MET 275:

WELDING AND MACHINING

Mohammed Faiz ur Rahman

.

Room No: 2305, Main Campus

Phone: 1450, Email - faizu@uohb.edu.sa
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 Outline (275)
 Introduction of Manufacturing (Welding and Forming) (W 1)
 Gas Welding and Cutting; Metallurgy of Welding (W 2)
 Brazing, Metallurgy of Welding (W 3)
 Arc Welding Processes (W 4-5)
 Solid State Welding (W 6)
 Soldering, Mechanical Fastening and Welding Defects (W7)
 Introduction to Machining (W 8-9)
 Lathes and Lathes Operations (W 10)
 Drillings and Drills (W 11)
 Milling (W 12)
 CNC Machining (W13)
 Non Traditional Machining (W 14)
 Revision (W 15).

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 Supporting Documents
Textbook(s) and/or Other Required Materials:
o S. Kalpakjian and S. Schmid (2006).: Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology, 5th or 6th Edition, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-197639-7.
o Extra handouts
o Videos

References:
o i. http://me.emu.edu.tr/me364/lecnotes.html
o ii. http://www.scribd.com/doc/7106865/Chip-Formation-and-Tool-Life
o iii.http://www.scribd.com/doc/11621416/7-Use-of-Chip-Breaker-in-
Machining

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 Grading Policy

Assessment Policy: Weighting Letter Grading Scale:

Lab Reports 10% 0% < 60% F
Quizzes 10% 60 % < 65% D
First Major exam. 10% 65% < 70% D+
Midterm Practical 10% 70% < 75% C
Second Major exam. 15% 75% < 80% C+
Final Practical 15% 80% < 85% B
Final examination 30% 85% < 90% B+
100% 90% < 95% A
95% to 100% A+

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 Week 1

INTRODUCTION OF
MANUFACTURING AND WELDING

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 Manufacturing

 Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials

into products.

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 Approximate Number of Parts in Products
 A typical automobile is constructed by the assembly of 15,000
different numbers of parts.
 Similarly a typical Jet Engine is made up of 6 million spare
parts.
 All these parts have to be manufactured by different
techniques. Therefore manufacturing is a broad and practical
field.

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 Example 1: Paper Clips

 Material?
 Type and Condition?
 Shape, Cross-section, Diameter?
 Surface finish and Appearance?
 Mechanism?
 Decision on machine?
 Approach on number of products?

 Design: Shape, size, feel and appearance.

 Material Selection: Stiffness, strength and corrosion.

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 Design of the Product

70-80% of the cost of product development and

manufacture is determined by the decisions
made in the initial design stages.
Innovative approach to design is highly
desirable for the product to be successful in the
marketplace, savings in materials and
production cost.

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 Concurrent Engineering

Concurrent Engineering integrates the design

and manufacture of products. Reduces (a) the
changes in product’s design and engineering
and (b) time and cost.
Concept of life-cycle engineering requires that
the entire life of the product be considered in
the design stage: The design, production,
distribution, use and recycling/disposal must be
considered simultaneously.

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 Design for Assembly

FIGURE 1.4 Redesign of parts to facilitate automated assembly. Source: Reprinted from G. Boothroyd and P.
Dewhurst, Product Design for Assembly, 1989, by courtesy of Marcel Dekker, Inc.

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 Selecting Materials
 Ferrous metals: carbon alloy, stainless, tool and die
steels.
 Nonferrous metals: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti, superalloys,
refractory metals, Be, Zr, low meting alloys etc
 Plastics: thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers
 Ceramics, glasses, glass ceramics, graphite, diamond
 Composite materials: reinforced plastics, MMC, CMC
 Advanced materials: Nanomaterials, shape memory
alloys, amorphous alloys, semiconductor and various
other advanced materials.

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 Selecting Materials
 Properties of Materials:
1. Mechanical (strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, elasticity, fatigue and creep)
2. Physical (density, specific heat, CTE, conductivity, MP, electrical and magnetic)
3. Chemical (oxidation, corrosion, toxicity, flammability)
4. Manufacturing (casting, forming, machining, joining, heat treating)
 Cost and Availability
 Appearance, Service Life and Recycling:
1. Appearance (Color, feel and surface texture are the characteristics that are in
consideration for purchasing a particular product)
2. Service life (Wear, fatigue, creep and dimensional stability are important for
product performance)
3. Recycling (for maintaining a clean and healthy environment).

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 Selecting Materials
White ash trees,
minimum 45 years old.

Which Material
is better?

High strength graphite and glass fibers

in an epoxy resin matrix. The inner
woven sleeve is made of Kevlar
fibers, which add strength to and
dampen vibrations in the bat.

Fig: Cross sections of baseball bats made of aluminum

(top two) and composite material (bottom two).

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 Selecting Manufacturing Processes
 Various Manufacturing Processes:
1. Casting (Expendable and permanent mold)
2. Forming and Shaping (Rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet forming, powder
metallurgy and molding)
3. Machining (Turning, boring, drilling, milling, planning, shaping, broaching and
grinding, ultrasonic machining, chemical, electrical and electrochemical
machining, and high energy beam machining)
4. Joining (Welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion bonding, adhesive bonding and
mechanical joining)
5. Finishing (Honing, lapping, polishing, burnishing, deburring, surface treating,
coating and plating)
6. Nanofabrication (Etching techniques, electron-beams and laser-beams).

Selection of manufacturing process(es) depend(s) not only on the shape to be

produced but also on the materials properties.

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 Selecting Manufacturing Processes
 Influencing Factors:
1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish (i.e.flat parts with thin cross sections can
not be cast properly; complex parts can not be formed easily and economically)
2. Operational and manufacturing costs (design and cost of tooling, the lead time
required to start production and the effect of workpiece material on tool and die life).
3. Availability of machines and equipments
4. Experience of operating personnel
5. Quantity and production rate.

Net-shape or near-net shape manufacturing:  initial production of the

item is very close to the final (net) shape with acceptable tolerances, surface
finish and specifications as possible. Reducing traditional finishing such as
machining or grinding eliminates more than two-thirds of the production costs
in some industries.

Near net shape can also be used for structural ceramic production.
Example: Casting, injection molding of plastics, components made by PM technique etc.

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Joining Processes

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 Joining

 Joining is an all inclusive term, covering processes

such as welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding
and mechanical fastening.
 Importance of Joining:
 Impossible to manufacture a single piece
 Economical (i.e. combination of different materials)
 Easy to replace/repair/maintenance
 Different properties for different parts
 Transportation: Assembly at a place.

 Welding Safety:
􀀹 Surroundings: Fire & explosion hazards
􀀹 Personal Danger: Protection for eyes, face & body
􀀹 Noise & Shock: Hearing loss
􀀹 Fumes: Toxic fumes
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 Week 2

GAS WELDING AND CUTTING,

METALLURGY OF WELDING

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 WELDING
 Welding: The joining of metallic objects with a process
that involves the application of heat, filler metal
(normally) and the shielding and/or cleaning agent.
 Welding is generally three (3) types:
1.Fusion welding
2.Solid State Welding
3.Brazing and Soldering.
Fusion Welding: Application of intense heat, which causes metal at the
joint between two parts to melt and intermix. Frequently, additional
metal is added to the joint by the use of the filler metal. Upon cooling
and solidification, a metallurgical bond results.
Solid State Welding: Joining takes place without fusion; consequently
there is no liquid (molten) phase in the joint.
Brazing and Soldering: Brazing uses filler metals and involves lower
temperature than welding. Soldering uses similar filler metals (solders)
and involves even lower temperature.
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Welded Joints

Figure 30.27 Examples

of welded joints, positions
and their terminology.

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 Oxyfuel-Gas Welding
 Oxy-fuel gas welding: A fusion welding process that uses a fuel gas
combined with oxygen to produce a flame. The most commonly used
fuel is acetylene gas.
 The heat source is the flame obtained by combustion of oxygen and
acetylene.
 When mixed together in correct proportions within a hand-held torch
or blowpipe, a relatively hot flame is produced with a temperature of
about 3,300oC (6,000oF). The chemical action of the oxyacetylene flame
can be adjusted by changing the ratio of the volume of oxygen to
acetylene.
 Chemical reactions are as follows:
 Stage 1
Acetylene + Oxygen = Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen
C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2
Approximately one-third of the total welding heat is generated in Stage 1.

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 Oxyfuel-Gas Welding
 Stage 2
Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 = 2CO2 + H2O + Heat
The remaining two-third of the heat is generated in Stage 2. The reaction
of hydrogen with oxygen produces water vapor.

Figure 30.1 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations: (a)
neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal
volumes of oxygen and acetylene. (d) The principle of the oxyfuel-gas welding operation.
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 Oxyfuel-Gas Welding
 Types of flames: Three (3) types. The chemical action of the
oxyacetylene flame can be adjusted by changing the ratio of the
volume of oxygen to acetylene.
 Neutral Flame: At a ratio 1:1 (C2H2: O2), the flame is considered to be
neutral and the maximum heat is produced. This type of flame is the
one most extensively used by the welder, who should make himself
thoroughly familiar with its appearance and characteristics. The
maximum temperature is at the end of the inner cone.
 Oxidizing Flame: A further increase in the oxygen supply will produce
an oxidizing flame in which there is more oxygen than is required for
complete combustion. The inner cone will become shorter and
sharper, the flame will turn a deeper purple color and emit a
characteristic slight "hiss", while the molten metal will be less fluid
and tranquil during welding and excessive sparking will occur. An
oxidizing flame is only used for special applications, and should never
be used for welding. Copper and copper based materials are good for
this type of welding. But not good for steel based materials.
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 Oxyfuel-Gas Welding
 Reducing or carburizing flame: If the oxygen is insufficient for full
combustion, the flame is known as a reducing or carburizing flame (a
flame having excess acetylene).
 The temperature of the reducing flame is lower; hence such a flame is
suitable for application requiring low heat, such as brazing, soldering
and flame-hardening operation. The heat source is the flame obtained
by combustion of oxygen and acetylene.

 Filler Metals and Flux:

 Filler metals are used to supply additional material to the weld zone
during welding.
 Filler metal melt and fuse with base metal to form a weld zone.
 These consumable filler metals maybe bare or flux coated. The
purpose of flux is to retard oxidation of the surfaces of the parts being
welded, by generating a gaseous shield around the weld zone.

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Oxyfuel-Gas Welding

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Oxyfuel-Gas Welding

Figure 30.2 (a) General view of

and (b) cross-section of a torch
used in oxyacetylene welding. The
acetylene valve is opened first; the
gas is lit with a spark lighter or a
pilot light; then the oxygen valve is
opened and the flame adjusted. (c)
Basic equipment used in oxyfuel-
gas welding. To ensure correct
connections, all threads on
acetylene fittings are left-handed,
whereas those for oxygen are right-
handed. Oxygen regulators are
usually painted green, and
acetylene regulators red.

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Oxyfuel-Gas Welding

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 Oxyfuel-Gas Welding
 Uses of the oxyacetylene welding:
1. Fusion welding & cutting
2. Expansion/contraction: the heat produced by the oxyacetylene
apparatus may be used to help remove or install parts, loosen
stubborn fasteners, etc.
3. Bending: To make the piece of metal softer and more easy to form a
desired shape.
 Process capabilities:
 Advantages:
1. Low cost (A typical small unit costs $ 500)
2. Extremely versatile and portable
 Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to achieve higher quality welds on materials greater than
¼” thickness.
2. Operation is manual
3. Requires skilled operator.
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 Oxyfuel-Gas Welding
Working terminology:
Work angle: Angle between the torch tip and the work, perpendicular to the
direction of the weld or joint. (figure 4)
Lead angle: Angle between the torch tip and the work, parallel to the direction
of travel. (Figure 4)
Forehand welding: welding rod precedes the torch tip in the direction of the
weld.
Backhand welding: Torch tip precedes the welding rod in the direction of the
weld (Figure 5).

Forehand welding Backhand welding

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 Oxyfuel-Gas Cutting
 The Process and Applications:
 The oxyfuel-gas cutting is similar to oxyfuel welding, but the heat
source is now used to remove a narrow zone from a metal piece or
sheet. This process is particularly suitable for steels. Works well on all
carbon steels up to 0.25% carbon. Higher carbon steels can be cut
(such as cast iron with 4% carbon), but with some difficulty.
 Will NOT work on copper and aluminum.
 The basic reactions:
Fe + O ---- FeO + Heat
3Fe + 2O2 ---- Fe3O4 + Heat and
4Fe + 3O2 ---- 2Fe2O3 + Heat.

Figure 30.16 (a) Flame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-section
of the torch nozzle. (b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate, showing drag lines.
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 The Metallurgy of Welding

 The Metallurgy of welding

 Heating the component to be welded to a temperature sufficiently as
high as to produce a weld involves important physical (strength,
ductility, hardness etc.) and metallurgical changes (grain size,
microstructure, etc.) in the materials.
 The physical properties depend on the rate of heat applied and the
thermal properties of the metals because they control the magnitude
and distribution of temperature in the joint.
 The metallurgical properties depend on the amount of heat applied,
on the degree of prior cold working of the metals, and on the rate of
cooling after the weld is produced.
 Weld quality depends on many factors like geometry of the weld
bead, presence of cracks, residual stresses, inclusions, and oxide
films.

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 The Metallurgy of Welding
 The Welded Joint: Three distinct zones are present in a fusion
welded joint.
1. Base Metal
2. Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)
3. Weld Metal.

Figure 30.17 Characteristics of a

typical fusion-weld zone in oxyfuel-
gas and arc welding.

 The metallurgy and properties of second and third regions depend

on the metals to be joined, on the welding process, on the filler
metals used.
 A joint produced without a filler metal is called autogenous, and its
weld zone is composed of resolidified base metal.
 A joint made with a filler metal has a central zone called the weld
metal and is composed of a mixture of filler and base metal.
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 The Metallurgy of Welding
1. Base Metal: There are no physical or metallurgical changes in the
base metal as this region only experiences a small rise in temperature.
As shown in Figure 30.17.
2. Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ): The HAZ is in the base metals itself
but it has a microstructure different from the base metals as it is exposed
to very high temperatures as it is near the weld zone and metals have
good thermal conductivity. The physical and metallurgical properties of
this zone are different from the base metal properties.
 The properties and microstructure of the HAZ depend on
 a. The rate of heat input and cooling
 b. The temperature to which the zone was raised
 Grains close to the weld metals are exposed to elevated temperatures
and consequently they will grow. This will make them soft and weak.
Such a joint will be weakest in the HAZ.

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 The Metallurgy of Welding
3. Weld Metal: After the application of heat, the base metal and the
filler metal (if any) solidifies and forms the weld metal. The weld metal
has columnar or elongated grains parallel to the heat flow from the weld
metal. The weld metal if cooled slowly in the ambient air has coarse (big)
grains, which makes it low in strength.

Figure 30.18 Grain structure in (a) deep

weld and (b) shallow weld. Note that the
grains in the solidified weld metal are
perpendicular to their interface with the
base metal (see also Fig. 10.3). (c) Weld
bead on a cold-rolled nickel strip produced
by a laser beam. (d) Microhardness (HV)
profile across a weld bead.

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 Week 3

BRAZING, METALLURGY OF
WELDING

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 Introduction
 If one wants to join materials that cannot withstand high temperatures
(electronic components) or delicate and intricate parts, or parts made
up of two or more materials with different characteristics, properties,
thickness and cross-section then techniques like Brazing, soldering,
adhesive bonding, and mechanical fastening is used.
 In brazing and soldering
 Low temperatures are required for welding
 The base metal doesn’t melt at all
 Filler metals used has low melting points.
 In brazing and soldering filler metals are first placed in the joint and
then melted. Upon, solidification a strong joint is obtained.
 Brazing and soldering are arbitrarily distinguished by temperature.
Temperatures for soldering are lower than (450 oC) those for brazing,
and the strength of the soldered joint is much lower.

37
 Introduction
 Adhesive bonding is the ancient method of joining parts with animal
derived glues. Previously this method was used in labeling,
packaging and bookbinding. Now it has wide applications in
aerospace and various other industries.
 All the joints described so far are of permanent nature. In many
applications the joined parts requires replacement, maintenance,
repair, etc. So, one has to take apart a joined part without destroying
it and a joint of non-permanent nature is required which is as strong
as welded joint. Mechanical means are used for joining these types of
materials. Example: Screws, nuts, bolts, and a variety of similar
fasteners.

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 Brazing
 Brazing is the joining process in which the filler metal is placed at or
between the surfaces to be joined, and the temperature is raised
enough to melt the filler metal but not the work piece itself.
 The molten metal (filler metal only) fills the cavities and gap by
capillary action. Upon cooling, molten filler metal solidifies and forms
a strong joint.

Figure 32.1 Examples of brazed and solder parts. (a) brazed radiator heat exchangers; (b) brazed
heat exchanger ; and (c) soldered circuit board. Source: Courtesy of Edison Welding Institute.

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 Brazing
 There are two types of brazing
a) Ordinary brazing
b) Braze welding (filler metal is deposited at the joint like in oxy-
fuel gas welding).

 Filler metals used in brazing melt above 450 oC (840 oF), which is
below melting point of base metals.
 The strength of brazed joint depends on
a) The joint design
b) Adhesion at the interfaces between work piece and filler metal.
Note: The surfaces to be welded should be cleaned chemically or mechanically to ensure
full capillary action. (flux is used for this purpose)
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 Brazing
 Several filler metals are available as shown in the Table. They come in
a variety of shapes (wires, rings, shins, and filings)
 The choice of filler metals is important
a) To avoid embrittlement of the joint.
b) Formation of brittle intermetallic compunds at the joint.
c) Galvanic corrosion in the joint.
 Because of diffusion between the filler metal and the base metal, the
joint may no longer exist in long run.
 Example: Titanium brazed with pure tin.

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 Brazing
 Flux: Flux is essential to prevent oxidation and to remove oxide films
from the work piece surface.
 Fluxes in brazing are generally made of boron, boric acid, borates,
fluorides, and chlorides.
 Wetting agents are added to improve: (1) wetting characteristics of the
molten metal and (2) capillary action.
 Proper cleaning is necessary for above-mentioned reasons. To avoid
corrosion of the welded joint fluxes should be removed after brazing
(usually by washing with hot water).

 Brazed Joint Strength: Depends on

a) Joint clearance
b) Joint area and
c) The nature of the bond at the interface
between the components and the filler metal

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 Brazing Methods
 BRAZING METHODS:
1. Torch brazing (TB)
2. Furnace brazing (FB)
3. Induction Brazing (IB)
4. Resistance Brazing (RB)
5. Dip Brazing (DB)
6. Infrared Brazing (IB) and
7. Diffusion Brazing(DFB)
1) Torch brazing (TB):
 Heat source: Oxyfuel gas with carburizing flame
 Procedure:
i. Heat the joint with the torch
ii. Deposit (keep) the brazing rod or wire in the joint (part thickness: 0.25 to 6 mm).
 Requires skilled labour.
 Used usually for repair work.
 Cost: for basic equipment $ 300 (manual), $50,000 (Automated).
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 Brazing Methods
2) Furnace brazing (FB):
 Procedure:
i. Parts to be brazed are precleaned
ii. Brazing metal is preloaded
iii. This joint along with the brazing metal is kept in furnace. (Batch type furnace
is used for complex shapes, continuous type for high production rates, vacuum
furnaces for metals that react with the environment)
iv. Skilled labour is not required even for complex shapes to be brazed. The
whole assembly would be brazed uniformly.
 Cost: $2,000 (simple batch type) - $300,000 (continuous type).

Figure 32.2 An example of furnace brazing: (a) before and (b) after brazing. The filler metal is a
shaped wire and moves into the interfaces by capillary action with the application of heat.
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 Brazing Methods
3) Induction Brazing (IB):
 Source of heat: High frequency AC current
 Procedure:
i. Parts are preloaded with filler metal and are placed near the induction coil for
rapid heating
ii. Flux is generally used unless the environment is not harmful to the workpiece.
iii. Can produce parts with thickness less than 3 mm
iv. Used for continuous brazing.
 Cost: $ 10,000.

Figure 32.5 Schematic illustration of a continuous induction-brazing setup for increased productivity.
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 Brazing Methods
4) Resistance Brazing (RB):
 Source of heat: Electrical resistance of the components being brazed
 Parts to be brazed can either be preloaded with filler metal or supplied
externally during brazing. Can produce parts with thickness around
0.1 mm–12 mm (0.004 in – 0.5 in)
 Like induction brazing it is a rapid process, heat can be confined to
small areas, process can be automated
 Cost: $ 1,000 (Simple units) - $10,000 (complex large units)
5) Dip brazing (DB):
 Procedure: The assemblies to be brazed are dipped in molten filler
metal pool at a temperature just above the melting point of filler metal.
All work piece surfaces are coated with filler metal.
 Used only for small parts (sheets, wires, and fittings less than 5 mm
thickness or diameter)
 Depending on size of molten baths, 1000 joints can be made in single
dip. Cost: $ 2,000 - $ 20,000.
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 Brazing Methods
6) Infrared Brazing (IB):
 Heat source: High intensity quartz lamp. Microwave heating also can
be used.
 Suitable for brazing very thin components usually less than 1 mm
thickness.
 The radiant energy is focused on the joint, and process can be carried
out in vacuum.
 Cost: $500 - $30,000.
7) Diffusion Brazing (DFB):
 Heat source: Furnace
 Procedure:
 The furnace is maintained at a particular temperature where the filler
metal atoms can diffuse with base metal.
 Brazing time: 30 min – 24 hours
 Cost: $ 50,000 - $ 300, 000.
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 Braze Welding
 Braze Welding: The joint is prepared as in fusion welding.
Oxyacetylene gas with oxidizing flame is used. Filler metal is
deposited at the joint rather than capillary action. Temperature is lower
than fusion welding. Flux is essential.
 Uses: Maintenance and repair work such as on ferrous castings and
steel components.

 Brazing process capabilities:

 Dissimilar metals can be joined with high strength. Example: Carbide drill bits
 Shear strength of brazing joint can reach 800 MPa by the use of brazing alloys
containing silver
 Intricate light weight shapes can be joined rapidly and with little distortion
 Can be automated and used for mass production.
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 Design for Brazing
 Design for brazing:
 Strong joints require a larger contact area for brazing than for welding
 Joint clearance ranges from 0.025 mm to 0.2 mm
 Large clearance reduce joint strength.

Figure 32.6 Examples of good and poor design for brazing. Source: American Welding Society.
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 Week 4

ARC WELDING PROCESSES

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 Introduction
 Arc Welding is a fusion welding process.
 The heat required is obtained from electrical energy. The
process involves a consumable or a non-consumable
electrode.
 An arc is produced between the tip of the electrode and
the work piece to be welded, by the use of an AC or DC
power supply.
 The temperature in arc welding can reach up to 30,000 0C
(54,000 0F) much higher than in oxy-fuel gas welding.
 The arc welding category includes several welding
processes.

51
 Types of Arc Welding
 Consumable Electrode:
1. Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (SMAW)
2. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
3. Gas Metal-Arc welding (GMAW)
4. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
5. Electrogas Welding (EGW)
6. Electroslag Welding (ESW)
 Non-consumable Electrode:
1. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
2. Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
3. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
 Other Types:
1. Thermit Welding (TW)
2. Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
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 Consumable Electrode
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 This method is one of the oldest, simplest and most versatile joining
processes. About 50% of all industrial and maintenance welding is
done by this process. The electrodes used in SMAW process is thin
and long in the shape of sticks, therefore, it is also called “stick
welding”.
 Procedures:
 i. The electric arc is generated by touching the tip of the electrode
against the work-piece and then withdrawing it quickly to a distance
sufficient to maintain the arc.
 ii. The heat generated melts a portion of the tip of the electrode, its
coating and the base metal in the immediate area of the arc (Figure 1).
Therefore, the weld metal is a mixture of base metal (Work-piece),
electrode metal, and substance from the coating on the electrode.
 iii. The electrode coating provides the shielding gas on burning which
shields the weld area from atmospheric oxygen and avoids corrosion
and degradation of the joint.
53
 1. SMAW, Cond….
 Procedures:
 iv. The Current flows in the closed electrical circuit as shown in figure.
A bare section at the end of the electrode is clamped to one terminal
of the electrode and the other terminal is attached to the workpiece.
 v. The current maybe AC or DC. For sheet metal welding DC is
preferred because of it steady arc. The direction of the current flow
can be important depending on the type of electrode and the metal to
be welded.

54
 1. SMAW, Cond….
 Straight Polarity:
 Also known as direct current electrode negative (DCEN)
 The workpiece is positive and the electrode is negative.
 It generally produces welds that are narrow and deep.
 Reverse Polarity:
 Also known as direct current electrode positive (DCEP)
 The workpiece is negative and the electrode is positive.
 Weld penetration is less, and the weld zone is shallower and wider.

Figure 30.5 The effect of polarity

and current type on weld beads:
(a) dc current straight polarity; (b)
dc current reverse polarity; (c) ac
current.

55
 1. SMAW, Cond….

 Process Capabilities:
 Advantages:
i. Versatile, simple and requires smaller variety of electrodes.
ii. Total cost of equipment is low
iii. Equipment is portable.
 Applications: Construction, shipbuilding, pipelines, maintenance
work, can be used in remote areas as it is portable.
 3 mm – 19 mm thick workpieces can be welded by this method.
 Thicker sections can be welded by multiple-pass techniques.
 For multiple pass techniques, the slag should be removed after each
pass which forms on the surface of the weld metal which is the
electrode coating material.

56
 2. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
 Flux:
 Granular flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium
fluoride and other compounds.
 This flux also acts as a thermal insulator, reducing deep penetration of
heat into the base metal.
 Electrode: The consumable electrode is an uncoated coil of round
wire (1.5 mm – 10 mm in diameter).
 Electric current range:
 300 A to 2000 A. The power supplies are connected to standard single
or three phase power lines with a primary rating up to 440 V.
 Procedure:
 The flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through a nozzle.
 Unlike, SMAW process, the thick layer of flux in SAW process
completely covers the molten metal.
 It prevents spatter, sparks, Ultra violet radiation and fumes. Therefore
face shield is not necessary in SAW process.
57
 2. SAW, Cond….
 Advantages:
 Unused flux can be recovered and reused as shown in Figure
 Automation is possible
 Can be used for a wide variety of carbon and alloy steels and stainless steels or plates
 Speeds can be as high as 5 m/min
 The quality of weld is very good with high ductility toughness and uniformity of
properties
 Deposition rate is 4-10 times more than SMAW process
 Disadvantages:
 Since, the flux is fed by gravity, it is largely used in flat horizontal positions
 Welding can be done on pipes provided they are rotated.

58
 3. Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW/MIG)

Figure 30.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process, formerly known as
MIG (for metal inert gas) welding. (b) Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc welding operations.
59
 3. GMAW/MIG, Cond….
 Metal can be transferred by three methods in the GMAW process:
 1. Spray Transfer:
 Small, molten metal droplets from the electrodes are transferred to the
weld area at a rate of several hundred droplets per second.
 The transfer is spatter free and very stable.
 High DC current and voltages and large diameter electrodes are used
with argon or an argon-rich gas mixture used as the shielding gas.
 The Process can be used in all welding positions.
 2. Globular Transfer:
 CO2-rich gases are utilized, and globules are propelled by the forces of
the electric arc transfer of the metal, resulting in considerable spatter.
 High welding currents are used, making it possible for greater weld
penetration and higher welding speed than are achieved in spray
transfer.
 Heavier sections commonly are joined by this method.
60
 3. GMAW/MIG, Cond….
 3. Short Circuit:
 The metal is transferred in individual droplets (more than 50/sec), as
the electrode tip touches the molten weld metal and short circuits.
 Low currents and voltages are utilized with CO2-rich gases
 Electrodes made of small diameter wire.
 The power required is about 2kW.

 Process Capabilities:
 Advantages:
 Variety of ferrous and nonferrous metals can be welded
 Simple process therefore training of operators is easy
 Process is versatile, rapid, and economical
 Process can be automated. The productivity of this method is double to
that of SMAW process.

61
 4. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
 This method is same as GMAW with the exception that the electrode
used is tubular in shape and is filled with flux (Flux-cored, see Figure).
 Cored electrode produces a more stable arc and improves mechanical
properties of the weld metal.
 Self-shielded electrodes do not require external shielding gas.
 Smaller diameter electrodes can be used to weld thin sections.

Figure 30.11 Schematic

illustration of the flux-cored
arc welding process. This
operation is similar to gas
metal-arc welding, shown in
Fig. 30.10.
62
 4. FCAW, Contd…
 Process Capabilities:
 Advantages:
 This method combines the versatility of SMAW process with the
continuous and automatic wire feeding feature of GMAW process.
 Economical and versatile
 Can weld variety of joints mainly on steels, stainless steels, and nickel
alloys.
 This process is easy to automate.

63
 5. Electrogas Welding (EGW)
 It is also called machine welding process, because it requires special
welding equipment. It is used primarily to weld edges of the sections
vertically in one pass, with pieces placed edge to edge (butt joint).
 The weld metal is deposited into the weld cavity between the two
pieces to be joined. The space is enclosed by two water cooled copper
dams (shoes) to prevent the molten slag from running off.
 Electrode: A flux cored electrode is used. Single or multiple electrodes
are fed through a conduit and a continuous arc is maintained at up to
750 A or solid electrode at 400 A.
 Power: 20 KW

Figure 30.12 Schematic illustration of the

electrogas welding process.

64
 5. Electrogas Welding (EGW), Contd..
 Shielding: Use of inert gas such as CO2, Argon, and Helium,
depending up on type of base metal. The gas can be provided from
external sources, or it may be produced from the flux-cored electrode
or both.
 Process Capabilities:
 Advantages:
 Equipment is reliable
 Operator doesn’t need much training
 Weld thickness 12 mm – 75 mm (0.5 in to 3 in) on steels and Al alloys.
 Applications:
 Construction of bridges, pressure vessels, thick walled and large diameter
pipes, storage tanks and ships.

65
 6. Electroslag Welding (ESW)
 The process here is similar to Electrogas welding the only difference
is arc is started between the electrode tip and the bottom of the part to
be welded.
 Flux is added and then is melted by the heat of the arc
 After the molten slag reaches the tip of the electrode arc is
extinguished.
 Heat is then produced by electrical resistance of molten slag.
 Since arc is extinguished, it is not strictly an arc welding process.

Figure 30.13 Equipment used for

electroslag welding operations.

66
6. Electroslag Welding (ESW), Contd…
 Electrode: Single and multiple solid as well as flux cored electrodes
may be used. Guide may be consumable or non consumable.
 Current: 600 A
 Voltage: 40 – 50 Volts. Higher values can be used for think plates
 Process capabilities:
 Can weld metals of thickness up to 50 mm – 900 mm (2 in. – 39 in.)
 Welding can be done in one pass
 Travel speeds 12 – 36 mm/min (0.5 – 1.5 in/min).
 Good weld quality.
The process is used for heavy structural steel sections

67
 Non Consumable Electrode:
1. Gas Tangsten Arc Welding (GTAW/TIG)
 In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas
(TIG) welding, the filler metal is supplied from a filler wire.
 As the tungsten electrode is not consumed in this operation, a
constant and stable arc gap is maintained at a constant current level.
 The filler metals are similar to the metals to be welded, and flux is not
used.
 The shielding gas is usually Ar, or He.

Figure 30.4 (a) The gas tungsten-arc welding

process, formerly known as TIG (for tungsten inert
gas) welding. (b) Equipment for gas tungsten-arc
welding operations.

68
 1. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GTAW/TIG),
Contd…..
 Power: Depending on the metals to be welded, the power supply is
either DC at 200A or AC at 500 A.
 Advantages:
 The GTAW process is used for a wide variety of metals and
applications, particularly Al, Mg, Ti and the refractory metals.
 Suitable for thin metals.
 Cost is higher due to use of inert gas but welds with high quality and
surface finish.
 Used in variety of critical applications.
 The equipment is portable.

69
 Week 5

ARC WELDING PROCESSES

(Testing of Welds, Joint Design and Symbols)

70
 Testing of Welds
 Several Standards are used:
 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
 The American Welding Society (AWS)
 The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE).

 Welded joints may be tested either:

 Destructively or
 Nondestructively.

71
 Destructive Testing Techniques:
 Tension Test: The strength of the weld metal (removed from the
welded joint) is determined in tension, in longitudinal and transverse
directions. The stress-strain curves are plotted to determine the Yield
Strength, Ultimate Tensile Strength, and ductility of the welded joint.

Figure 30.26 (a) Specimen for longitudinal tension-shear testing and for transfer tension-shear
testing; (b) wrap-around bend test method; (c) three-point bending of welded specimens.
72
 Destructive Testing Technique
 Tension-Shear Test: The tension and shear strength of the welded
joint is determined by preparing the specimens as show in Figure
30.26 (a), and applying load in the longitudinal and transverse
directions as shown in the figure.
 Bend Test: Several bend tests have been developed to determine the
ductility and strength of the welded joints. In the test shown in Figure
30.26 (b) the specimen is bent around a fixture. In another test Figure
30.26 (c) the specimens are tested in three point transverse bending.
Ductility and strength of the welded joint is determined.
 Fracture Toughness Test: Fracture toughness test is determined by
the Charpy V-notch test, first the specimens are prepared accordingly
and then tested. Another test is the drop weight test, in which the
energy is supplied by free falling weight.
 Corrosion & Creep Tests: Because of the difference in compositions
and microstructure of the materials in the weld zone, preferential
corrosion may take place in the zone. Creep tests are important in
determining the behavior of welded joints and structures when
subjected to elevated temperatures.
73
 Nondestructive Testing Techniques
 Welded structures often have to be tested
nondestructively, particularly for critical applications
where weld failure can be catastrophic, such as pressure
vessels, load bearing structure members and power
plants.
 NDT techniques for welded joints generally consist of the
following methods:
 Visual
 Radiographic (x-ray)
 Magnetic Particle
 Liquid penetrant
 Ultrasonic.

74
 Joint Design
 The general design guidelines for welding are summarized
below (Fig: 30.29):
 Product design should minimize the number of welds, because
welding can be costly.
 Welding location should be selected to avoid excessive stresses or
stress concentrations in the weld structure and for appearance.
 Welding location should be selected so as not to interfere with any
subsequent processing of the joined parts or with its intended use.
 Component should fit properly prior to welding
 The need for edge preparation should be avoided or minimized
 Weld-bead size should be kept to a minimum to conserve weld
metal and for better appearance.

75
 Joint Design

Figure 30.29 Some design guidelines for welds. Source: After J.G. Bralla.
76
 Weld Symbols
 When welds are specified on engineering and fabrication drawings, a
cryptic set of symbols is used as a sort of shorthand for describing
the type of weld, its size, and other processing and finishing
information.

Figure 30.28 Standard identification and symbols for welds.

77
Weld Symbols

78
 Weld Symbols
The open circle at the arrow/reference line junction is present if the weld is to go all
around the joint

79
 Week 6

SOLID STATE WELDING

80
 Introduction
 In solid state welding joining takes place without fusion
(melting) of the base metals. No liquid phase is present in
the joint. The principle of solid state welding is two clean
surfaces to be joined are brought into atomic contact with
each other under sufficient pressure (The condition is
there should be no oxide film or any other contaminants
on these joining surfaces) which form bonds and produce
a strong joint.
 The strength of the bond can be increased by applying
external heat due to which diffusion takes place in these
two base metals and produces a stronger joint. Small
movements of the surfaces to be joined produce a better
quality welds as the oxide film and other contaminants
breaks up. Heat can be applied by friction and resistance
of electric power.
81
 Introduction
 Solid state bonding involves one or more of the following
phenomena:
 Diffusion: The transfer of atoms across an interface; thus, applying
external heat improves the strength of the bond between the two
surfaces being joined, as occurs in diffusion bonding. Heat may be
generated internally by friction, through electrical resistance heating
and externally by induction heating.
 Pressure: The higher the pressure, the stronger is the interface, where
plastic deformation also occurs at the interface.
 Relative Interfacial Movements: When movements of the contacting
surfaces occur, even very small amplitudes will disturb the meeting
surfaces, breaks up any oxide films, and generate new, clean
surfaces-thus improving the strength of the bond.

82
 Cold Welding and Roll Bonding
 Cold Welding (CW):
 In cold welding, the bonding takes place by the application of pressure
to the workpieces to be welded, through either dies or rolls. Since
plastic deformation takes place before welding either one or both
(preferable) the base metals should be ductile. The surfaces to be
welded should be free from any oxide and contaminant coating. This
breaking up of oxide film and other contaminants is done by wire
brushing and wiping.
 Brittle intermetallic compounds can be formed at the surface if two
dissimilar metals are welded like Steel and Aluminum. The bond
strength is more if two similar metals are welded.

Figure 31.1 Schematic illustration of

the roll bonding or cladding process.

83
 Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
 In ultrasonic welding, the surfaces to be bonded are subjected to (1)
Static normal force, (force applied between the anvil and the mass in
the figure) and (2) Oscillating shearing (tangential) stresses (vibration
by transducer). The frequency of oscillation is from 10 KHz to 75 KHz
(10,000 – 75,000 vibrations/second).

Figure 31.2 (a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine for making lap welds. The lateral vibrations of
the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam
welding using a roller as the sonotrode.
84
 Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
 The shearing stress causes a plastic deformation at the interface of
the two components, breaking up oxide films and contaminants, thus
allowing good contact and producing strong solid-state bond. The
temperature generated is around 1/3rd to ½ of the melting point of the
metals to be welded. Therefore, neither melting not fusion takes place.
The temperature generated can cause metallurgical changes in the
weld zone.
 This method is reliable and versatile; it can be used with a wide variety
of metallic and nonmetallic materials, including dissimilar metals
(bimetallic strips). The welding tip can replaced with rotating disks as
shown in figure, where one metal is sheet or foil.
 Moderate skill is required to operate this equipment.

85
 Friction Welding (FRW)
 In the joining processes like electric, gas welding, the heat source is
external. In friction welding the heat source is the friction between the
two surfaces to be joined. In friction welding one of the components is
remained stationary and the other is fixed in a chuck or collet and
rotated at a high constant speed and at the same time an axial force is
applied.
 When sufficient temperature is developed at the surface the rotation
is stopped and the axial force is increased further to form a bond.
Oxides and other contaminants are destroyed at the interface and are
removed by a radial outward motion. The friction welding can be
subdivided into three processes namely, Inertia friction welding, linear
friction welding, and Friction stir welding (FSW).
Figure 31.3 (a) Sequence of operations in the
friction welding process: (1) Left-hand component is
rotated at high speed. (2) Right-hand component is
brought into contact under an axial force. (3) Axial
force is increased; flash begins to form. (4) Left-hand
component stops rotating; weld is completed. The
flash can subsequently be removed by machining or
grinding.
86
 Friction Welding, Contd…
 The weld zone is confined to a narrow region, whose size depends on
the following parameters:
 The amount of heat generated.
 The thermal conductivity of the materials.
 The mechanical properties of the materials at elevated temperature.
 The factors that affect a uniform strong joint are the rotational speed
and the applied axial force.
 Process Capabilities:
 The components should have a rotational symmetry
 A wide variety of material can be welded by this method with good joint
strength
 Solid bars up to 100 mm in diameter and pipes up to 250 mm in diameter
can be welded.
 The surface speed of the rotating member can be as high as 90 m/min
 A flash is developed at the interface of the welded joint by the combined
application of heat and pressure, which effects the weld quality and which
can later be removed by grinding
 Machines are automated.
87
 Resistance Welding (RW)
 The heat required for welding is produced by means of the electrical
resistance across the two components to be joined. The major
advantage in this process is it does not require consumable electrode,
shielding gas, and flux.
 The heat generation in the resistance welding is given by the general
expression: H = I2RT, Where:
 H – Heat generated in Joules, R – Resistance in Ohms
 T – Time of current flow , I – Current in amperes
 The total resistance in these processes (for example in resistance spot
welding process) is
 The resistance of the electrodes
 The electrode – work piece contact resistance
 The resistance of the individual parts to be welded
 The workpiece – workpiece contact resistance
 Note: The actual temperature rise in the vicinity of the weld depends
on the specific heat and the thermal conductivity of the materials to be
welded. Similar and dissimilar metals can be joined, The magnitude of
current required is 100,000 A, and the voltage is typically 0.5 V – 10 V.
88
 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
 In resistance spot welding (RSW), the tips of the two opposing solid
cylindrical electrodes touch a lap joint of two sheet metals, and
resistance heating produces a spot weld between the two sheets as
shown in the figure.

Figure 31.6 (a) Sequence of events in

resistance spot welding. (b) Cross-section
of a spot weld, showing the weld nugget
and the indentation of the electrode on the
sheet surfaces. This is one of the most
commonly used processes in sheet-metal
fabrication and in automotive-body
assembly.

89
 Resistance Spot Welding, Contd…
 For a strong joint, pressure should be applied until the current is
turned off. Accurate control and the timing of the electrical current is
essential for better joint quality.
 The strength of the bond depends on the surface roughness and on
the cleanliness of the mating surfaces. The weld nugget is generally 6
to 10 mm in diameter. Current range is from 3000 A to 40,000 A
depending on the material being welded and its thickness.
 Process Capabilities:
 It is the most simplest resistance welding process. The pressure
required to hold the sheet metals is supplied through mechanical or
pneumatic means.
 Applications: cookware, automobile industry.

90
 Resistance Spot Welding, Contd…
 Testing of spot welds: Spot welds can be tested by the following
methods:
 a. Tension-Shear
 b. Cross-Tension
 c. Twist
 d. Peel.

Figure 31.10 Test methods for spot welds: (a) tension-shear test, (b) cross-tension
test, (c) twist test, (d) peel test. (see also Fig. 32.9).
91
 Week 7

SOLDERING, MECHANICAL
FASTENING; WELDING DEFECTS

92
 Soldering
 In soldering, the filler metal (called solder) melts at a relatively low
temperature. As in brazing, the solder fills the joint by capillary action
between closely fitting or closely packed components. Important
characteristics for solders are low surface tension and high wetting
capability.
 Heat Source: Soldering irons, torches or ovens.
 Types of solders: Solders melt at a temperature that is the eutectic
point of the solder alloy. The main soldering compositions are tin-lead,
tin-zinc, tin-copper, tin-silver, tin-silver-copper, lead-silver alloys.
 Because of the toxicity of the lead and its adverse effects on the
environment, lead-free solders are being developed continuously and
now are coming into wider use.
 Fluxes: Fluxes are used in soldering and for the same purposes as
they are in welding and brazing. Fluxes for soldering are generally two
types:
 Inorganic acids or salts (zinc-ammonium-chloride solutions)
 Noncorrosive rasin-based fluxes used in electrical applications.

93
 Soldering, Contd…
 Soldering Techniques: Some soldering techniques are similar to
brazing methods, such as:
 Torch soldering (TS)
 Furnace Soldering (FS)
 Iron Soldering (INS), with the use of soldering iron
 Induction soldering (IS)
 Resistance soldering (RS)
 Dip Soldering (DS)
 Infrared Soldering (IRS)
 Other soldering techniques are:
 Ultrasonic Soldering: in which a transducer subjects the molten solder to
ultrasonic cavitation.
 Reflow Soldering (RS): Solder pastes are solder-metal particles held
together by flux, binding and wetting agents. The paste is placed directly
onto the joint or on flat objects for finer detail, and it can be applied via a
screening or stenciling process.
 Wave Soldering (WS): In wave soldering, molten solder does not wet all
surfaces, and it is easy to remove while molten.
94
 Soldering, Contd….

Figure 32.7 (a) Screening solder paste onto a printed circuit board in reflow soldering. (b) Schematic
illustration of the wave-soldering process. (c) SEM image of a wave-soldered joint on surface0mount device.
95
 Soldering, Contd…
 Soldering Applications:
 Soldering is used extensively in the electronics industry. Because
soldering temperatures are relatively low, a soldering joint has very
limited service use at elevated temperatures. Moreover, because
solders generally do not have much strength, the process can not be
used for load-bearing members.
 Soldering can be used to join various metals and thicknesses.
 Copper and such precise metals as silver and gold are easy to solder.
 Aluminum and stainless steels are difficult to solder because of their
strong, thin oxide film.

96
 Soldering, Contd…
 Design Guidelines: Design guidelines for soldering are similar to
those for brazing. Note the importance of large contact surfaces for
developing sufficient joint strength in soldered products.

Figure 32.8 Joint designs commonly used for soldering.

97
 Mechanical Fastening
 Two or more components may have to be joined or fastened in
such a way that they can be taken apart sometimes during the
products service life or life cycle.
 Numerous products (including mechanical pencils, watches,
computers, engines, bicycles etc.) have components that are
fastened mechanically.
 Mechanical fastening are preferred over others due to:
 Ease of manufacturing
 Ease of assembly and transportation
 Ease of disassembly, maintenance, parts replacements and repair
 Ease of creating designs that require movable joints, such as hinges,
sliding mechanics and adjustable fixtures.
 Lower overall cost of manufacturing the product.
 The most common method of mechanical fastening is by the
use of bolts, sliding screws, pins, and a variety of other
fasteners.
98
 Mechanical Fastening, Contd…
 Rivets: The most common method of permanent or semipermanent
mechanical joining is by riveting. Rivets may be solid or tubular.
Installing a solid rivet takes two steps: placing the rivet in the hole and
deforming the end of its shank by upsetting it. A hollow rivet is
installed by flaring its smaller end.

Figure 32.14 Examples of rivets: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c) split or bifurcated, and (d) compression.
99
 Mechanical Fastening, Contd…
 Metal Stitching and Stapling: is much like that of the ordinary
stapling of papers. This operation is fast and it is suitable particularly
for joining thin metallic and non metallic materials, including woods.

Figure 32.16 Typical examples of metal stitching.

100
 Mechanical Fastening, Contd…
 Seaming: Seaming is based on the simple principle of folding two
thin pieces of material together. It is a process much like the joining of
two pieces of papers by folding them at the corner. In seaming, the
materials should be capable of undergoing bending and folding at
very small radii, otherwise they will crack.
 Crimping: The crimping process is a method of joining without using
fasteners. It can be done with beads or dimples, which can be
produced by shrinking or swaging operations.

Figure 32.18 Two examples of

Figure 32.17 Stages in forming a double-lock seam. mechanical joining by crimping.

101
 Welding Defects
 Welded joint may develop various discontinuities as they
experience thermal cycling and microstructural changes.
Welding discontinuities also can be caused by an inadequate or
careless application of proper welding technologies or by poor
training. Major discontinuities are:
 Porosity: Porosity in welds is caused by:
 Gases released during melting of the weld area but trapped during
solidification
 Chemical reaction during welding
 Contaminants.
 Porosity in welds can be reduced by the following practices:
 Proper selection of electrodes and filler metals
 Improved welding techniques
 Proper cleaning and the prevention of contaminants from entering the
weld zone.
 Reduces welding speeds to allow time for gas to escape.
102
 Welding Defects, Contd…
 Slag Inclusions: Slug inclusions are compounds such as oxides,
fluxes, and electrode-coating materials that are trapped in the weld
zone. Slug inclusions can be prevented by following practice:
 Cleaning the weld-bead surface
 Providing sufficient shielding gas
 Redesigning the joint to permit sufficient space for proper manipulation of the
puddle of molten weld metal.
 Incomplete Fusion and Penetration: Incomplete fusion produces poor
weld beads. Following practices can help to get better welds:
 Raising the temperature of the base metal
 Cleaning the weld area before welding
 Modifying the joint design and changing the type of electrode used
 Providing sufficient shielding gas.

Figure 30.19 Examples of various

discontinuities in fusion welds.

103
 Welding Defects, Contd…
 Weld Profile: Weld profile is important not only because of its effects
on the strength and appearance of the weld, but also because it can
indicate incomplete fusion or the presence of slag inclusions in multi-
layer welds.
 Underfilling: Results when the joint is not filled with the proper amount of
weld metal.
 Undercutting: Results from the melting away of the base metal and the
consequent generation of a groove in the shape of the sharp recess or notch.
 Overlap: is a surface discontinuity usually caused by poor welding practice
or by selection of improper materials.

Figure 30.20 Examples of various

defects in fusion welds.

104
 Welding Defects, Contd…
 Cracks: Cracks may occur in various locations and directions in the
weld area. Typical types of cracks are longitudinal, transverse, crater,
underbead, and toe cracks. Following factors may cause the cracks:
 Temperature gradients that cause thermal stresses in the weld zone
 Variation in the compositions of the weld zone
 Inability of the weld metal to contract during cooling.
 Embrittlement of grain boundaries
 Hydrogen embrittlement

Figure 30.21 Types of cracks developed in welded joints. The cracks are caused by
thermal stresses, similar to the development of hot tears in castings (see also Fig. 10.12).
105
 Welding Defects, Contd…
 Residual Stresses: Because of localized heating and cooling during
welding, the expansion and contraction of the weld area causes
residual stresses in the work piece. Residual stresses can lead to the
following defects:
 Distortion, warping and buckling of the weld parts
 Stress corrosion cracking
 Further distortion, if a portion of the weld structure is subsequently removed, such
as by machining and sawing
 Reduced fatigue life of the weld structure.

Figure 30.23 Distortion of parts after welding. (a) Butt joints and (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused
by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different regions of the welded assembly.
106
 Part 2: Week 8 & 9

MACHINING PROCESSES AND

MACHINE TOOLS
107
Machining Processes and Machine Tools

108
 Machining Processes and Machine Tools

 Machining: A group of processes that consist of the removal of material and

modification of the surfaces of a workpiece after it has been produced by
various method.
 Machining consist of several major types of material removal processes:
 Cutting: typically involving single-point or multipoint cutting tools
 Abrasive processes: Grinding and related processes
 Advanced machining processes: utilizing electrical, chemical, laser, thermal and
hydrodynamic methods to accomplish this task.
 Machine tools: the machines on which these operations are performed.
 Machining operations consisting of the
1. Workpiece
2. Cutting tool
3. Machine tool and
4. Production personnel.

109
 Fundamentals of Machining:
Introduction
 Cutting Processes remove material from the surface of a workpiece by
producing chips. Common cutting processes are:
 Turning: in which the workpiece is rotated and a cutting tool removes a layer of
material as the tool moves to the left.
 Cutting off: in which the tool moves radially inward and separates the right piece from
the bulk of the blank.
 Slab Milling: in which a rotating cutting tool removes a layer of material from the
surface of the workpiece.
 End Milling: in which a rotating cutter travels along a certain depth in the workpiece
and produces a cavity.

Figure 21.2 Schematic illustration of the turning operation

showing various features. Figure 21.1 Some examples of common machining operations.

110
 Fundamentals of Machining
 The feed, or feed rate is the distance the tool travels horizontally per unit
revolution of the workpiece (mm/rev).
 The feed in turning is equivalent to t0, and the depth of cut in turning is
equivalent to the width of cut in the idealized model.
Two-Dimensional Cutting Process:

Figure 21.3 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process,

also called orthogonal cutting: (a) Orthogonal cutting with a well-defined
shear plane, also known as the Merchant Model. Note that the tool shape,
depth of cut, to, and the cutting speed, V, are all independent variables, (b)
Orthogonal cutting without a well-defined shear plane.
111
 Mechanics of Cutting

 Major independent variables in the cutting process as follows:

a) Tool materials and coatings
b) Tool shape, surface finish and sharpness
c) Workpiece material and condition
d) Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut
e) Cutting fluids
f) Characteristics of the machine tools and
g) Workholding and fixturing.
 Dependent variables includes:
a) Type of chip produced
b) Force and energy dissipated during cutting
c) Temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool and the chip
d) Tool wear and failure and
e) Surface finish and surface integrity of the workpiece.

112
Mechanics of Cutting

113
 Mechanics of Cutting

Orthogonal cutting?
Rake angle, α?
Relief or
clearance angle?
Shear angle, ?

Cutting ratio, r :

Figure 21.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation by shearing.
(b) Velocity diagram showing angular relationships among the three speeds in the cutting zone.
r always is less than unity as chip thickness is always greater than the depth of cut.

Chip compression ratio: 1/r, always greater than unity.

 Orthogonal Cutting: A two dimensional cutting process where forces
act perpendicular to each other.
 Cutting Ratio: ratio between depth of cut, to to chip thickness, tc.
114
 Mechanics of Cutting

 Shear strain: Shear strain, , can be expresses as (fig 21.4 a):

 or

 Note that large shear strains are associated with low shear angles or with low
or negative rake angles. Shear strains of 5 or higher have been observed in
actual cutting operations.
 The shear angles has great significance in the mechanics of cutting
operations. It influences force and power requirements, chip thickness and
temperature.

 Coefficient of friction in metal cutting generally ranges from about 0.5 to 2,

indicating that the chip encounters considerable frictional resistance while
moving up the tool’s rake face.
115
 Mechanics of Cutting

 Equation indicates that:

 As the rake angle decreases and /or the friction at the tool-chip interface increases, the
shear angle decreases and the chip becomes thicker
 Thicker chips means more energy dissipation because the shear strain is higher and
 because work done during cutting is converted into heat, the temperature rise is also
higher.
 Velocities in the cutting zone:

116
 Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

 Four main types of metal chips are commonly observed:

 Continuous
 Built-up edge
 Serrated or segmented and
 Discontinuous.

 Continuous chips: Usually formed with ductile materials, machined at

high cutting speeds and/or high rake angles.
 The deformation of the material takes place along a narrow shear
zone called the primary shear zone.
 Continuous chips may develop a secondary shear zone because of
high friction at the tool-chip interface; this zone becomes thicker as
friction increases.

117
 Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

 Built-up edge chips: A built-up edge (BUE) consists of layers of material

from the workpiece that gradually are deposited on the tool tip. As it grows,
the BUE becomes unstable and eventually breaks apart.

Figure 21.5 Basic types of chips

produced in orthogonal metal
cutting, their schematic
representation, and
photomicrographs of the cutting
zone: (a) continuous chip with
narrow, straight, and primary shear
zone; (b) continuous chip with
secondary shear zone at the cip-tool
interface; (c) built-up edge; (d)
segmented or nonhomogeneous
chip; and (e) discontinuous chip.
Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K.
Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.

118
 Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

 BUE changes the geometry of the cutting edge and dulls it.
 It adversely affect the surface finish. However, a thin, stable BUE
usually is regarded as desirable because it reduces tool wear by
protecting its rake face.
 The tendency of BUE formation can be reduced by one or more of the
following means:
 Increase the cutting speed
 Decrease the depth of cut
 Increase the rake angle
 Use a sharp tool
 Use an effective cutting fluid
 Use a cutting tool that has lower
chemical affinity for the workpiece
material.

119
 Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

 Serrated chips: also called segmented or nonhomogeneous chips,

are semi continuous chips with large zones of low shear strain and
small zones of high shear strain.
 Metals with low thermal conductivity and strength that decreases
sharply with temperature exhibit this behavior (i.e. titanium).
 The chips have a sawtooth-like appearance.
 Discontinuous chips: usually form under the following conditions:
 Brittle workpiece material
 Workpiece materials that contain hard inclusions and impurities
 Very low or very high cutting speed
 Large depth of cut
 Low rake angles
 Lack of an effective cutting fluid
 Low stiffness of the toolholder or the machine tool, thus allowing vibration
and chatter to occur.

120
 Mechanics of Cutting

 Continuous chip: Bad for automation as become potential safety

hazard.

Chip Breaker

Figure 21.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the

action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip
breaker decreases the radius of curvature of
the chip and eventually breaks it. (b) Chip
breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting
tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as
chip breakers. Most cutting toold used now
are inserts with built-in chip breaker features.

121
 Cutting Forces and Power

 Knowledge of the cutting forces and power involved in

machining operations is important for the following
reasons:
 Data on cutting force is essential so that:
a. Machine tools can be properly designed to minimize
distortion of the machine components, maintain the desired
dimensional accuracy of the machined part and help select
appropriate toolholders and workholding devices.
b. The workpiece is capable of withstanding these forces
without excessive distortion.
 Power requirements must be known in order to enable
the selection of a machine tool with adequate
electrical power.

122
Cutting Forces and Power

Figure 21.11 (a) Forces acting on a cutting tool during two-

dimensional cutting. Note that the resultant force, R, must be
collinear to balance the forces. (b) Force circle to determine
various forces acting in the cutting zone.

123
Cutting Forces and Power

124
Cutting Forces and Power

125
 Temperature in Cutting
 Why does temperature rise during cutting?: plastic deformation is
involved, the energy dissipated in cutting is converted into heat,
which in tern raise the temp in cutting zone.
 Major adverse effects:
a. Excessive temperature lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness and wear
resistance of the cutting tool; tools also may soften and undergo plastic
deformation; thus tool shape may alter.
b. Increases heat causes uneven dimensional changes in the part being machined,
making it difficult to control its dimensional accuracy and tolerances
c. Excessive temperature rise can include thermal damage and metallurgical
changes in the machined surface, adversely affecting its properties.

 Main sources of heat in

machining are:
a. The work done in shearing in
primary shear zone
b. Energy dissipated as friction at
the tool-chip interface and
c. Heat generated as the tools rubs
against the machined surface.
126
 Tool Life: Wear and Failure

 Why tool wear happens?

a. High localized stresses at the tip of the tool,
b. High temperature, especially along the rake face
c. Sliding of the chip along the rake face and
d. Sliding of the tool along the newly cut workpiece.
 Tool wear adversely affects tool life, the quality of the machined
surface and its dimensional accuracy, and consequently the
economics of cutting operations.
 The rate of tool wear depends on
 Tool and workpiece materials
 Tool geometry
 Process parameters
 Cutting fluids and
 The characteristics of the machine tool.

127
 Tool Life: Wear and Failure

Wear Patterns on Tools  Tool wear types:

1. Flank wear
2. Crater wear
3. Nose wear
4. Notching, plastic
deformation of the
tool tip, chipping
5. Gross fracture.

Figure 21.15 (a) Flank wear and crater

wear in a cutting tool; the tool moves to
the left as in Fig. 21.3. (b) View of the
rake face of a turning tool, showing
various wear patterns. (c) View of the
flank face of a turning tool, showing
various wear patterns. (d) Types of
wear on a turning tool: 1. flank wear;
2. crater wear; 3. chipped cutting
edge; 4. thermal cracking on rake
face; 5. built-up edge; 6. catastrophic
failure. (See also Fig. 21.18.) Source:
Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.

128
 Week 10

LATHES AND LATH OPERATIONS

129
 Introduction

 Lathes: A lathe is a machine tool that rotates the workpiece against a

tool. The spindle is the part of the lathe that rotates. It is driven by an
electric motor through a system of belt drives and gear trains. Its
rotational speed is controlled by varying the geometry of the drive
train.
 Lathe Components:
 Bed: The bed supports all major components of the lathe. Beds have
a large mass and are built rigidly, usually manufactured from gray or
nodular cast iron.

130
Lathe Components

131
 Lathe Components

 Carriage: The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool. It

consists of:
  Saddle that slides along the ways.
  An apron that controls the feed mechanisms.
  A cross slide that controls transverse motion of the tool (toward or away from the
operator).
  A tool compound that adjusts to permit angular tool movement.
  A tool post that holds the cutting tools.

132
 Lathe Components

 Headstock: The headstock is fixed to the bed and is equipped with

motors, pulleys and V-belts that supply power to a spindle at various
rotational speeds. Most headstocks are equipped with a set of gears,
hollow spindle to which workholding devices are mounted.
 Tailstock: The tailstock can be used to support the end of the
workpiece with a center, or to hold tools for drilling, reaming,
threading, or cutting tapers. It can be adjusted in position along the
ways to accommodate different length workpieces. The tailstock
barrel can be fed along the axis of rotation with the tailstock hand
wheel.

133
 Lathe Components

 Feed Rod and Lead Screw: The feed rod is powered by a set of gears
through the headstock. The rod rotates during the lathe operation and
provides movement to the carriage and the cross-slide by means of
gears, a friction clutch and a keyway along the length of the rod.
 Closing a split nut around the lead screw engages it with the carriage;
it is also used for cutting threads accurately.
 Gearbox: The quick-change gearbox, which contains a number of
different sized gears, provides the feed rod and lead screw with
various speeds for turning and thread cutting operations.

134
 Lathe Specifications

 A lathe is generally specified by:

 Its swing, the maximum diameter of the workpiece that can be
machined.
 The maximum distance between the headstock and tailstock centers.
 The length of the bed.
 Workholding Devices and Accessories:
 Various work holding attachments such as three jaw chucks, collets,
and centers can be held in the spindle.
 Work is held in the lathe with a number of methods,
 Between two centres. The workpiece is driven by a device called a
dog; this method is suitable for parts with high length-to-diameter
ratio.

135
 Workholding Devices

Figure 1 Four work holding methods used in lathes: (a) mounting the work
between centres using a dog, (b) three-jaw chuck, (c) collet, and (d) face plate
for non-cylindrical work-parts.

136
 Workholding device and Accessories

 A 3 jaw self-centering chuck is used for most operations on

cylindrical work-parts. For parts with high length-to-diameter ratio the
part is supported by center on the other end.
 Collet consists of tubular bushing with longitudinal slits. Collets are
used to grasp and hold bar stock. A collet of exact diameter is
required to match any bar stock diameter.
 A face plate is a device used to grasp parts with irregular shapes.
 Accessories:
 Several devices are available as accessories and attachments for
lathes. Among these devices are as following:
 Carriage and cross-slide stops
 Devices for turning parts with various tapers
 Milling, sawing, gear-cutting, and grinding attachments.
 Various attachments for boring, drilling and thread cutting.

137
 Types of Lathes

 There are a number of different lathe designs, and some of the

most popular are discussed here.
 Bench Lathe:
 As the name suggested, these lathes are placed on a workbench or a
table. They have low power, are usually operated by hand feed, and
are used to machine small workpiece.
 Special Purpose Lathe: These lathes are used for applications
(such as railroad wheels, gun barrels, and rolling-mill rolls) with
workpiece sizes as large as 1.7 m in diameter by 8 m in length and
capacities of 450 kW.
 Tracer Lathes: These lathes have special attachments that are
capable of turning parts with various contours. Also called
duplicating lathes or contouring lathes, the cutting tool follows a path
that duplicates the contour of the template.

138
 Types of Lathes

 Automatic Lathes: In fully automatic lathes, parts are fed and

removed automatically, whereas in semiautomatic lathes these
functions are performed by the operator. These machines may have
horizontal or vertical spindle and are suitable for medium to high
volume production.
 Turret Lathes: These machines are capable of carrying out multiple
cutting operations on the same workpiece.
 Several cutting tools are
mounted on a tetra-, penta-, or
hexagonal turret, which
replaces the tailstock. These
tools can be rapidly brought
into action against the
workpiece one by one by
indexing the turret.

139
 Types of Lathes

 Computer-Controlled Lathes (CNC): Computer-controlled

(numerically controlled, NC, CNC) lathes incorporate a computer
system to control the movements of machine components by directly
inserted coded instructions in the form of numerical data. A CNC
lathe is especially useful in contour turning operations and precise
machining. A CNC lathe is essentially a turret lathe. The major
advantage of these machines is in their versatility - to adjust the CNC
lathe for a different part to be machined requires a simple change in
the computer program and, in some cases, a new set of cutting tools.

140
 Design considerations and guidelines for turning
operations
 Design Considerations:
 When turning operations are necessary, the following general design
guidelines should be followed:
 Parts should be designed so that they can be fixtured and clamped easily in
workholding devices
 The dimensional accuracy and surface finish specified should be as wide as
permissible for the part to still function properly
 Sharp, corners, tapers, steps and major dimensional variations in the part
should be avoided
 Blanks to be machined should be as close to final dimensions as possible, so
as to reduce production cycle time.
 Parts should be designed so that cutting tools can travel across the
workpiece without obstruction
 Design features should be such that commercially available standard cutting
tools, inserts and toolholders can be used.
 Workpiece materials should be selected for their machinaboility as much as
possible.

141
 Design considerations and guidelines for turning
operations
 Guidelines for Turning Operations:

142
 Chip Collection Systems

 The chips produced during machining must be collected and

disposed of properly.
 Chips can be collected by any of the following methods:
 Allowing gravity to drop them onto a steel conveyor belt.
 Dragging the chips from a settling tank
 Using augers with feed screws
 Using magnetic conveyers
 Employing vacuum methods of chip removal.
 Modern machine tools are designed with automated chip-handling
features.

143
 Lathe Operations:

 In a typical turning operation, the workpiece is clamped by any one of

the workholding devices described previously. Long and slender
parts must be supported by a steady rest and follow rest placed on
the bed, as otherwise the part will deflect under the cutting forces.
 The cutting tool is attached to a tool post, which is driven by the lead
screw, and removes material by travelling along the bed. Facing
operations are done by moving the tool radially with the cross slide
and also clamping the carriage for better dimensional accuracy.
 Form tools are used to produce various shapes on solid, round
workpieces by moving the tool radially inward while the part is
rotating. Form cutting is not suitable for deep and narrow grooves or
sharp corners because vibration and chatter may result and cause
poor surface finish. As a rule,
 A) the formed length of the part should not be greater than about 2.5
times the minimum diameter of the part
 B) the cutting speed should be set properly and
 C) cutting fluid should be used.
144
 Lathe Operations:
 Boring on a lathe is similar to turning, It is performed inside hollow
workpieces or in a hole made previously by drilling or other means. Out-of-
shape holes can be straightened by boring.
 Drilling can be performed on
a lathe by mounting the drill
bit in a chuck in the tailstock
quill. The workpiece is
clamped in a workholder on
the headstock, and the drill
bit is advanced by rotating
the hand wheel of the
tailstock.
 Parting: Also called cutting
off, to cut a piece from the
end of a part.
 Threading: To produce
external or internal threads.
 Knurling: To produce a regularly shaped roughness on cylindrical surfaces,
as in making knobs and handles.
145
Summary of Turning Parameters and Formulas

146
 Example problem 23.1

A 150 mm long, 12.5 mm diameter 304 stainless steel rod is being reduced in diameter
to 12.0 mm by turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N= 400 rpm and the tool is
traveling at an axial speed of 200 mm/min. Calculate the cutting speed, material
removal rate, cutting time, power dissipated and cutting force. Assume, specific energy
for 304 stainless steel is 4 W.s/mm3.

147
 Week 11

DRILLING AND DRILLS

148
 Drilling and Drills

 Hole making is among the most important operations in

manufacturing, and drilling is a major and common hole making
process.
 The cost of hole making is among the highest machining costs in
automotive engine production.

149
 Drills

 Drills typically have high length-to-diameter ratio, hence they are

capable of producing relatively deep holes.
 The chips that are produced within the hole moves in a direction
opposite to the forward movement of the drill. Thus, chip disposal
and ensuring cutting fluid effectiveness can present significant
difficulties in drilling.
 Drill generally leave a burr on the bottom surface upon breakthrough,
necessitating deburring operations.
 The diameter of a hole produced by drilling is slightly larger than the
drill diameter (oversize).
 The amount of oversize depends on the quality of the drill, the
equipment used, thermal properties and the operator.
 For better surface finish and dimensional accuracy, drilled hole may
be subjected to subsequent operations, such as reaming and honing.

150
 Drills

 Twist Drill: The most common type of drill is the conventional

standard-point twist drill. The geometry of the drill point is such that
the normal rake angle and the velocity of the cutting edge vary with
the distance from the center of the drill.
 The main features of this drills are as follows:
a) Point angel (118o to 135o)
b) Lip-relief angle (7o to 15o)
c) Chisel edged angle (125o to 135o) and
d) Helix angle (15o to 30o).
 Two spiral grooves (flutes) run the length of the drill, and the chips produced
are guided upward through these grooves. The grooves also serves as a
passageways to enable the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edge.
 Drill are also available with chip-breaker features, important for automated
machinery, where a continuous removal of long chips without operator
assistance is essential.
 Drill geometry has significant effect. Too small a lip relief angle increases the
thrust force, generates excessive heat and increases wear. Too large an angle
can cause chipping or breaking of the cutting edge.
151
 Other types of Drills

 Step drill produces holes with two or more different diameters.

 Core drill is used to make an existing holes larger.
 Counterboring and countersinking drills produce depressions on the
surface to accommodate the heads of screws and bolts below the
workpiece surface.
 Center drill is short and is used to produce a hole at the end of a
piece of stock.
 Spot drill is used to spot a hole at the desired location on a surface.

152
 Other types of Drills

 Spade drills have removable tips or bits and are used to produce
large diameter and deep holes. These drills have the advantage of
higher stiffness, easy of grinding the cutting edges, and lower cost. A
similar drill is the straight-flute drill.
 Solid carbide and carbide tipped drills are available for drilling hard
materials, high temperature metals, abrasive materials and composite
materials with abrasive fiber reinforcements.

153
 Gun Drilling

 Gun Drill developed originally for drilling gun barrels. It is used for
drilling deep holes and required a special drill. The depth to diameter
ratio of holes produced can be 300:1 or even higher.
 The thrust force is balanced by bearing pads on the drill that slide along the
inside surface of a hole. Consequently, a gun drill is self-centering- an
important features for drilling straight, deep holes.
 Cutting speeds in gun drilling are usually high, and feeds are low. The cutting
fluid is forced under high pressure through a longitudinal hole in the body of
the drill.

154
Material-Removal Rate, Thrust and Torque

155
Material-Removal Rate, Thrust and Torque

156
 Drill Material and Sizes

 Drill Materials:
 Drills usually are made of high-speed steel and solid carbide or with
carbide tips. Drills are now commonly coated with titanium nitride or
titanium carbonitride for increased wear resistance.
 Polycrystalline-diamond-coated drills are used for producing
fasteners hole in fiber reinforced plastics.
 Standard twist-drill sizes consist basically of following series:
 Numerical: No. 97 (0.0059 in) to No. 1 (0.228 in.)
 Letter: A (0.234 in.) to Z (0.413 in.)
 Fractional: Straight shank from 1/64 to 1 ¼ inch to 1 ½ in.
 Millimeter: From 0.05 mm (0.002 in) in increment of 0.01 mm.

157
 Reaming and Reamers

 Reaming is an operation used to (a) make an existing hole

dimensionally more accurate than can be achieved by drilling alone,
and (b) improved surface finish.
 The most accurate holes in workpieces generally are produced by the
following sequence of operations:
1. Centering
2. Drilling
3. Boring
4. Reaming

158
 Reaming and Reamers

 A Reamer is a multiple cutting edge tool with straight or helical fluted

edges that remove very little material. For soft metals, a reamer
typically removes a minimum of 0.2 mm on the diameter of the drilled
hole; for harder metals, about 0.13 mm is removed.
 Hand reamers are straight or have a tapered end in the first third of
their length.
 Various machine reamers are available in two types
1. Rose reamers have cutting edge with wide margins and no relief (Fig. 23.26 a).
2. Fluted reamers have small margins and relief, with a rake angle of about 5o
 Shell reamers generally are used for holes larger than 20mm.
 Expandable reamers are adjustable for small variations in hole size
and also to compensate for wear of the reamers’ cutting edges.
 Adjustable reamers can be set for specific hole diameters and
therefore are versatile (Fig. 23.26 b).

159
Week 12

MILLING
160
 Milling
A machining process in which a rotating cutter removes
materials while travelling along various axes with
respect to the work piece.

161
 Broaching
Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed
tool, called a broach, to remove material.
There are two main types of broaching: linear and rotary.

162
 Sawing
A saw is a tool consisting of a hard blade, wire,
or chain with a toothed edge.
Used for preparing blanks for subsequent operations
such as forming, machining and welding.

163
 Filing and gear manufacturing
Filing: Used to remove small amount of materials,
usually from edges and corners.

164
 Introduction
Machining operation can produce many type of parts
with complex shapes.
Single point, multi-tooth and cutting tools can be used.
Complex shapes need very close tolerance and good
surface finish.
Die casting and precision forging can be used to
produce such goals but needs complicated machining.

165
 Milling and Milling Machines
Milling includes a number of highly versatile machining
operations taking place in variety of configurations with
the use of a milling cutter-a multitooth tool that produces
a number of chips in one revolution.

166
 Peripheral Milling
Also known as Plain or slab milling.
The axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the workpiece
surface.
The cutter body, which generally made of high speed
steel, has a number of teeth along its circumpherence.
Each tooth acts as a single point cutting tool.
Slab Milling: Cutter is longer than the cut.

167
 Peripheral Milling
Cutter for peripheral milling may be straight or helical.
Helical teeth is better/desirable as it partially engaged
with the work-piece as it rotates.
Why?
cutting force and torque on the cutter are lower.
Smooth operation and reduced chatter.

168
 Conventional and Climb Milling
Depends on the rotation of cutter and feed of workpiece.
Conventional Milling: Also known as up-milling. Most common type.
The maximum chip thickness is at the end of the cut as the tooth
leaves the workpiece surface.
Advantages: (1) Tooth engagement is not a function of workpiece
face characteristics, (2) Contamination or scale on the surface does
not affect tool life.

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 Conventional Milling
The cutting process is smooth, if the teeth are sharp.
Otherwise, the tool will rub against and smear the
surface for some distance before it begins to cut.
The tool has tendency to chatter and the work-piece has
a tendency to pulled upward, necessating proper
clamping.

170
 Climb Milling
Climb Milling: Also known as down milling.
Cutting starts at the surface of the workpiece where the chip is
thickest.
Advantages: Downward component of cutting force holds the
workpiece in place.
This operation must have a rigid work-holding set up and gear
backlash to be eleminated in the table feed mechanism.
Not suitable for workpiece having surface scale, such as hot worked
metal, forging and casting.
The scales are hard and abrasive and
causes excessive wear and damage to the
cutter teeth, thus shortening tool life.

171
Milling Parameters

172
Summary of Periphery Milling parameters and Formulas

173
Summary of Periphery Milling parameters and Formulas

174
 Face and End Milling
In Face Milling, the cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of
rotation perpendicular to the workpiece surface.
Two types of face milling are Climb and conventional milling.
End Milling is an important and common machining operation
because of its versatility and capability to produce various profiles
and curved surface.
The cutter, called an end mill has either a straight shank (for small
sizes) or a tapered shank (for larger cutter sizes) and is mounted into
the spindle of the milling machine.
The cutter usually rotates on an axis perpendicular to the workpiece
surface, and it also can be tilted to machine tapered or curved
surface.

175
 Cutters/Toolholders
Milling cutters are classified as either arbor cutters or shank cutters.
Arbor cutters are mounted on an arbor, for operations such as
peripheral, face, straddle, and form milling.
In shank cutters, the cutter and the shank are made in one piece (i.e.
end mill).
Small end mills have straight shanks,
but larger end mills have tapered shanks
for better mounting in the machine spindle
in order to resist the higher forces and
torque involved during cutting.
In addition to mechanical types,
hydraulic toolholders and arbors also are
available. The stiffness of cutters and
toolholders is important for surface
quality and to reduce vibration and chatter
during milling operations.
176
 Type of Milling Machines
Column and knee type milling machines: Used for general purpose
milling operations. The spindle on which the milling cutter is mounted
may be horizontal for peripheral milling or vertical for face and end
milling, boring, and drilling operations.
The basic components of these machines are: work table, saddle,
knee, overarm and head.
Plain milling machines have three axes of movement. In universal
column and knee type milling machines, the table can be swiveled on
horizontal plane.

177
 Type of Milling Machines
Bed type milling machines: In bed type milling machines, the work
table is mounted directly on the bed, which replaces the knee and can
move only longitudinally. Good for high production work.
Other types of milling machines: Planner type milling machine; Rotary
table machine, Computer numerical control machine (CNC).

178
Workholding Devices and Accessories
The workpiece to be milled must be clamped securely to the work
table in order to resist cutting forces and prevent slipping during
milling. T-slots, vice and fixtures are used for that purpose.
The accessory that has been used most commonly used is universal
diving head.

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 Week 13

CNC MACHINING
180
 Introduction
CNC Machining: Computer-Numerical Control (CNC) Machining.
Numerical control (NC) is the automation of machine tools that are
operated by precisely programmed commands encoded on a
storage medium, as opposed to controlled manually via hand
wheels or levers, or mechanically automated via cams alone.
Machine Layout: CNC machine may contains:
1. Electrical Cabinet
2. Mains Isolator
3. Sliding Guard (Electrically Interlocked)
4. Rear Splash Guard
5. Tailstock
6. Operators Control Station
7. Pull Out Swarf Tray
8. Chuck Guard (Electrically Interlocked)

181
 Operations Control Station
Operators Control Station:
1. Touch Screen Display
2. Manual Operation Keypad
3. Data Input Keypad
4. Hydraulic Chuck Operation*
5. Cycle Start/Stop Buttons
6. Hydraulic Tailstock Operation*
7. Feedrate Override Control
8. Mode Select Key Switch
9. Program protect key switch
10. Emergency Stop
11. ‘X’ Axis Hand wheel
12. Feed Engage Lever
13. ‘Z’ Axis Hand wheel
14. Axis Jog Direction Lever
15. Spindle Speed Potentiometer (Pot.)
16. System ON/OFF Buttons 7
17. Spindle START/STOP Lever
* If fitted - Optional Extra
182
 Control Panels
Touch screen Display: Consists of simple to use and easy to
understand pictorial views with internationally recognized quick
response touch keys and icons for quick access to the multi-paged
system.
Numerical Input keypad: The keypad consists of the 0 to 9 numerical
input keys, a negative key, a point key along with the reset, delete
and input keys, these are used to input numerical data in
conjunction with the touch screen data keys. The INPUT key is used
to confirm data at point of input. The CAN key is used to cancel
incorrect data at the point of input. The RESET key is used to back
track the screens and clear operator messages.
Hydraulic chuck: Available as an optional extra - this switch will
open and closes the hydraulic chuck.

183
 Work Shift and Tool Offsets
The machine is fitted with absolute encoders on both ‘X’ and ‘Z’
axes. Therefore a common “MACHINE DATUM” is used to set up
both the ‘X’ and ‘Z’ slides automatic “REF POINT RETURN” relative
to the TURRET DATUM POINT.
Machine Datum Point: Is the point at which the spindle nose and the
spindle center line intersect.
Turret Datum Point: Is the point at which the face of the turret disc
and the pitch circle diameter of the tool mounting holes intersect.

184
 Work Shift and Tool Offsets
Ref. Point Return: Is the back stop as home position to which the
“turret datum point” returns relative to the “machine datum”.
Tool Geometry Offset (Z and X Axes): Is the diametric difference
between the “turret datum point” and the “tool point”.
Work Offset/ Work Shift: Is the negative dimensional co-ordinate
which must be inserted into the control for individual components,
to offset the actual machine datum to the theoretical components, to
offset the actual machine datum to the theoretical work-piece zero
datum. This enables the user to input actual drawing dimensions.
Tool Wear Offsets: These are the incremental offsets which can be
inserted to accommodate tool wear in order to obtain component
tolerances.

185
 Machine Axes
In preparing a program four characters are used to identify the
required slide positioning:
 “X” ABSOLUTE (diameter) dimension
 “U” INCREMENTAL (diameter) dimension
 “Z” ABSOLUTE (longitudinal) dimension
 “W” INCREMENTAL (longitudinal) dimension

When using X and Z dimensions, the dimensions are taken from a

common datum position and this is referred to as ABSOLUTE
PROGRAMING.
When using U and W dimensions, the dimensions are relative and
are taken from point to point. This is called INCREMENTAL
PROGRAMING.

186
 Working Quardants
The four characters X, Z, U, W, can be proceeded by a (-) or (+) sign
to determine the direction of that movement relative to the
component datum, which ultimately determines the machining
quadrant in which the tool is working.
Common Datum Point: Is a common point to both axes from which
all dimensions are associated; for example the center line and front
face of the component.

187
Letter Address Function List

188
 G-Code
G-code is a language in which people tell computerized machine
tools what to make and how to make it. The "how" is defined by
instructions on where to move to, how fast to move, and through
what path to move.

189
M-Code

190
Example

191
 Week 14

NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING
192
 Introduction
Why Advanced Machining Process is required?: There are situations
where mechanical methods are not satisfactory, economical, or even
possible for the following reasons:
 The strength and the hardness of the workpiece is very high.
 The workpiece materials is too brittle to be machined without damage.
 The workpiece is too flexible or too slender to withstand forces in
machining or grinding or the parts are difficult to clamp.
 Complex shape
 Special surface finish and dimensional tolerance requirements exist that
can not be obtained by other manufacturing processes or uneconomical
through alternative processes.
 Temperature rise during processing and residual stresses developed in
the workpiece are not desirable or acceptable.

193
 Chemical Machining
Chemical Machining (CM): Oldest of the advanced machining processes.
The CM process is carried out by chemical dissolution using reagents or
etchants, such as acids and alkaline solutions.
Used in engraving metals and hard stones, in deburring, and in the
production of the printed circuit board and microelectronic devices.
Chemical Milling: Shallow cavities are produced on plates, sheets,
forgings, and extrusions, generally for overall reduction of weight.
Chemical Blanking: is similar to the blanking of sheet metals in that it is
used to produce features which penetrate through the thickness of the
material.
Photochemical Blanking: modification of chemical milling, material is
removed by photographic technique. Complex, burr-free shapes can be
blanked on metals as thin as 0.0025 mm.

194
 Electrochemical Machining
In Electrochemical machining, an electrolyte acts as current carrier,
and a high rate of electrolyte movement in the tool-workpiece gap
(typically 0.1 to 0.6 mm) washes metal ions away from the workpiece
(anode) before they have a chance to plate onto the tool (cathode).
A shaped tool, either a solid or tubular form, generally is made of
brass, copper, bronze or stainless steel. The Material removal rate,
MRR = CI, where C is the material constant, I is the current in amp.
Generally used to machine complex cavities and shapes in high
strength materials (i.e. turbine blades, jet engine parts and nozzles)

195
 Electrochemical Grinding
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) combines electrochemical
machining and conventional grinding. The equipment used is similar
to a conventional grinder, except that the wheel is a rotating cathode
embedded with abrasive particles.
The abrasive have two functions: (1) to serve as insulators between
the wheel and the workpiece and (2) to mechanically remove
electrolytic products from the working area. A flow of electrolyte
solution is provided for the electrochemical machining phase of the
operation.

196
 Electrical Discharge Machining
The Principle of Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is based on
the erosion of metals by spark discharges.
The basic EDM system consists of a shaped tool (electrode) and the
workpiece connected to a DC power supply and placed in a
dielectric (electrically nonconducing ) fluid. When the potential
differences between the tool and the workpiece is sufficiently high,
the dielectrics breaks down and a transient spark discharges
through the fluid, removing a very small amount of metal from the
workpiece surface. MRR = 4 x 104 Itw-1.23 ; where MRR is in mm3/min, I
is the current in amp and Tw is the melting point of the w/p in oC.

197
 Laser-Beam Machining
In Laser-Beam machining (LBM), the source of energy is a laser,
which focuses optical energy on the surface of the workpiece. The
highly focused, high-density energy source melts and evaporates
portions of the workpiece in a controlled manner.
There are several types of lasers used in manufacturing operations
 CO (Pulsed or continuous wave)
2

 Nd: YAG (neodymium: yttrium-aluminum-garnet)

 Nd: glass, ruby
 Excimer lasers.

198
 Electron-Beam Machining
The energy source in Electron beam machining (EBM) is high-
velocity electrons, which strikes the workpiece surface and generate
heat. The machines utilize voltages in the range of 50 to 200 kV to
accelerate the electrons to speeds of 50 to 80% of the speed of the
light.
Applications of this process are similar to those of laser beam
machining, except that EBM requires a vacuum.

199
 THANK YOU

200
Magnesium Nanocomposite: An Advanced Engineering Material