Introduction to Critical Thinking

End-term Research Paper

Research Topic:

Assessment methods in European higher education

Research Question:

Is formative assessment better than summative assessment at supporting student learning in

European higher education?

Name of Candidate: Devvrat Raghav

Session: Monsoon 2016

Course: Introduction to Critical Thinking

Course-Code: FC001-10

Supervisor: Prof. Jitendra Khanna

Abstract: 236

Word Count: 2264

 Is formative assessment better than summative assessment at supporting student learning in European higher education?

Abstract

Although formative assessment gained traction in European higher education over the last few decades,
historically there has been no consensus among educationists on whether it is superior to summative
testing in facilitating student learning. In fact, a common issue that arose in these discussions involved
the extent to which formative feedback could measurably support student learning. This study aimed to
provide solutions to past issues by reviewing the current state of knowledge on this topic. Hence,
published research from the 21st Century was sourced from two databases – JSTOR and Google Scholar,
along with other notable works cited within the research that was directly reviewed. Notably, the
findings revealed an agreement that formative assessment is capable of supporting student learning
better than its summative counterpart. This is partly attributed to students employing deep-learning
approaches when faced with formative assessment, in contrast to the surface-learning approach used to
improve scores in summative assessment, which compromises their learning. The study also found that
the provision of quality feedback can improve students’ learning of the course. However, this agreement
was strictly limited to a theoretical paradigm, with practical studies limited to small sample sizes in
artificial environments. Additionally, it was generally acknowledged that current tools and systems of
assessment are not conducive to true formative learning. Thus, the study concludes that while formative
assessment can theoretically outperform summative assessment, it requires reform in existing
educational structures to realize this superiority.

Key words: Formative assessment, assessment in European universities, assessment & student learning

Introduction

It has long been recognized amongst educationists that assessment is central to student experience.
Several researchers, such as Gibbs (2006), have shown in the past that assessment frames student
learning. This argument has been extended in recent times, such as by Black & William (2003) who
argue that assessment can support learning as well as measure it. However, this is a relatively new
phenomenon. In fact, the traditional testing culture was greatly shaped by older models, such as
standardized testing (Shepard 2000) and the behaviorist learning theory (Watering, Gijbels et al. 2008)
that believed in ‘assessment of learning’. But in the last few decades, the focus on constructivist learning
structures and environments have changed the role of assessment in higher education, with a greater
emphasis on ‘assessment for learning’. This is perhaps best symbolized by the Bologna reform of 1999,
which mandated assessment reform across universities in 28 European countries.

Though some scholars may argue that formative assessment has always been central to educational
systems, this is not true (Pryor and Crossouard 2008). Rather, the term “formative evaluation” and its
first use is actually credited to Scriven (1967), with Bloom et al (1971) being the first to use it in context
of student learning. The latter defined formative assessment as 'the process of curriculum construction,

Page 2 of 9
 Is formative assessment better than summative assessment at supporting student learning in European higher education?

teaching, and learning’, which is in contrast to summative assessment, i.e. the ‘tests given at the end of
episodes of teaching for the purpose of grading students’ (p.117).

However, the distinction between these assessment techniques is primarily in their purpose, which is
not always reflected in their implementation. Formative assessment, for instance, has both a summative
function (grading) and formative function (providing feedback) to aid learning (Hernández 2012).
Nevertheless, students often acknowledge the grade, but disregard the feedback. In such cases, the
testing essentially becomes summative, and the effect of formative assessment on student learning
cannot be evaluated. Furthermore, the exact relationship between student learning and different
assessment methods has not been explored much, partly due to this being a relatively new area of
research. This made a direct comparison of formative and summative testing from a learning-based
perspective difficult.

Hence, this study aims instead to consolidate all recent published research into assessment and learning,
with the scope limited to European higher education. By reviewing existing literature, it may be viable
to better define the relationship between these two concepts, in addition to concluding whether or not
formative assessment is more effective in supporting student learning.

Method

The two repositories used to identify relevant research were JSTOR and Google Scholar. These were
iteratively searched for the research papers considered in this review. The key terms in these searches
were: “formative assessment, “assessment in higher education”, “assessment and learning”,
“continuous assessment in education” and “formative assessment in Europe”. Following this query of
the database, a total of 40 published papers across 5 peer-reviewed journals were identified. These
papers were then scrutinized according to the following inclusion criteria:

1. Time of publication – only papers published in the 21st Century, i.e. 2000-2016, were
considered to ensure relevance with current testing methods and standards.

2. Area of publication – all chosen papers belong to European journals and operate within a
European context.

3. Relevance to the topic – only papers that dealt with assessment and student learning in higher
education were included, whereas those that covered concepts like assessment in school or
quality assessment of testing methods were excluded.

4. Source of publication – citations of old, yet relevant research was also used indirectly through
the published papers considered within this review.

5. Language of publication – in order to avoid possible issues due to translation, only papers
originally written in English were retained.

Page 3 of 9
 Is formative assessment better than summative assessment at supporting student learning in European higher education?

6. Nature of publication – due to the relative lack of research within this specific area, papers with
both qualitative and quantitative research were included.

Following this analysis using the inclusion criteria, the set of research papers under consideration was
finalized. Moreover, notable works cited within the selected papers were also indirectly included into
this review, but only if their arguments and findings were clearly stated.

Results

Table 1 - Finalized sources

Year of
Paper Title Journal of publication Author(s)
publication

Research and the development Oxford Review of Education

Paul Black 2000
of Educational Assessment Vol. 26, No. 3/4

Formative Assessment in
Higher Education: Moves
Higher Education
Towards Theory and the Mantz Yorke 2003
Vol. 45, No. 4
Enhancement
of Pedagogic Practice
In Praise of Educational
British Educational Research Journal Paul Black and Dylan
Research: Formative 2003
Vol. 29, No. 5 Wiliam
Assessment
Assessment: Summative and
British Journal of Educational Studies
Formative: Some Theoretical Maddalena Taras 2005
Vol. 53, No. 4
Reflections
Joan Hanafin,
Including young people with
Higher Education Michael Shevlin,
disabilities: Assessment 2007
Vol. 54, No. 3 Mairin Kenny and
challenges in higher education
Eileen Mc Neela

A Socio-Cultural Theorization Oxford Review of Education John Pryor; Barbara

2008
of Formative Assessment Vol. 34, No. 1 Crossouard

Students' Assessment Gerard van de Watering;

Preferences, Perceptions of Higher Education David Gijbels;
2008
Assessment and Their Vol. 56, No. 6 Filip Dochy and
Relationships to Study Results Janine van der Rijt
Does continuous assessment in
Higher Education
higher education support Rosario Hernández 2012
Vol. 64, No. 4
student learning?

Page 4 of 9
 Is formative assessment better than summative assessment at supporting student learning in European higher education?

Role of feedback

Hernández (2012) finds in his study of 138 students of Hispanic Studies in Ireland that formative
assessment has the potential to significantly support student learning. He argues that the provision of
feedback and student involvement in peer-assessment practices – both of which belong to formative
assessment – encourages students to be more reflective about their learning. The importance of feedback
is also emphasized by Yorke (2003), who cites a study at UK Open University that found a positive
causal link between provision of feedback and student performance (Baume & Yorke 2002). Similarly,
Black & Wiliam (2003) also confirm the belief that without adequate feedback on their performance,
students will have relatively little by which to chart their development. Even further, Hanafin et al.
(2007) suggest the need for effective feedback to students, which they claim improves the level of
learning attained by these students.

However, Yorke also highlights the potential problems associated with the provision of feedback on
formative assignments. One such issue is the rapidity with which feedback is delivered. He suggests
that if the feedback is either instantaneous or very slow, then the purpose of supporting students is
defeated. Yorke further argues that it is still very hard to measure the impact of this feedback even if
properly delivered, as it is not always clear whether the student has developed sufficiently to deal
satisfactorily with analogous work without the support of the teacher.

Differentiating between formative and summative assessment

The weaknesses in the current implementation of formative assessment also raise questions regarding
the distinctions between both these assessment methods. Hanafin et al. (2007) claim that summative
testing is heavily reliant on terminal, once-off examinations. However, Taras (2005) argues that
formative assessment is effectively summative testing plus feedback, since it is not possible for any
assessment to purely formative in nature. She goes on further to claim that most summative assessment
in formal settings requires feedback, which makes distinguishing between formative and summative
assessment even more difficult.

Nevertheless, she does cite how Scriven (1967) and Bloom et al. (1971) did identify certain differences,
namely that summative assessment focused more on the final outcome, i.e. the work to be assessed,
rather than the process of assessing and utilizing feedback. Black (2000) cites Sadler (1989) in
suggesting that formative assessment aims to equip learners with tools to manage their own learning,
such as a clear view of their learning goals, and some understanding of their present state of learning.
As such, it is more suited to the key purpose of higher education, which is to facilitate the autonomy of
learners in a world of lifelong learning (Boud 2000; Yorke 2003).

Page 5 of 9
 Is formative assessment better than summative assessment at supporting student learning in European higher education?

Despite this, Yorke points out that in its practical implementation, unitization of curriculum in higher
education means that formative assessment has become highly summative in its function. He attributes
this to the increasing concern with attainment standards, leading to greater emphasis on the outcome,
along with the simultaneous increase in student/staff ratios that reduce the quality and quantity of
feedback available to support student learning.

Need for changing classroom practices

In view of this, Black (2000) asserts the need for reforming educational practices within classrooms,
specifically in context of administering assessment methods. He cites past research in proclaiming that
traditional classroom practices related to summative testing encourage rote and superficial learning,
with the grading function being over-emphasized and the learning function is under-emphasized.
Furthermore, he illustrates the impact of these “high-stakes tests” on teachers, whose focus is narrowed
to short-term success in the end-term examinations, rather than on the holistic learning outcomes that
higher education represents.

In the subsequent literature review by Black and Wiliam (2003), they once again recognize the need for
specific tools for formative assessment, as the methods and questions of traditional summative tests
might not be very useful for the purpose of the day-to-day guidance of learning.

Following this, Carless (2007) also suggests the need for a more learning-oriented approach to
assessment for feedback to substantially support student learning. Hernández concurs, as he states the
need for “radical change in the way feedback is perceived, with greater emphasis given to the role of
the students in the process”. Nevertheless, he does acknowledge the need for more research to the extent
to which learning-oriented assessment can facilitates students' learning.

Furthermore, the role of the assessor also greatly affects the impact on learning. Hernández (2012) in
this context argues that by providing a “feed-forward” component, i.e. feedback along with directions
on how to use it, formative assessment better supports students in being self-conscious in their learning
and becomes more effective than purely summative assessment.

Impact on students’ approach

A notable effect of any assessment method is its impact on the students’ approach towards assessment
and learning (Yorke 2003; Pryor & Crossouard 2008; Watering et al. 2008; Hernández 2012). In the
case of summative, end-of-course testing, Hanafin et al. (2008) cite Scouller (1998) in attesting that
students are more likely to adopt surface-learning approaches. This is in contrast to students assessed
by formative portfolio assessment that involved assignment essays, who were not only more likely to

Page 6 of 9
 Is formative assessment better than summative assessment at supporting student learning in European higher education?

employ deep-learning approaches, but also perceive the assessment method as assessing higher levels
of cognitive processing. As a result, their understanding and application of course knowledge is likely
to be much better when faced with formative assessment.

Moreover, formative assessment allows students to express their knowledge in various forms, such as
portfolios, projects, orally and kinesthetically. This is largely similar to students’ assessment
preferences highlighted in the study by Watering et al. (2008), who identify the use of supporting
material and testing of cognitive processes as favored components of student testing. According to
Black (2000), the “low achievers” are likely to benefit most from such assessment, because self- and
peer-assessment helps reduce the spread of attainment among students and thus, promotes learning.

Additionally, the study by Watering et al. also revealed that students assessed via summative testing
found it “unimaginable to cases or problem scenarios”, which they describe as a lack of practice in
problem-solving skills and the display of incomplete learning. However, Pryor & Crossouard (2008)
instead consider such convergent (summative) testing to be an important component of overall
divergent (formative) assessment, through which the students can better understand the assessment
criteria. They further contend that by allowing students to understand the assessment and its criteria
from a socio-cultural standpoint, i.e. what it means in context of future study, it is possible to truly
enhance student learning from formative assessment in comparison to traditional summative testing.

Discussion

The results of this literature review reveal a general consensus amongst researchers, which is that
formative assessment is certainly capable of supporting student learning better than summative
assessment. The studies by Baume and Yorke (2002; Hernández (2012); Watering et al (2008) and
others reveal that provision of feedback ultimately affects students’ understanding of their own learning,
in addition to changing their approach towards learning for the assessment. Qualitative research by
Black (2000) and Carless (2007) also agrees from a theoretical standpoint, insomuch that formative
assessment can equip students with the right techniques to support their learning.

Nevertheless, the research similarly attests to the need for reforming educational assessment structures.
From the findings of Yorke (2003) and Black & Wiliam (2006), it becomes apparent that current
learning tools and environments are unsuitable for formative assessment, which diminish its impact on
student learning. In particular, the sociocultural factors must be recognized, such as the considerable
emphasis on the attainment standards, i.e. the outcome of assessment, rather than the process itself. This
is further compounded by increasing student/staff ratios, which hamper the level of attention and
feedback that can be provided to students. Consequently, we inhabit an inherently summative
environment, where the formative function of assessment often tends to be ignored by society.

Page 7 of 9
 Is formative assessment better than summative assessment at supporting student learning in European higher education?

Notably, past reviews in this field by Natriello (1987) and Crooks (1988) also highlighted the need for
educational reform. However, the former cited weak theorization as cause for discounting a lot of past
research, which meant key distinctions (e.g. the quality and quantity of feedback) being conflated.
Although the latter – due to his specific scope of study – was able to sufficiently conclude that the
summative function of assessment had been “too dominant” in the past. Interestingly, this trend carries
on in the review by Black & Wiliam (2003), although by then the Bologna reform was underway.
Essentially, what this should mean is that we are now better-placed to understand and evaluate the
impact of assessment methods on student learning, since it seems that findings of the past finally
managed to filter through to policy.

More importantly, these reviews also highlighted how we lacked requisite knowledge to measure the
benefits of formative feedback. Student performance – as measured by studies wanting to evaluate
assessment methods – is multidimensional and as such, affected by factors outside the immediate scope
of study. Moreover, due to most measurement of student learning being ad hoc (Yorke 2003), objective
evaluation of assessment methods was difficult. This is perhaps the greatest limitation of past and
present research into this area, since we still cannot quantify the impact of formative assessment on
student learning. That being said, the implementation of Bologna reforms in European tertiary education
will reach an advanced stage over the next few years. This will allow for a post-hoc of formative
assessment, because student learning in a post-reform setting can be compared to results from
summative environments. Hence, further research into the field of assessment is recommended, through
which the impact of formative assessment on student learning could be better measured.

Acknowledgements

This study was part of the formative assessment in the ‘Introduction to Critical Thinking’ course. As a
result, I would like to thank Prof. Jitendra Khanna for indirectly motivating me to research into this
area. Additionally, I am grateful to the researchers who made their papers publicly-accessible on media
like JSTOR and Google Scholar, without which this literature review would not have been possible.

Page 8 of 9
 Is formative assessment better than summative assessment at supporting student learning in European higher education?

References

Baume, D. & Yorke, M. (2002). 'The reliability of assessment by portfolio on a course to develop and accredit
teachers in higher education', Studies in Higher Education, 27(1), 7-25

Black, P. (2000). Research and the Development of Educational Assessment, Oxford Review of Education,
26(3/4), 407-419

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2003). 'In Praise of Educational Research': Formative Assessment. British Educational
Research Journal, 29(5), 623-637

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2006). Assessment for learning in the classroom. In J. Gardner (Ed.), Assessment and
learning (pp. 9-25). London: Sage.

Bloom, B.S., Hastings, J.T. and Madaus, G.F. (1971). Handbook on Formative and Summative Evaluation of
Student Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill

Boud, D. (2000). 'Sustainable assessment: Rethinking assessment for the learning society', Studies in Continuing
Education, 22(2), 161-177

Carless, D. (2007). Learning-oriented assessment: Conceptual bases and practical implications. Innovations in
Education and Teaching International, 44 (1), 57-66

Gibbs, G. (2006). How assessment frames student learning. In C. Bryan & K. Clegg (Eds.), Innovative assessment
in higher education (pp. 23-36). London: Routledge

Hanafin, J., Shevlin, M., Kenny M. & Mc Neela E. (2007). Including Young People with Disabilities: Assessment
Challenges in Higher Education, Higher Education, 54(3), 435-448

Sadler, D.R. (1998). 'Formative assessment: Revisiting the territory', Assessment in Education, 5(1), 77-84.

Scouller. K. (1998). The influence of assessment method on student' learning approaches: Multiple choice
question examination versus assignment essay. Higher Education, 453-472

Scriven M. (1967). The Methodology of Evaluation (Washington, American Educational Research Association).

Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of assessment in a learning culture. Educational Researcher, 29(1), 4-14.

Taras, M. (2005). Assessment—summative and formative—some theoretical reflections. British Journal of

Educational Studies, 53(4), 466-478

Van de Watering, G., Gijbels, D., Dochy, F., & Van der Rijt, J. (2008). Students' Assessment Preferences,
Perceptions of Assessment and Their Relationships to Study Results, Higher Education, 56(6), 645-658

Yorke, M. (2003). Formative assessment in higher education: Moves towards theory and the enhancement of
pedagogic practice. Higher Education, 45(4), 477-501

Page 9 of 9