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Abstract
Mathematical models were developed to predict the transitions between the different forms of transverse motion of free-flowing bed
materials in rotating cylinders: sliding, surging, slumping, rolling, cascading, cataracting and centrifuging. Model calculations of the
limits between these types of bed motion compare well with measurements of experimental rotating cylinders as well as published results
from industrial practice. The motion behavior can be represented on a Bed Behavior Diagram that plots wall friction coefficient and
Froude number against the filling degree. From this study, scaling criteria for the bed behavior were found to be the Froude number,
filling degree, wall friction coefficient, ratio of particle to cylinder diameter, angle of internal friction, and static and dynamic angles of
repose. The transition criteria worked out and the Bed Behavior Diagram provides the user of rotary kilns the possibility to estimate the
type of motion of the bed materials used from measured particle characteristics. As a result, the bed behavior can be influenced through
selection of operating variables such as rotational speed and filling degree or installation of lifting bars and flights. q 2001 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Rotary kiln; Transverse bed motion; Bed behavior; Mathematical model; Critical Froude number; Critical wall friction coefficient
0032-5910r01r$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 3 2 - 5 9 1 0 Ž 0 0 . 0 0 4 0 2 - 2
252 J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270
degree. These can be represented conveniently on a Bed however, represent orientation values and are dependent on
Behavior Diagram, a similar form of which was already the particular bed material used. The parameter m W,c des-
proposed by Henein et al. w6x. As will be shown, besides ignates the critical wall friction coefficient for the transi-
Froude number and filling degree, the location of the tion from slipping motion to cascading motion. The indi-
boundaries between the forms of motion is dependent on vidual forms of motion are described as follows.
the flow properties of the bed to a considerable extent. In
order to prove the transition criteria developed, compar-
2.1. Slipping motion
isons between model predictions and experimental results
have been carried out. For lack of information about the
transitions from slipping motion to cascading motion and Under unfavorable frictional conditions between solid
from rolling to cascading, the author conducted experi- bed and cylinder wall ŽAsmooth tube wallB ., slipping mo-
ments to examine these phenomena. For all other transi- tion can occur. There are principally two types of slipping
tions, data researched from the literature have been used to motion w3,7,16x:
verify the models. All comparisons show a good corre-
spondence between predicted results and data. This study v
sliding
is restricted to unbaffled rotating cylinders and free-flow- v
surging.
ing monodisperse particle beds.
Table 1
Forms of transverse motion of solids in rotating cylinders
J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270 253
No particle mixing takes place in slipping motion. As a from the bed and are thrown off into the free space of the
result, the product quality from rotary kilns decreases. cylinder. The release of particles is a characteristic feature
Hence, this state of motion is undesired in practice and of cataracting motion w1–4x, which may be subdivided into
must be prevented through the utilization of rough walls or the following states of motion:
bars attached to the wall. Slipping motion, however, can-
not be avoided in every case and may occur at least v
cataracting
partially in some production processes. v
centrifuging.
2.2. Cascading (tumbling) motion Cataracting is characterized by particles from the bed
being flung into the gas space. With increasing rotational
A continuous circulation of the bed, cascading motion, speed, the number of particles thrown off and the length of
can be observed when there is sufficient wall friction. the trajectories increase until a uniform trickling veil forms
Dependent on rotational speed and particle size, the fol- along the diameter. In the case of further increases of the
lowing states of motion are possible w2,6,15,20x: rotational speed, particles on the outer paths r f R begin
to adhere to the wall and the extreme case of cataracting
v
slumping motion, centrifuging, occurs. Theoretically, centrifuging
v
rolling reaches its final stage when the entire solid material is in
v
cascading. contact with the cylinder wall as a uniform film. This state
is however only achieved, and only approximately as well,
When the rotational speeds are low, slumping of the at extremely high rotational speeds w12,13x. In a few
bed can occur. Through solid body rotation with the publications w1,9x, cataracting motion is divided into addi-
rotational speed of the cylinder wall, the solid bed is tional types of motion. This form of motion is, however,
continuously elevated, being leveled off again and again not relevant for rotary kilns, so that a further subdivision is
by successive avalanches at the surface. The slumping refrained from.
frequency is dependent on rotational speed, particle size
and cylinder diameter w6,10x. Investigations of Metcalfe et
al. w21x revealed that intermixing decreases as the filling 3. Transition behavior between the forms of transverse
degree increases to virtually vanish at f s 0.5. As the bed motion
rotational speed increases a flowing transition to rolling
takes place. This type of motion is characterized by a Numerous publications already exist about the trans-
uniform, static flow of a particle layer on the surface verse motion of solids in rotating cylinders w1–24x, while
Žcascading layer., while the larger part of the bed Žplug the transition behavior between the forms of motion has
flow region. is transported upwards by solid body rotation been investigated in only a few papers or handled as a
with the rotational speed of the wall. The bed surface is secondary aspect w3–13,24x. This study should contribute
nearly level and the dynamic angle of repose, which to obtaining a complete picture of the behavior of bed
appears only slightly, depends on rotational speed and motion in rotating cylinders. What is more, existing calcu-
filling degree w7,8x. This type of motion makes a uniform, lation approaches are further developed or, if necessary,
good intermixing possible. When particle size distribution new mathematical models are created. Before doing that, it
is very broad, segregation can appear. As the rotational is expedient to begin with fundamental calculations for the
speed further increases, the bed surface begins to arch and agitated bed in a rotating cylinder.
cascading sets in. The transition to cascading is also
dependent on particle size w8x. The height of the arch of the 3.1. Fundamental calculations
kidney-shaped bed increases with increasing rotational
speed. Fig. 1 presents the geometric relations in the cross-sec-
The prevailing form of motion in rotary kilns is cascad- tion of a rotating cylinder in the case of cascading motion.
ing motion, provided undesired slipping motion can be The filling degree as the portion of the cylinder cross-sec-
prevented by creating sufficient wall friction conditions. tion occupied by the bed is determined by the filling angle
Then in most cases the rolling bed is preferred, which as follows
provides favorable conditions for the heat transfer in high 1
temperature processes and ensures a uniform, high quality fs Ž ´ y sin ´ cos ´ . . Ž 1.
of the product even when mass flow rates are large. p
The filling angle ´ corresponds to the half bed angle of the
2.3. Cataracting motion circular segment occupied with solids. Assuming a flat bed
surface, its distance from the axis of rotation is calculated
As rotational speed increases, the cascading motion is from r 0 s Rcos ´ . Thus, the width Žchord. of the solid bed
so strongly pronounced that individual particles detach is given by s s 2 Rsin ´ and the maximum bed depth at
254 J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270
the motion type is slumping or rolling. Thus, relationship with m W s tan w W characterizing the effective frictional
Ž5. can be used as transition condition to cascading mo- coefficient of bed material—wall over the entire solid
tion. In order to obtain a transition criterion from relation- covered wall. From the radial balance of forces around
ship Ž5., equations for the acting moments are derived at point A ŽFig. 1. the normal force results to
first.
FN s FG cos k q FC . Ž 13 .
3.2.1.1. Moment of burden. The gravitational force Fg acts According to the assumption discussed above, the grav-
in the center of gravity S of the bed, see Fig. 1. Hence, the ity acting on point A is proportional to the length AE; the
counterclockwise moment of the bed material burden about centrifugal force to the length AB. Thus, the gravitational
the cylinder axis is calculated from force is given by
M1 s Fg l 1 s Mgl1 Ž 6. FG s mg s rg gh1 A, Ž 14 .
with the lever length with A s Rd k L describing the area of attack and h1 s AE
the height of the bed material over the point A. Using
l 1 s r S sin d . Ž 7.
h 2 s AB and r 0, x s OB the centrifugal force follows from
The mass of bed material in the rotating cylinder
R q r 0, x
amounts to the following from the bulk density and the FC s m v 2 r s r b h 2 A v 2 . Ž 15 .
volume of the bed 2
As force per unit surface element of the wall f F s FFrA,
m s r b fp R 2 L. Ž 8.
the frictional force is calculated as
If the filling degree f is constant over the cylinder length,
R q r 0, x
the solid bed can be regarded as a bulk solid body in- f F s m W r b gh1cos k q v 2 h 2
finitely elongated in the axial direction. The mass of the
ž 2 / . Ž 16 .
bed material per 1 m cylinder length thus amounts to The differential change of the frictional force over the
2
M s r b R Ž ´ y sin ´ cos ´ . . Ž 9. angle k results from
2sin3´ sinQ
m W ,c s . Ž 23 .
3p f Ž 1 q Fr . Fig. 2. Transition slipping motion–cascading motion: critical wall friction
coefficient in dependence on filling degree and dynamic angle of repose.
rolling. The calculation methods derived from this are tance of the centers of gravity S 1 and S 2 of the shear
taken up and further developed below. wedges. On the average, the slip plane, the angle of
inclination of which can assume values between a U and
3.3.1.1. Mathematical model for slumping. The cyclical a L , is horizontally inclined by the angle h. If the cross-
process of elevation of the bed and slumping of a surface section of the shear wedge is regarded as a triangle ABC
layer is subsequently denoted as slump cycle and is approximating the arc of a circle AB by a straight line
schematically depicted in Fig. 3. During the rotation of the ŽFig. 3., then the distance of the center of gravity S 1 of
cylinder the shear stress inside the slanting bed increases point C corresponds with two thirds of half the chord of
and reaches a critical value at an angle of inclination of the the bed. Thus, the length of the average particle path s )
bed surface of a U , the upper angle of repose. Near the bed can be calculated from
surface a slip plane then forms, on which a thin particle
2 4
layer begins to roll. The rolling of the particles and the s) s ss Rsin ´ . Ž 25 .
removal of solids caused by this, however, occurs faster 3 3
than the particle supply through the rotation of the cylin- Owing to the smallness of the shear wedge angle g 0 the
der. As a result, a temporal displacement of the slip plane centers of gravity S 1 and S 2 lie to a certain extent on its
occurs, decreasing its angle of inclination. The process of bisection, the angle of inclination h of the particle path.
rolling ends when the angle of inclination of the slip plane Hence, the latter can be calculated from
has reached the value of a L , the lower angle of repose. To
understand the transition behavior of slumping–rolling, an aL qaU
hs . Ž 26 .
analysis of the various processes within the slumping 2
motion is worthwhile.
In contrast to Eqs. Ž25. and Ž26., the quantities of s )
Slump cycle. A slump cycle may be subdivided into two
and h in w6x are calculated with great effort from the
phases: Ža. elevation of the bed and Žb. slumping of the
location of the centers of gravity S1 and S 2 in a Cartesian
bed material wedge Žshear wedge.. During the first step the
coordinate system as a function of the angles a U and a L .
lifting time t 1 is
Slumping time t2 . Due to lack of information on energy
pg 0
t1 s . Ž 24 . dissipation owing to particle collisions in the slumping
180 v step, it is assumed that the potential energy is converted
In order to simplify the complicated flow of motion in the solely to kinetic energy lowered by energy losses accord-
slumping phase, it is assumed that the entire rolling bed ing to friction at the slip plane. Here the simple physical
material, enclosed by the shear wedge angle g 0 , suddenly approach of solid body friction of the slumping volume at
slumps after reaching the upper angle of repose. The the slip plane is applied to model the frictional forces.
particles on the slope roll or slump in irregular motion and Based on these assumptions, a trajectory model is devel-
arrange themselves in the lower part of the bed, again oped, from which an equation for the slumping time t 2 is
filling in a shear wedge. Then the particles cover an derived. Fig. 3 depicts the forces acting in the center of
average distance of s ) , which corresponds with the dis- gravity S 1 of the slipping shear wedge. From the force
balance parallel to the particle path S 1 S 2 , the following
ensues
FG sinh y FI y FF s 0. Ž 27 .
The acceleration of gravity acts on the mass of a
particle with
FG s m P g Ž 28 .
and the kinetic energy is reflected in the force of inertia
dÕ d2 x
FI s m P s mP . Ž 29 .
dt dt2
Here Õ corresponds with the particle velocity along the
path x with 0 F x F s ) . According to the law of solid
body friction, the following applies to the frictional force
FF s m i FN . Ž 30 .
Fig. 3. Force balance around the center of gravity of the slipping shear In Ref. w6x the lower angle of repose a L , which is also
wedge in the cross-section of a slumping bed. denoted as shear angle, is used as the angle of friction with
258 J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270
m i s tan a L . From the balance of forces perpendicular to In order to transform this criterion into an applicable
the slip plane, the following ensues for the normal force form, simplifications regarding the bed material properties
are made. As measurements from Henein et al. w6x demon-
FN s FG cosh . Ž 31 .
strate, the angle h calculated from Eq. Ž26. is nearly
After introducing Eqs. Ž28. – Ž31. in Eq. Ž27., a differential identical with the dynamic angle of repose Q , that is
equation for the particle trajectory in the slumping phase h f Q . In addition, the upper angle of repose a U corre-
results sponds to a large extent with the static angle of repose Q 0
Ž a U f Q 0 . and the measured shear wedge angle is nearly
d2 x
s g Ž sinh y m i cosh . . Ž 32 . g 0 f D a s a U y a L . The shear wedge angle thus approxi-
dt2 mately results from
From the integration of Eq. Ž32. with the initial conditions
D a s 2Ž Q 0 y Q . . Ž 37 .
Õ Ž t s 0. s 0 and x Ž t s 0. s 0, the path-time law of the
slumping phase results Using the aforementioned simplifications the following
1 results from Eq. Ž36.
xs gt 2 Ž sinh y m i cosh . . Ž 33 .
2 2
3 p ŽQ0 yQ . sinQ y tan Ž 2Q y Q 0 . cosQ
After the slumping step is finished and the time t 2 has Frc s .
2 180 sin ´
passed, the particles have covered the average distance s ) .
With x Ž t s t 2 . s s ) and rearranging Eq. Ž33., the slump- Ž 38 .
ing time t 2 amounts to
Hence, as is clear from Eq. Ž38., the slumping–rolling
2 s)
t2 s ( g Ž sinh y m i cosh .
. Ž 34 .
transition may be specified as a function of the flow
properties used in particle technology—static and dynamic
angles of repose. Fig. 4 depicts the progression of the
critical Froude number in terms of the filling degree for
3.3.1.2. Transition criterion. As the experiments of Henein three different solids: gravel, limestone, and sand. The bed
et al. w6x revealed, slumping continues in a stable way as material properties of these ŽTable 2. were obtained from
long as the shear wedge ABC can empty itself faster than Ref. w6x with the exception of sand; its values were taken
it is filled anew ŽFig. 3., i.e. as long as the slumping time from this author’s own data using sand with a similar
is smaller than the lifting time, that is t 2 - t 1. As rotational particle diameter Ž d s 0.5 mm. because the dynamic angle
speed increases, however, the lifting time t 1 decreases of repose of sand given in Ref. w6x was greater than the
more than the slumping time t 2 and the measured curve of static angle of repose.
t 1Ž n. approaches the progression of t 2 Ž n.. Afterwards, It is obvious that the fine grained, free flowing sand
both phases of the slump cycle above a certain rotational already begins continuous rolling at a Froude number of
speed range are in equilibrium until a critical rotational approximately Fr s 2 P 10y5 . By comparison, the transi-
speed is reached at which slumping turns into rolling. The tion for the coarser grained gravel is higher by more than a
equilibrium between filling and emptying of the shear decimal power. As the graph shows, the predicted curves
wedge can therefore be regarded as a critical state for the for gravel and sand compare well with the data. However,
transition to continuous rolling. If the condition the calculated progression for limestone deviates from the
t1 - t 2 Ž 35 . measured values by approximately half a decimal power.
The reason for these differences possibly lies in measuring
is met, continuous rolling occurs. This condition is used to errors when determining the flow properties. For example,
obtain a criterion for the transition from slumping to when the static angle of repose Q 0 deviates by 18, the
rolling. Using ŽEqs. Ž24., Ž25. and Ž34., the critical Froude Froude number varies by the 3- to 6-fold. A further cause
number for this transition results from the condition Ž35. to is the assumptions of the simplified mathematical model
3 pg 0 2 sinh y m i cosh used.
Frc s
8 ž /
180 sin ´
. Ž 36 . In addition, Fig. 4 contains the predictions from the
slipping criterion derived by Henein et al. w6x. A direct
Besides the filling degree, the criterion Ž36. in combination comparison between this criterion and Eq. Ž38. is impossi-
with Eq. Ž26. is dependent on specific bed material proper- ble because of the above-mentioned differences in the
ties, which characterize the behavior of motion in the case calculation of the quantities s ) and h. Moreover, values of
of periodic slumping, such as the lower and upper angle of these quantities are not named. Despite this circumstance,
repose a L and a U , respectively, and the shear wedge calculations of the slipping criterion were performed using
angle g 0 . The measurement of these bed material proper- relationships Ž25. and Ž26.. While the criterion of Henein
ties is, however, only possible with great experimental et al. calculated in this way compares well with the
effort, Eq. Ž36. being usable only to a limited extent. measurements of limestone, it deviates significantly from
J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270 259
Fig. 4. Transition slumping–rolling: critical Froude number in terms of filling degree for different bed materials in comparison with data and calculations
from Henein et al. w6x.
Table 2
Physical characteristics of gravel, limestone w6x, and sand
Material Particle diameter Dynamic angle Static angle of
d wmmx of repose Q w8x repose Q 0 w8x
Gravel 3.0 37.5 40.7
Limestone 1.5 36.0 37.8
Sand 0.5 32.5 33.7 Fig. 5. Force balances around particles in different quadrants of the
cylinder cross-section.
260 J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270
the rotational speed, this transition is also dependent on 3.4.1. Transition condition
particle size. The following criterion for the rolling– The detachment of particles due to the radial equilib-
cascading transition was ascertained here through observa- rium of forces w9,13,23x, which according to Davis w23x is
tions from experiments on rotating drums with transparent considered to be the minimum condition for the throw off
front plates of particles into the gas space, is used as criterion for the
transition to cataracting motion in the following. For this
D
purpose, force balances on particles at different positions
Fr ž /
d
f 2, Ž 39 .
in the cross-section of a rotating cylinder are worked out;
the validity of which, however, is not proven for signifi- see points P1 and P2 in Fig. 5. The gravitational force FG ,
cantly larger dimensions w8x. In order to validate Eq. Ž39. the centrifugal force FC and the frictional force FF act on
and to attain data on the transition from rolling to cascad- every particle in the plug flow region, which moves in an
ing, the author carried out experiments, which are de- orbit around the axis of rotation. The resulting force FR is
scribed in Section 4. produced by the interaction between the gravitational and
centrifugal forces. The lines of influence of all resulting
forces in the plug flow region intersect in the pole of
3.4. Transition of cascading motion–cataracting motion forces P. If the centrifugal force and the component of the
gravitational force which is directed inward radially cancel
In the literature, the throw off of particles into the free each other out, as in point P2 , then radial equilibrium of
gas space is generally named as the characteristic for the forces exists, from which the equation of the line of
transition from cascading motion to cataracting motion. detachment results
Since the introduction of ball mills in materials processing
technology more than 100 years ago w22x, the motion v2r
s sin z . Ž 40 .
behavior of the bed in this rotational speed range has been g
already researched in numerous studies, among others in
Refs. w6,12–14,22–24x. A transition criterion produced by According to Thales’ Principle, the line of detachment
Henein et al. w6x is based on the condition that particles describes a circle with the diameter grv 2 , which corre-
thrown off from the apex of the bed fall to, or beyond, the sponds to the perpendicular distance of the pole of forces
mid-point of the slope. This assumption requires the calcu- from the axis of rotation OP. This line runs through the II
lation of the particle trajectories. Diedrich w12x conducted quadrant of the cross-section of the rotating cylinder Žin
experiments to determine the trajectories of the balls in a the mathematically positive direction of rotation.. Eq. Ž40.
model ball mill and derived equations for their calculation. specifies at which angle z , as a function of the orbital
Mu and Perlmutter w17x also specified equations for parti- radius r, a particle begins to detach. That means, if the
cle trajectories. Teubner w13x analyzed the motion behavior particle paths do not reach this line, cascading motion
of particles in various quadrants of the rotary kiln on the occurs. If the line is exceeded, cataracting motion appears.
basis of force balances. He then established that though It is obvious from this that particles can throw off only in
centrifuging theoretically begins with a Froude Number of the II quadrant. For particle throw off, however, the condi-
Fr s 1, for the adhesion of a particle on the rotary kiln tion
wall Ždepending on the position on the circumference., a
multiple of this Froude number may, however, be required v2r
) sin z Ž 41 .
Ž Fr ) 1.. Taking into account the gravity and the centrifu- g
gal force, Davis w23x applied the radial equilibrium of
forces on a particle at the cylinder wall as condition for the must be met. The progression of the line of detachment
throw off into the free gas space. Considering particles at also makes clear that particles in the proximity of the wall
different orbits in the bed, the radial equilibrium of forces are thrown off first. Hence, only particles in the outermost
results in the line of detachment, which obeys a circle orbit r s R are considered below. Force balances are
through the axis of rotation. The diameter of this circle is worked out on these particles, from which criteria for the
grv 2 , the perpendicular distance of the pole of forces of transition of cascading motion to cataracting motion are
the gravitational force and the centrifugal force from the derived. In addition, the different directions of action of
rotational axis. Including the frictional force, Zengler w14x the forces in the upper and lower parts of the rotating
considered the radial balance of forces on particles pro- cylinder cross-section are taken into consideration. De-
jected from the bed surface. Then the line of detachment pending on the angle
has the form of a logarithmic spiral, the central point of z s Q q ´ y 908 s k y 908, Ž 42 .
which is located in the pole of forces. According to
Rutgers w3x, the transition between cascading motion and the solid is either completely in the lower section ŽIII and
cataracting motion lies in the range of the Froude number IV quadrant. or it extends as far as the I and II quadrants
of Fr s 0.3–0.36. when the filling degrees are greater. Consequently, when
J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270 261
motion to cataracting motion with higher filling degrees others. Kelbert and Royere w1x name altogether five sub-
amounts to types of cataracting motion, from which Korotich w9x in-
Frc s sin Ž Q q ´ y 908 . . Ž 48 . vestigates the types of motion Awaterfall typeB and Acircu-
Hence, the critical Froude number depends on the filling latory typeB and applies an empirical criterion to the
degree and the dynamic angle of repose of the bed mate- transition between these. Teubner w13x derives an equation
rial. Fig. 7 plots the progression of Eq. Ž48. against the for the centrifuging of a single particle from the force
filling degree with dynamic angles of repose in the range balance on a particle, which moves in the orbit r s R
of 258 F Q F 408. As the graph makes clear, a detachment around the axis of rotation. Watanabe w24x develops a
of the particles is possible when filling degrees are approx- mathematical model for the transition behavior of the ball
imately above 15%. The lower the dynamic angle of charge between cataracting and centrifuging on the basis
repose, the higher the filling degree necessary to reach of the Discrete Element Method ŽDEM., the results of
cataracting motion. To a large extent the results of the which agree well with measurements on a model ball mill.
model calculations correspond with practical experiences According to the classic definition of centrifuging, this
from ball mills w3,6x, according to which cataracting mo- state of motion is attained by particles, which move in
tion is obtained with Froude numbers in the range of orbits around the axis of rotation, if the forces, centrifugal
Fr s 0.25–0.72. Ball mills are operated in the transition force and gravitational force, acting on them cancel each
range between cascading motion and cataracting motion. other out. This radial equilibrium of forces exists in the
Actual operating parameters, however, are filling degrees upper dead center of the rotating cylinder when k s 1808,
between 0.35 and 0.50 and rotational speeds of up to in which the lines of influence of both forces run parallel
ŽFig. 5.. Thus, from Eq. Ž40., the known critical Froude
65–75% of the critical speed, that is Fr s 0.42–0.56 w27x.
This range of operating parameters of ball mills is depicted number for the transition of cataracting–centrifuging
in Fig. 7 Žhatched area., emphasizing a good correspon- amounts to
dence between theory and practice. Here the dynamic Fr s 1. Ž 49 .
angle of repose of the mixture of ball charge and bed Far higher Froude numbers Fr ) 1 are, however, required
material to be grinded must be applied. The predictions for the adhesion of a particle on the drum wall with
also agree with a characteristic for the transition of cascad- smaller angles of deflection k - 1808 Žor higher angles of
ing motion to cataracting motion presented by Rose and deflection k ) 1808.. This connection becomes obvious if
Sullivan w28x, a graph of the critical filling degree in terms the tangential balance of forces is considered, in which, in
of the rotational speed f s f Ž nrn c .. contrast to the radial force balance, the frictional force at
3.5. Transition of cataracting–centrifuging the wall FF is additionally taken into account Žsee Fig. 5..
The following results from the tangential equilibrium of
Studies on the transition behavior within the range of forces
cataracting motion are presented in Refs. w9,13,24x among
sin k sin Ž k y w W .
Fr s y cos k s , Ž 50 .
mW sin w W
m W s tan w W characterizing the effective coefficient of
particlerwall friction. Using this relationship, a Froude
number is calculated, which, with a given coefficient of
friction, is required in order to hold a particle on the
rotating wall up to an angle of deflection of k . While Eq.
Ž49. is only valid at the angle k s 1808, Eq. Ž50. calculates
the critical Froude number for a single particle in any
position k on the perimeter. Fig. 8 illustrates its curve
progression for various coefficients of wall friction. As
expected, under the angle of k s 908, Eq. Ž50. turns into
criterion Ž45. for the transition of cascading motion–
cataracting motion at low filling degrees. Furthermore,
with extremely high wall friction coefficients m W ™ ` and
k s Q q ´ , Eq. Ž50. delivers the criterion Ž48. for higher
filling degrees. As the graph shows, when k s 908 q w W ,
the critical Froude number for a single particle reaches its
maximum with
Fig. 7. Transition cascading motion–cataracting motion at higher filling 1
degrees: critical Froude number in terms of filling degree and dynamic Frc ,P s . Ž 51 .
angle of repose, compared with operating parameters of ball mills w27x.
sin w W
J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270 263
4. Experiments
mathematical model, Eq. Ž39. is used below to carry out negligibly small and the wall frictional force is determin-
the calculations for the Bed Behavior Diagram. ing; here the coefficient of bed materialrwall friction is
plotted as a function of the filling degree.
Figs. 14–16 present complete Bed Behavior Diagrams
5. Bed behavior diagram for three different bed materials Žgravel, limestone, sand..
The transverse motion behavior of granular solids in From the physical characteristics of the bed materials
rotating cylinders can be conveniently represented on a indicated in Table 2, the boundaries between the types of
Bed Behavior Diagram, a similar form of which was motion were calculated using the following criteria:
already proposed by Henein et al. w6x. The Bed Behavior slipping motion– Eq. Ž23.
Diagram used in this paper plots the Froude number cascading motion
against the filling degree, in which the ranges of the slumping–rolling Eq. Ž38.
individual forms of motion and their limits are illustrated. rolling–cascading Eq. Ž39.
The transition between slipping motion and cascading cascading motion– Eqs. Ž45. and Ž48.
motion constitutes an exception, in which, in comparison cataracting motion
with the gravitational force, the centrifugal force is usually cataracting–centrifuging Eq. Ž52..
The transition between slipping motion and cascading of the bed materials studied. As the flowability of the bed
motion calculated from Eq. Ž23. is plotted in the lower increases, the slumping range diminishes until, when the
partial illustrations of the Bed Behavior Diagrams. At low material is free-flowing, it finally disappears ŽFig. 16.. As
filling degrees critical conditions may exist for the occur- observations confirm w6x, slipping motion can turn directly
rence of undesired slipping motion, depending on wall into rolling in this case. Simultaneously, the ranges for
roughness and flow properties of the bed materials. rolling and cascading then increase, as a result of which
The ranges and limits of all other types of motion are the conditions for heat and mass transfer in the rotary kiln
represented in the upper partial illustrations of the Bed improve. For comparison with measurements, Figs. 14–16
Behavior Diagrams. As is clear from the graphs, the contain experimental values of the slumping–rolling transi-
motion behavior of the bed materials studied is similar in tion from Henein et al. w6x. With the exception of lime-
principle. Only the transitions of slumping–rolling and stone, the predicted boundaries are in agreement with the
rolling–cascading differ in the Froude number by one to data. The reason for the differences in case of limestone
two decimal powers and shift to lower Froude numbers possibly lies in measuring errors when determining the
with increasing flowability of the solids. An indication of flow properties or in the simplifications of the mathemati-
the flowability of granular solids is, among others, the cal model used.
dynamic angle of repose: the smaller the dynamic angle of The transition from cascading motion to cataracting
repose, the more free-flowing the bed. For example sand motion, with lower filling degrees Ž f - 0.15., is to be
Ž d s 0.5 mm; Q s 32.58. possesses the highest flowability expected only at very high rotational speeds Ž Fr ) 1., in
268 J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270
accordance with calculations from Eq. Ž45.. For lack of limit approaches the Froude number Fr s 1 as the filling
data, a wall friction coefficient of m W s 0.675 given for degree increases.
sand in a rotary kiln with sintering zone roughness w25x is
applied for all bed materials in the diagrams. At medium
filling degrees around Q q ´ s 908, a discontinuity given 6. Summary
by the model occurs, which in this manner will only
happen in the motion of a single particle. However, for the This study presents an overview of the forms and the
operation of ball mills, only the upper range of the filling transition behavior of the transverse motion of free-flow-
degree of f ) 0.2 is relevant w27x, in which the cataracting ing bed materials in unbaffled rotating cylinders. Simpli-
motion can already be obtained with Froude numbers of fied mathematical models have been developed to describe
Fr - 1. These practical experiences correspond well with the transition behavior between the individual forms of
predictions from Eq. Ž48.. As experiments demonstrate motion. Only the transition of rolling–cascading is ascer-
w24x, when filling degrees are low, the transition from tained through an empirical criterion, for which no suitable
cataracting to centrifuging cannot be achieved or can only mathematical model is known up to now. Criterion equa-
be achieved with extremely high rotational speeds. This tions were derived from the models in the form of critical
J. Mellmannr Powder Technology 118 (2001) 251–270 269