ADDITIONAL

G R A M M A R

This material is going to help

you to understand grammar in
Advanced 2.

ADVANCED TWO
 1
1 Telling the
Truth
2
Business
Career
2
Agreeing 3
3 and
Desagreeing
4 Too much
4
Work
People
5 with 5

Problems
6 Tell me
About it 6

7 Economics 7

8 Interviews 8
UNIT 1
SENTENCE CONNECTORS SHOWING
CAUSE AND EFFECT

writing.
S entence connectors improve your writing. They
add variety and sophistication to your style of

In this lesson we will learn about words and expressions used to show
cause and effect. In English, we use several different words to show cause
and effect.

Examples are: for, because, as, since, therefore, hence, as a result, conse-
quently, due to, because of, as a result of etc.

• He must be asleep for there is no light in his room.

• I decided to call it a day – for I was feeling tired.
• I helped him because I liked him.
• Since he had not paid the rent, he was told to vacate the room.
• As it is raining again, we will have to stay at home.

• It was raining, so we stayed at home.

Notes
So shows the effect. As, since and because show the cause.

Examples:

As he hasn’t arrived yet, we will have to go without him.

He hasn’t arrived yet, so we will have to go without him.

The poor parents could not support the baby. Therefore they sent him
to an orphanage.

We had to cancel the trip due to my daughter’s illness.

Owing to bad weather the match was cancelled.

We had to cancel the match because of bad weather.

I was late owing to the fact that the train brokes down.
 UNIT 2
COMMON ERRORS:
HAD BETTER VS. WOULD RATHER
Rather and better?

• I’d rather do “x” than do “y”

• I prefer doing “x” to doing “y”

Prefer and would rather can be used interchangeably. when we are talking
about general preferences,we use prefer followed by verb-ing, thus:

• I prefer listening to music to watching TV.

• I’d rather listen to music than watch TV.

However, when we are talking about specifics, “would rather” is used as an

alternative to “would prefer to” followed by an infinitive. Would rather is
very common in spoken English and is often abbreviated to ‘d rather. It is
used in this form with all personal pronouns:

I’d / you’d / he’d / she’d / we’d / they’d rather…

Examples:

• Would you like to go out for dinner tonight?

No, I think I’d rather eat at home / I’d prefer to eat at home.
• Would you rather drink beer or wine with the curry
~ I’d rather drink beer. What about you?

• They’d rather have the strawberries by themselves, but I’d prefer to

have them with cream.

Note that would rather is followed by a bare

infinitive without to, whereas prefer requires to +
infinitive. Would rather (but not would prefer to)
is also followed by a past tense when we want to
involve other people in the action, even
though it has a present or future
meaning.

Examples:

• Shall we go out for dinner tonight? ~ No, I’d rather we ate at

home, if you don’t mind.

• Shall I write to Harry and tell him that we’ve sold the car?
~ I’d rather you didn’t.

• My mother would rather we caught the bus, rather than walk

home after the party.
Rather than means instead of and can be used in combination with
would prefer to and would rather.

note the intricacies of the verb forms:

• Rather than lose precious sleep discussing it now, I think we
should go to bed and talk about it in the morning.

• My mother would prefer us to email each other once a week, rather

than spend half an hour on the phone every night.

• My mother would rather we emailed each other once a week

instead of spending half an hour on the phone every night. In fact, she
insists on it. So we’d better do that, I suppose.

Note that ‘d better, which is similar structurally

to ‘d rather, is used to suggest necessary action.
In this case however, ‘d is the abbreviated form
of had, not would. Like ‘d rather, ‘d better is
followed by the bare infinitive without to.

Examples:

You’d better phone him

and tell him that you’re
not going.
 They’d better buy me a Christmas
present or I shall never forgive them.

More Example:

• We’d better not be late for the Ambasador’s party. It would be

unforgivable to arrive late.

Note that it is sometimes slightly threatening in tone,

as in the last example.
Had better is always more urgent than should or ought
to and has the same force as I would advise you stron-
gly to…. or We must / we mustn’t….
 UNIT 3
COMMON ERRORS: THERE VS. IT
English clauses always have a subject:
His father has just retired. Was a teacher. He was a teacher.
I’m waiting for my wife. Is late. She is late.
Look at the time! Is half past two. It’s half past two.

except for the imperative

Go away.
Play it again please.

If we have no other subject we use there or it.

We use there as a dummy subject with part of the verb be followed
by a noun phrase.

• to introduce a new topic:

There is a meeting this evening.

It will start at seven.

There has been an accident.

I hope no one is hurt.
 With numbers or quantities:
There was a lot of rain last night.

There must have been more than five hundred in the audience.

To say where something is:

There used to be a playground at the end of the street.

There are fairies at the bottom of the garden.

I wonder if there will be anyone at home.

With an indefinite pronoun or expressions of quantity and the to-infinitive:

There is nothing to do in the village.

There was nothing to watch on television.

There is a lot of work to do

There was plenty

to read in the
apartment
If we want to show the subject of the to-infinitive we use for:

There is nothing for the children to do in the village.

There was plenty for us to read in the apartment

There was nothing for them to watch on television.

There is a lot of work for you to do.

With an indefinite pronoun or expressions of quantity and an -ing verb:

There were a lot of people

shouting and waving.

There is someone waiting to see you.

We use a singular verb if the noun phrase is singular:

There is a meeting this evening. It will start at seven.

There was a lot of rain last night.

There is someone waiting to see you.

We use a plural verb if the noun phrase is plural:

 There are more than twenty people waiting to see you.

There were some biscuits in the cupboard.

There were a lot of people shouting and waving.

It
We use it to talk about:

Times and dates: Weather:

It’s nearly one o’clock. It’s raining.
It’s my birthday. It’s a lovely day.
It was getting cold.

To give an opinion about a place: To give an opinion followed by to-

It’s very cold in here.
It will be nice when we get home.
It’s very comfortable in my
new apartment.
infinitive:
It’s nice to meet you.
It will be great to go on holiday.
It was interesting to meet your bro-
ther at last.
To give an opinion followed by an -ing verb:

It’s great living in Spain.

It’s awful driving in this heavy traffic.
It can be hard work looking after young children.

Using “it” to talk about people

We use “it” to talk about ourselves:

On the telephone: When people cannot see us:

Hello. It’s Mary. [Mary knocks on door]

It’s me. It’s Mary.

We use it to talk about other people:

When we point them out for the first When we cannot see them and we
time: ask them for their name:

Look. It’s Sir Sergio! [telephone rings, we pick it up]

Hello. Who is it?
Who’s that? I think it’s John’s [someone knocks on door.
brother. We say:] Who is it?
 UNIT 4
LOGICAL CONNECTORS: SEQUENCE
Logical connectors are used to join or connect two ideas that have a par-
ticular relationship. These relationships can be: sequential (time)
Sequential (Time)

until
after
before
when
while
Subordinating conjunctions since
once
whenever
as soon as
as long as
by the time

during
after
before
Prepositions since
until
upon
 then
next
after that
following that
Conjunctive adverbs and before that
transitions afterwards
meanwhile
beforehand

Conjunctions: and, then

COMMON ERRORS: DO vs. MAKE

This is a list of some of the more common errors people make with
English.

When do you use DO?

DO is used as follows:

TO DO is used when talking about work, jobs or tasks. Note, they do

not produce any physical object.

Have you done your homework?

I have guests visiting tonight so I should start doing the

housework now. I wouldn’t like to do that job.

TO DO is used when we refer to activities in general without being
specific. In these cases, we normally use words like thing, something,
nothing, anything, everything etc.

Hurry up! I’ve got things to do!

Don’t just stand there – do something!

Is there anything I can do to help you?

We sometimes use DO to replace a verb when the meaning is clear or

obvious. This is more common in informal spoken English:

Do I need to do my hair? (do = brush or comb)

Have you done the dishes yet? (done = washed)
I’ll do the kitchen if you do the lawns (do = clean, do = mow)

When do you use MAKE?

Make is for producing, constructing, creating or building something

new. It is also used to indicate the origin of a product or the materials
that are used to make something.

Her wedding rings are made of gold.

The house was made of adobe.

Wine is made from grapes.

The watches were made in Switzerland

We also use Make for producing an action or reaction:

Onions make your eyes water.

You make me happy.

It’s not my fault.
My brother made me do it!

Use Make after certain nouns about plans and decisions:

make the arrangements, make a choice...

We use Make with nouns about speaking and certain sounds:

make a comment, make a noise, make a speech...

We use Make with Food, Drink and Meals:

make a cake, make a cup of tea, make dinner...

You have to make a cake for Simon: - I’ll do it later.

Notice how in the response the verb DO is used. This is because the
meaning is clear and to avoid saying “I’ll make it later.” which could
sound repetitive.
 UNIT 5
WILL AND WOULD
Will is used in future structures.

Statement referring to the future – fact,

timetable, etc.
– We’ll have two extra lessons this afternoon.

– It will be Tuesday tomorrow.

– Their bus will leave at 7.30.

Instant decision

– The phone is ringing, I’ll go and answer it.

– What will you eat? I’ll have roast beef.

Request

– Will you tell your father that we expect him for dinner?

– Will you copy this file and print it for yourself?

Promise, offer, prediction

– I will always love you.

– Can’t you do your homework? Don’t worry, I’ll come and help you.

– Don’t trust her, she will always tell you lies.

Open condition

– We’ll go fishing at the weekend if the weather is good.

Would is the past form of will

– Peter said he would finish the work the next day. (future in the past or
reported speech)

– She said she would write me soon. (reported speech)

– He hoped I would come.

Would refers to half-open or closed condition as an analogue of will.

– We would go fishing at the weekend if the weather was/were good.

(half-open condition)

– We would have gone fishing at the weekend if the weather had been
good. (closed condition)

When both will and would can be used, would is more polite.

– Would you do me a favour, please?

– I’m cold here, would you mind closing the window?

Other typical examples with would

– Would you like a sandwich? (offer)

 – I’d like to have some cream with the cake. (request)

– I’d like to learn English very well. (wish, plan)

– I would rather not go to that part of the town in the dark.(preference)

– When we were kids, we would hang around the playground every

afternoon. (repeated action in the past)

It’s quite late, I’d rather have a cup of tea than coffee now.
(preference)
 UNIT 6
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Logical connectors are used to join or connect two ideas that have a
particular relationship.
These relationships can be: sequential (time), reason and purpose, ad-
versative (opposition and/or unexpected result), condition.

Within each category, the words used to join the ideas or clauses are
used differently, with different grammar and punctuation.

Subordinating conjunctions

• Introduce adverb clauses

• Either the dependent clause or the independent clause may come
first in the sentence, with no change in meaning

Example:
Before he came, we didn’t have a physical education teacher.
We didn’t have a physical education teacher before he came.
Prepositions

• Is followed by a noun or noun phrase

• Either clause may appear first

Example:
He didn’t come to class due to his illness.

Transitions and Conjunctive adverbs

Joins two sentences separated by a period or two clauses separated by

a semi-colon.
• Only one possible order of the sentences
• The transition may appear clause initial, clause final, or between the
subject and verb of thesecond sentence.

Example:
He was sick. Nevertheless, he came to class.
Conjunctions

• One possible order

• A comma is used before the conjunction
• In academic writing, do not begin a sentence with a conjunction

Example:
She didn’t do her homework, so she didn’t pass the class.

Reduced Adverb Clauses

If the subject of the adverb clause and the main clause are the same,
the adverb clause may be reduced.

• To reduce, drop the subject and the verb be in the adverb clause.
Examples:
I had an accident while I was driving past the First Avenue.
I had an accident while driving past the First Avenue.

Even though she was hungry, she didn’t eat the pie.
Even though hungry, she didn’t eat the pie.

If there is not be verb, change the adverb clause verb to the present
participle.

Examples:
Before she owned a pet, she was afraid of dogs.
Before owning a pet, she was afraid of dogs.

You may omit the subordinating conjunction

(while) with simultaneous actions.

Example:

While camping at Pulhapanzak, I saw several birds.

Camping at Pulhapanzak, I saw several birds.

Because is always omitted in reduced clauses.

Example:
• Because she didn’t get accepted to the university, she is going to
attend community college.
• Not being accepted to the university, she is going to attend
community college.
LOGICAL CONNECTORS:

PURPOSE and CONDITION

Logical connectors are used to join or connect two ideas that have a par-
ticular relationship. These relationships can be: reason and purpose,con-
dition.
because
as
since
inasmuch as
now that
Subordinating conjunctions as long as
such...that
[such a/an + adjective + noun +
that]
so...that
[so +adjective or adverb + that]
[so much/many/little/few + noun +
that]

expressing purpose so that

in order that

because of
Prepositions due to
in order to
 UNIT 7
COMMON ERRORS:

“Everyone” should be written as one word.

Incorrect: Every one knows this.
Correct: Everyone knows this.

We do not use the before both.

Incorrect: He held the bag in the both hands.
Correct: He held the bag in both hands.

In the following comparative sentences we should

use a singular noun after any other.
Incorrect: Everybody should do some or other work.
Correct: Everybody should do some work or other.

Incorrect: Iron is more useful than any other metals.

Correct: Iron is more useful than any other metal.

Incorrect: Our Director is greater than any other politicians.

Correct: Our Director is greater than any other politician.
The numbers of kings and queens should be written
in Roman characters.

Examples:
Elizabeth II, Louis XIV

Incorrect: This is a portrait of King George the sixth.

Correct: This is a portrait of King George VI.

18th October 2003 (NOT Eighteenth October 2003)

This is the fifth time you have asked the same question. (NOT This
is the 5th time …)

Ordinal numbers (e.g. first, second, tenth etc.) up to twelfth should

be written in words except in dates.

Incorrect: He came a 3rd time.

Correct: He came a third time.
Incorrect: He is in class eighth.
Correct: He is in class eight.
Correct: He is in the eighth class.
Incorrect: He opened the book at six page.
Correct: He opened the book at page six.

Dates should be written as follows:

July 7th or 7th July. (NOT 7th of July or seventh of July)
Cardinal numbers up to twelve should be written in
words except when telling the time.
He came at 10 am. (NOT He came at ten am.)
She has seven siblings. (NOT She has 7 siblings.)

Cardinal and ordinal numbers above twelve and twelfth may be

written in either words or figures.

Only an adjective or adverb in the comparative de-

gree can be used before than.
Incorrect: He is worst than you.
Correct: He is worse than you.
Incorrect: Mumbai is hot than Delhi.
Correct: Mumbai is hotter than Delhi.

Adjectives and adverbs having more than one sylla-

ble form their comparative and superlative forms by
the addition of more and most.

Incorrect: A horse is usefuller than a car.

Correct: A horse is more useful than a car.
 UNIT 8
PARTICIPLES
Some participles (like ‘bored’ or ‘boring’) can be used as adjectives.
These are used in a slightly different way from normal adjectives.

We usually use the past participle (ending in -ed) to talk about how
someone feels:

• I was really bored during the flight

(NOT: I was really boring during the flight).

• She’s interested in history

(NOT: She’s really interesting in history).

• John’s frightened of spiders

(NOT: John’s frightening of spiders).

We usually use the present participle (ending in -ing) to talk about the
person, thing, or situation which has caused the feeling:

• It was such a long, boring flight (so I was bored).

• I read a really interesting book about history

(so I was interested).

• Many people find spiders frightening

(so they’re frightened when they see spiders).
Be careful! ‘I’m boring’ is very different from ‘I’m bored’! ‘I’m boring’
means I cause other people to be bored. This is not good! Here are
some examples of when one person causes a feeling in another per-
son:

• I was talking to such a boring guy at the party. He talked about

himself for an hour!

• She’s a really interesting woman. She’s lived all over the world
and speaks five languages.

• My maths teacher at school was really frightening! He was

always shouting at the students.

These participle adjectives make their comparative by using ‘more’ (not

-er) and their superlative by using ‘most’ (not -est):

I was more frightened of dogs

than spiders when I was a
child.

That book is more boring than this one.

I think Dr Smith’s lesson was more interesting
than Dr Brown’s.

For 24 hours on the flight to Australia, I

was the most bored I’ve ever been.

It was the most frightening

film that he’d ever seen.

I think this is the most interesting

talk we’ve heard today.