

4.2 Comparison of HWR, FWR(CT) & FWBR

HWR FWR(CT) FWBR

No. of Diodes 1 2 4
Need for Centre tapping in the secondary of the
No Yes No
transformer
Average DC voltage Vdc (Vp out)/π (2Vp out)/π (2Vp out)/π
Average DC current Idc Vdc/R Vdc/R Vdc/R
Ripple Frequency f 2f 2f
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Vp in 2Vp in Vp in
Maximum reverse voltage across the diode)

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4.3 Capacitor Filters

The capacitor is the most basic filter type and is the most commonly used. The half-wave rectifier
for power supply application is shown below. A capacitor filter is connected in parallel with the
load. The rectifier circuit is supplied from a transformer.

The operation of this circuit during positive half cycle of the source voltage is shown in figure.
During the positive half cycle, diode D1 will conduct, and the capacitor charges rapidly. As the
input starts to go negative, D1 turns off, and the capacitor will slowly discharge through the load.

Fig 18: Half wave rectifier with capacitor filter – positive and negative half cycle

Fig 19:Output voltage waveform of half-wave rectifier with capacitor filter

4.3.1 Ripple Factor (γ)
Is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter. The lower the ripple factor better the filter.
The ripple factor can be lowered by increasing the value of the filter capacitor or increasing the

load resistance. γ (AC component in the DC) =Vr p-p/Vdc

Fig 20: Vr p-p and VDC determine the ripple factor (This figure is taken from Electronics
fundamental circuits, devices and applications by Thomas L Floyd and David L Buchla )
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