Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC)[1] was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and

teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics,
metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics,
biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of
the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first
to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality, aesthetics,
logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.

Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their
influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by
Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be
accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic,
which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics,
Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the
Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian
theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was well known
among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as - "The First Teacher". His ethics,
though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.
All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today.
Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary
style as "a river of gold"),[2] it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and
only about one-third of the original works have survived.

Life
Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose," [4] was born in Stageira, Chalcidice, in 384
BC, about 55 km (34 mi) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.[5] His father Nicomachus was the
personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was trained and educated as a
member of the aristocracy. At about the age of eighteen, he went to Athens to continue his
education at Plato's Academy. Aristotle remained at the academy for nearly twenty years
before quitting Athens in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure reports that he
was disappointed with the direction the academy took after control passed to Plato's nephew
Speusippus upon his death, although it is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments
and left before Plato had died. He then traveled with Xenocrates to the court of his friend
Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor.

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Charaka, sometimes spelled Caraka, born c. 300 BC was one of the principal contributors to
the ancient art and science of Ayurveda, a system of medicine and lifestyle developed in
Ancient India. He is referred to as the Father of Medicine.

Acharya Charaka and the Ayurveda

The term Caraka is a label said to apply to "wandering scholars" or "wandering physicians".
Buddhists also claim that Charaka was Buddhist.

According to Charaka's translations health and disease are not predetermined and life may
be prolonged by human effort and attention to lifestyle. As per Indian heritage and science of
Ayurvedic system, prevention of all types of diseases have a more prominent place than
treatment, including restructuring of life style to align with the course of nature and four
seasons, which will guarantee complete wellness.

The following statements are attributed to Acharya Charaka:

"A physician who fails to enter the body of a patient with the lamp of knowledge and
understanding can never treat diseases. He should first study all the factors, including
environment, which influence a patient's disease, and then prescribe treatment. It is
more important to prevent the occurrence of disease than to seek a cure."

((These remarks appear obvious today, though they were often not heeded, and were made by
Charaka, in his famous Ayurvedic treatise Charaka Samhita. The treatise contains many such
remarks which are held in reverence even today. Some of them are in the fields of physiology,
etiology and embryology.

Charaka was the first physician to present the concept of digestion, metabolism and
immunity. According to his translations of the Vedas, a body functions because it contains
three dosha or principles, namely movement (vata), transformation (pitta) and lubrication
and stability (kapha). The doshas are also sometimes called humours, namely, bile, phlegm
and wind.)) These dosha are produced when dhatus (blood, flesh and marrow) act upon the
food eaten. For the same quantity of food eaten, one body, however, produces dosha in an
amount different from another body. That is why one body is different from another. For
instance, it is more weighty, stronger, more energetic.

2
Parāśara is a Rigvedic Maharishi and author of many ancient Indian texts. Parāśara (or
Parashar) was the grandson of Vashista, the son of Śakti Mahar ṣi, and the father of Vyasa.
There are several texts which give reference to Parāśara as an author/speaker. Modern
scholars believe that there were many individuals who used this name throughout time
whereas others assert that the same Parāśara taught these various texts and the time of
writing them varied. The actual sage himself never wrote the texts, he was known as a
traveling teacher, and the various texts attributed to him are given in reference to Parāśara
being the speaker to his student. He is the third member of the Rishi Parampara of the
Advaita Guru Paramparā.

Genealogy

According to the Vedas, Brahma created Vashista who with Arundhati had a son named
Shakti-muni who sired Parāśara. With Satyavati, Parāśara fathered Vyasa. Vyasa sired
Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura through his dead brother's wives. Vyasa also sired Śuka
through his wife, Jābāli's daughter Pinjalā (Vatikā). [1] Thus Parashara was the great-
grandfather of both the warring parties of the Mahābhārata, the Kauravas and the
Pāndavas.

Life

One of the greatest Cleric of the Puranic times.Parāśara Muni was raised by his grandfather,
Vashista, because he lost his father at an early age. His father, Shakti-muni, was on a journey
and came across an angry Rakshasa (demon) who had once been a king but was turned into
a demon feeding on human flesh as a curse from Vishwamitra. The demon devoured
Parāśara’s father. In the Visnu Purana, Parāśara speaks about his anger from this:[2]

"I had heard that my father had been devoured by a Rakshasa employed by Vishwamitra:
violent anger seized me, and I commenced a sacrifice for the destruction of the Rakshasas:
hundreds of them were reduced to ashes by the rite, when, as they were about to be entirely
exterminated, my grandfather Vashista said to me: Enough, my child; let thy wrath be
appeased: the Rakshasas are not culpable: thy father's death was the work of destiny. Anger
is the passion of fools; it becometh not a wise man. By whom, it may be asked, is any one
killed? Every man reaps the consequences of his own acts. Anger, my son, is the destruction
of all that man obtains by arduous exertions, of fame, and of devout austerities; and prevents
the attainment of heaven or of emancipation.

3
Carl Linnaeus (Swedish original name Carl Nilsson Linnæus, 23 May[note 1]
1707 – 10
January 1778), also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné (help·info),[1] was a
Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme
of binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also
considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his
name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus (after 1761 Carolus a Linné).

Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. Linnaeus received
most of his higher education at Uppsala University, and began giving lectures in botany there
in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first
edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden, where he
became professor of botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys
through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 60s, he continued
to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, and published several volumes. At the
time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe.

The Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message: "Tell him I know no
greater man on earth."[2] The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the
exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has
influenced me more strongly."[2] Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: "Linnaeus was in
reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist". [3] Among other compliments, Linnaeus
has been called Princeps botanicorum (Prince of Botanists), "The Pliny of the North," and
"The Second Adam".[4]

In botany, the author abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species'
names is L.[5] In 1959, Carl Linnaeus was designated as the lectotype for Homo sapiens,[6]
which means that following the nomenclatural rules, Homo sapiens was validly defined as
the animal species to which Linnaeus belonged.

Carl Linnaeus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden on 23 May 1707. He
was the first child of Nils Ingemarsson Linnaeus and Christina Brodersonia. His father was
the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used the
patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries: his father was named Ingemarsson
after his father Ingemar Bengtsson. When Nils was admitted to the University of Lund, he
had to take on a family name.

4
Louis Pasteur December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French chemist and
microbiologist who was one of the most important founders of medical microbiology. He is
remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases. His
discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first vaccines for
rabies and anthrax. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease. He was best
known to the general public for inventing a method to treat milk and wine in order to prevent
it from causing sickness, a process that came to be called pasteurization. He is regarded as
one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert
Koch.

Pasteur also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, most notably the molecular
basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals. [2] His body lies beneath the Institute Pasteur in
Paris in a spectacular vault covered in depictions of his accomplishments in Byzantine
mosaics.[3]

Early life

Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822, in Dole in the Jura region of France, into the
family of a poor tanner. Louis grew up in the town of Arbois. [2] This fact probably instilled in
the younger Pasteur the strong patriotism that later was a defining element of his character.
Louis Pasteur was an average student in his early years, but he was gifted in drawing and
painting. His pastels and portraits of his parents and friends, made when he was 15, were
later kept in the museum of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. He earned his bachelor of arts
degree (1840) and bachelor of science degree (1842) at the École Normale Supérieure. After
serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of
chemistry at the University of Strasbourg,[2] where he met and courted Marie Laurent,
daughter of the university's rector, in 1849. These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try
to find cures for diseases such as typhoid.

Research career

In Pasteur's early work as a chemist, he resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric
acid (1848). A solution of this compound derived from living things (specifically, wine lees)
rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. The mystery was that tartaric
acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even though its chemical reactions
were identical and its elemental composition was the same.

5
Niels Henrik David Bohr 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who
made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics,
for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. He developed the model of the
atom with the nucleus at the center and electrons in orbit around it, which he compared to
the planets orbiting the sun. He worked on the idea in quantum mechanics that electrons
move from one energy level to another in discrete steps, not continuously. Bohr mentored and
collaborated with many of the top physicists of the century at his institute in Copenhagen. He
was part of the British team of physicists working on the Manhattan Project. Bohr married
Margrethe Nørlund in 1912, and one of their sons, Aage Bohr, was also a physicist and in
1975 also received the Nobel Prize.

Biography

Early years

Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1885. His father, Christian Bohr, was professor
of physiology at the University of Copenhagen (it is his name which is given to the Bohr shift
or Bohr effect), while his mother, Ellen Adler Bohr, came from a wealthy Jewish family
prominent in Danish banking and parliamentary circles (in 1891, Bohr was baptized a
Lutheran, his father's religion). Despite having a religious background, he later resigned his
membership from the Lutheran Church and became an atheist. His brother was Harald Bohr,
a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played on the Danish national team. Niels
Bohr was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played a number of matches
for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Niels in goal.

In 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University, initially studying

philosophy and mathematics. In 1905, prompted by a gold medal competition sponsored by
the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, he conducted a series of experiments to
examine the properties of surface tension, using his father's laboratory in the university,
familiar to him from assisting there since childhood. His essay won the prize, and it was this
success that prompted Bohr's decision to abandon philosophy and adopt physics. He
continued as a graduate student at the University of Copenhagen, under the physicist
Christian Christiansen, receiving his doctorate in 1911.

6
Sir Joseph John "J. J." Thomson, OM, FRS [1] (18 December 1856 – 30 August 1940) was a
British physicist and Nobel laureate. He is credited with discovering electrons and
isotopes, and inventing the mass spectrometer. Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel
Prize in Physics for the discovery of the electron and for his work on the conduction of
electricity in gases.

Biography

Joseph John Thomson was born in 1856 in Cheetham Hill, Manchester, England. His mother,
Emma Swindells, came from a local textile family. His father, Joseph James Thomson, ran an
antiquarian bookshop founded by a great-grandfather from Scotland (hence the Scottish
spelling of his surname). He had a brother two years younger than he, Frederick Vernon
Thomson.[2]

His early education took place in small private schools where he demonstrated great talent
and interest in science. In 1870 he was admitted to Owens College. Being only 14 years old
at the time, he was unusually young. His parents planned to enroll him as an apprentice
engineer to Sharp-Stewart & Co., a locomotive manufacturer, but these plans were cut short
when his father died in 1873.[2] He moved on to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1876. In 1880,
he obtained his BA in mathematics (Second Wrangler and 2nd Smith's prize) and MA (with
Adams Prize) in 1883.[3] In 1884 he became Cavendish Professor of Physics. One of his
students was Ernest Rutherford, who would later succeed him in the post. In 1890 he married
Rose Elisabeth Paget, daughter of Sir George Edward Paget, KCB, a physician and then
Regius Professor of Physic at Cambridge. He had one son, George Paget Thomson, and one
daughter, Joan Paget Thomson, with her. One of Thomson's greatest contributions to modern
science was in his role as a highly gifted teacher, as seven of his research assistants and his
aforementioned son won Nobel Prizes in physics. His son won the Nobel Prize in 1937 for
proving the wavelike properties of electrons.

Several scientists, such as William Prout and Norman Lockyer, had suggested that atoms
were built up from a more fundamental unit, but they envisioned this unit to be the size of the
smallest atom, hydrogen. Thomson, in 1897, was the first to suggest that the fundamental unit
was over 1000 times smaller than an atom, suggesting the subatomic particles now known as
electrons. Thomson discovered this through his explorations on the properties of cathode

7
rays. Thomson made his suggestion on 30 April 1897 following his discovery that Lenard
rays could travel much further through air than expected for an atom-sized particle.

Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson OM, FRS (30 August 1871 – 19
October 1937) was a New Zealand-born British chemist and physicist who became known as
the father of nuclear physics. He is considered the greatest experimentalist since Michael
Faraday (1791–1867).

In early work he discovered the concept of radioactive half-life, proved that radioactivity
involved the transmutation of one chemical element to another, and also differentiated and
named alpha and beta radiation, proving that the former was essentially helium ions. This
work was done at McGill University in Canada. It is the basis for the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry he was awarded in 1908 "for his investigations into the disintegration of the
elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances".

Rutherford performed his most famous work after he had moved to the Victoria University of
Manchester in the UK in 1907 and was already a Nobel laureate. In 1911, although he could
not prove that it was positive or negative; he theorized that atoms have their charge
concentrated in a very small nucleus and thereby pioneered the Rutherford model of the
atom, through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering in his gold foil
experiment. He is widely credited with first "splitting the atom" in 1917 in a nuclear reaction
between nitrogen and alpha particles, in which he also discovered (and named) the proton. [7]
This led to the first experiment to split the nucleus in a fully controlled manner, performed by
two students working under his direction, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, in 1932. After
his death in 1937, he was honoured by being interred with the greatest scientists of the
United Kingdom, near Sir Isaac Newton's tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical element
rutherfordium (element 104) was named after him in 1997.

Biography
Early life and education

Ernest Rutherford was the son of James Rutherford, a farmer, and his wife Martha
Thompson, originally from Hornchurch, Essex, England. [8] James had emigrated to New
Zealand from Perth, Scotland, "to raise a little flax and a lot of children". Ernest was born at

8
Spring Grove (now Brightwater), near Nelson, New Zealand. His first name was mistakenly
spelled Earnest when his birth was registered.[9]

9
Emmanuel Goldstein is a character in George Orwell's classic dystopian novel Nineteen
Eighty-Four. He is the number one enemy of the people according to Big Brother and the
Party, who heads a mysterious and possibly fictitious anti-party organization called The
Brotherhood. Despite being a key part of the story, he is only actually seen and heard on
telescreen, and may in fact be nothing more than a useful propaganda fabrication of the
Ministry of Truth.

However, Goldstein's persona as an enemy of the state serves to distract, unite and focus the
anger of the people of Oceania. Ostensibly, Goldstein serves an important role as both a
convenient scapegoat for the totalitarian regime in 1984, and justifying reason for more
military buildup, surveillance and elimination of civil liberties.

Character

In the novel, Goldstein is rumoured to be a former top member of the ruling (and sole) Party
who had broken away early in the movement and started an organization known as "The
Brotherhood", dedicated to the fall of The Party. The novel raises but leaves unanswered the
questions of whether Goldstein, "The Brotherhood," or even "Big Brother" really exist.

Each member of "The Brotherhood" is required to read The Book, supposedly written by
Goldstein, The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism. Ostensibly The
Brotherhood is organized into cells.

Goldstein is always the subject of the "Two Minutes Hate," a daily, 2-minute period
beginning at 11:00 am at which a purported image of Goldstein is shown on the telescreen (a
one-channel television with surveillance devices in it that cannot be turned off). The reader
may surmise that a political opposition to Big Brother—namely, Goldstein—was
psychologically necessary in order to provide an internal enemy posing a threat to the rule of
the Party; the constantly reiterated ritual of the Two Minutes Hate help ensure that popular
support for and devotion towards Big Brother is continuous.

Not long after the novel's appearance,[1] a number of contemporary commentators noticed
that the biography, appearance, writing style and political thought of Emmanuel Goldstein
closely paralleled Leon Trotsky's. In 1954, Isaac Deutscher wrote that "The Book" in 1984
was intended as a "paraphrase" of Trotsky's The Revolution Betrayed.[2] In 1956, Irving
Howe described Goldstein's book as "clearly a replica" of Trotsky's The Revolution Betrayed,
writing that the parts that seemed to be imitating Trotsky were "among the best passages" of
the novel.

10
Sir James Chadwick CH FRS[1] (20 October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was an English Nobel
laureate in physics awarded for his discovery of the neutron.[2]

Chadwick studied at the University of Manchester and the University of Cambridge. He was
one of the primary British scientists who worked in the Manhattan Project in the United
States during World War II. He was knighted in 1945 for achievements in physics.

Biography

Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire to John Joseph Chadwick and Anne Mary
Knowles Chadwick. He attended the Bollington Cross C of E Primary School and the Central
Grammar School for Boys in Manchester,[3] and studied at the universities of Manchester and
Cambridge.

In 1913, Chadwick entered the Technical University of Berlin, studying under Hans Geiger
and Sir Ernest Rutherford on an 1851 Research Fellowship. Chadwick was in Germany at
the start of World War I, and he was detained in the Ruhleben internment camp near Berlin.
While he was interned, he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables. There, with the
help of Charles D. Ellis, he worked on the ionization of phosphorus and on the
photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine.[4][5] He spent most of the war years
in Ruhleben until Geiger's laboratory interceded for his release.

Career

Research at Cambridge

In 1932 Chadwick discovered a previously unknown particle in the atomic nucleus. [6] He
communicated his findings in detail.[7][8] This particle was first predicted by Ettore Majorana
and has come to be known as the neutron because of its lack of electric charge. Chadwick's
discovery was crucial for understanding the nuclear fission of uranium 235. Unlike the
positively-charged alpha particles, which are repelled by the electrical forces present in the
nuclei of other atoms, neutrons do not need to overcome any Coulomb barrier and can
therefore penetrate and enter the nuclei of even the heaviest elements such as uranium-235
and plutonium.

For Chadwick's discovery of the neutron in 1932, he was awarded the Hughes Medal of the
Royal Society in 1932 and the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935.

11