Unit-3

1.Discuss the types of sampling design and techniques?

MEANING OF SAMPLING:

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number

of observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to
sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed,
but may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

In business, a CPA performing an audit uses sampling to determine the accuracy of

account balances in the financial statements, and managers use sampling to assess
the success of the firm’s marketing efforts.

DEFINITION FOR SAMPLING TECHNIQUE:

“A sampling technique is the name or other identification of the specific process

by which the entities of the sample have been selected.” -WASHINGTON D.C.,
SAMPLING METHOD:
Sampling method refers to the rules and procedure by which some elements of the
population are included in the sample. Some common sampling methods are
simple random sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling.

Sampling Strategies and their Advantages and Disadvantages

Type of Sampling When to use it Advantages Disadvantages

Probability
Strategies
 When the
Simple Randompopulation members
Sampling are similar to oneEnsures a high degreeTime consuming
another onof representativeness and tedious
important variables
When theEnsures a high degree
population membersof representativeness,
Systematic are similar to oneand no need to use aLess random than
Sampling another ontable of randomsimple random
important variables numbers sampling

When the
population is
Stratified Randomheterogeneous andEnsures a high degreeTime consuming
Sampling contains severalof representativenessand tedious
different groups,of all the strata or
some of which arelayers in the
related to the topicpopulation
of the study
When the Possibly, members
population consists of units are different
Cluster Sampling of units rather thanEasy and convenient from one another,
individuals decreasing the
techniques
effectiveness
Non-Probability
Sampling
When the members
of the population
Convenience are convenient toConvenience andDegree of
Sampling sample inexpensive generalizability is
questionable
When strata areInsures some degree
present andof representativeness
Quota Sampling stratified samplingof all the strata in theDegree of
is not possible population generalizability is
 questionable

1.PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:

Probability sampling is a technique wherein the samples are gathered in a process

that gives all the individuals in the population equal chance of being selected.
Many consider this to be the more methodologically rigorous approach to sampling
because it eliminates social biases that could shape the research sample.
Ultimately, though, the sampling technique you choose should be the one that best
allows you to respond to your particular research question.

Let's review four kinds of probability sampling techniques.

 Simple Random Sample.

The simple random sample is the basic sampling method assumed in statistical
methods and computations. To collect a simple random sample, each unit of the
target population is assigned a number. A set of random numbers is then generated
and the units having those numbers are included in the sample. For example, let’s
say you have a population of 1,000 people and you wish to choose a simple
random sample of 50 people. First, each person is numbered 1 through 1,000.
Then, you generate a list of 50 random numbers--typically with a computer
program--and the individuals assigned those numbers are the ones you include in
the sample. When studying people, this technique is best used with a homogenous
population--one that does not differ much by age, race, education level, or class--
because with a heterogeneous population, one runs the risk of creating a biased
sample if demographic differences are not taken into account.

 Systematic Sample.

In a systematic sample, the elements of the population are put into a list and then
every nth element in the list is chosen systematically for inclusion in the sample.

For example, if the population of study contained 2,000 students at a high school
and the researcher wanted a sample of 100 students, the students would be put into
list form and then every 20th student would be selected for inclusion in the sample.
To ensure against any possible human bias in this method, the researcher should
select the first individual at random. This is technically called a systematic sample
with a random start.
  Stratified Sample.

A stratified sample is a sampling technique in which the researcher divides the

entire target population into different subgroups or strata, and then randomly
selects the final subjects proportionally from the different strata. This type of
sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight specific subgroups within
the population. For example, to obtain a stratified sample of university students,
the researcher would first organize the population by college class and then select
appropriate numbers of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. This would
ensure that the researcher has adequate amounts of subjects from each class in the
final sample.

 Cluster Sample.

Cluster sampling may be used when it is either impossible or impractical to

compile an exhaustive list of the elements that make up the target population.
Usually, however, the population elements are already grouped into subpopulations
and lists of those subpopulations already exist or can be created. For example, let’s
say the target population in a study was church members in the United States.
There is no list of all church members in the country. The researcher could,
however, create a list of churches in the United States, choose a sample of
churches, and then obtain lists of members from those churches.

2.NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered

in a process that does not give all individuals in the population equal chances of
being selected. While choosing one of these methods could result in biased data or
a limited ability to make general inferences based on the findings, there are also
many situations in which choosing this kind of sampling technique is the best
choice for the particular research question or the stage of research.

There are four kinds of samples that you can create this way.

Reliance On Available Subjects.

Relying on available subjects, such as stopping people on a street corner as they

pass by, is one method of sampling, although it is extremely risky and comes with
many cautions.
This method, sometimes referred to as a convenience sample, does not allow the
researcher to have any control over the representativeness of the sample. However,
it is useful if the researcher wants to study the characteristics of people passing by
on a street corner at a certain point in time, for example, or if time and resources
are limited in such a way that the research would not be possible otherwise.

For the latter reason, convenience samples are commonly used in the early or pilot
stages of research, before a larger research project is launched. Though this method
can be useful, the researcher will not be able to use the results from a convenience
sample to generalize to a wider population.

 Purposive or Judgmental Sample.

A purposive or judgmental sample is one that is selected based on the knowledge

of a population and the purpose of the study. For example, when sociologists at the
University of San Francisco wanted to study the long-term emotional and
psychological effects of choosing to terminate a pregnancy, they created a sample
that exclusively included women who had had abortions. In this case, the
researchers used a purposive sample because those being interviewed fit a specific
purpose or description that was necessary to conduct the research.

 Snowball Sample.

A snowball sample is appropriate to use in research when the members of a

population are difficult to locate, such as homeless individuals, migrant workers, or
undocumented immigrants. A snowball sample is one in which the researcher
collects data on the few members of the target population he or she can locate, then
asks those individuals to provide information needed to locate other members of
that population whom they know.

For example, if a researcher wishes to interview undocumented immigrants from

Mexico, she might interview a few undocumented individuals that she knows or
can locate, and would then rely on those subjects to help locate more
undocumented individuals. This process continues until the researcher has all the
interviews she needs, or until all contacts have been exhausted. This is a technique
that is useful when studying a sensitive topic that people might not openly talk
about, or if talking about the issues under investigation could jeopardize their
safety. A recommendation from a friend or acquaintance that the researcher can be
trusted works to grow the sample size.

 Quota Sample.
A quota sample is one in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-
specified characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of
characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied.

For example, if you are a researcher conducting a national quota sample, you might
need to know what proportion of the population is male and what proportion is
female, as well as what proportions of members of each gender fall into different
age categories, race or ethnic categories, and educational categories, among others.
The researcher would then collect a sample with the same proportions as the
national population.

IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:

1.Reducing sampling error is the major goal of any selection technique.
2.A sample should be big enough to answer the research question, but not so
big that the process of sampling becomes uneconomical.
3.Estimating sample size in general, you need a larger sample to accurately
represent the population when:
a. The amount of variability within groups is greater, and
b. The difference between the tw groups gets smaller.
4. In general, the larger the sample, the smaller the sampling error and the
betterjob you can do.
5. If you are going to use several subgroups in your work (such as males and
females who are both 10 years of age, and healthy and unhealthy urban
residents), be sure your initial selection of subjects is large enough to
account for the eventual breaking down of subject groups.
6. If you are mailing out surveys or questionnaire, count on increasing your
sample size by 40% to 50% to account for lost mail and uncooperative
subjects
7. Remember that big is good, but appropriate is better. Do not waste your
hard-earned money or valuable time generating samples that are larger
than you need law of diminishing returns will set in!
2.What are the different types or methods of conducting
interview?state advantages and disadvantages of each
method ?research need to conduct interview?
1. The Telephone Interview
Telephone interviews are hugely valuable because they speed up the
interview process and minimise time-wasting, whilst culling your weaker
candidates earlier on.A face-to-face interview will take up your time as
well as your candidate’s, so having a quick chat to suss out whether
they’re suitable, before meeting up, will benefit both of you.A CV only
tells part of the story; hearing the candidate’s tone of voice and
assessing their direct answers will provide a much more detailed insight
into their personality.

Advantages:

 It’s quicker than a face-to-face interview.

 It’s cheaper than a face-to-face interview.
 It’s less effort for you and the candidate.
 You can assess the candidate’s telephone manner.
 You can reach long-distance candidates.
 You can cull weaker candidates right at the start of the process.

Disadvantages:

 The call could be interrupted .

 You can’t read a candidate’s body language.
 You might have to schedule it outside of working hours.It’s difficult to build
as much rapport via the telephone.

2.The Video Interview

Video interviews (Skype, Google Hangouts, FaceTime) are a great alternative to
telephone interviews.The fact that you can actually see each other adds a certain
level of importance and professionalism to the ‘call’ and removes the temptation
for either party to multi-task or lose focus.Of course, you could still face similar
issues to those that plague the telephone interview.Background distractions could
still occur, other calls could come through, bad signal could distort the
conversation and, as you can both see each other, there’s no hiding from them!

Advantages:

 It’s quicker than a face-to-face interview.

 It’s cheaper than a face-to-face interview.
 It’s less effort for you and the candidate.
 You can reach long-distance candidates.
 You can cull weaker candidates right at the start of the process.
 You’ll be able to tell if they’re focused (or just reading from notes).

Disadvantages:

 The video call could be interrupted (bad signal, connection, background

noise).
 You’ll find it difficult to read the candidate’s body language.
 You might have to schedule it outside of working hours (if their employers
don’t know).
 It’s difficult to build rapport via a video chat.
 You have to look professional and focused (unlike via the telephone).

3. The Panel Interview

Panel interviews are the same as individual, face-to-face interviews, but with
two or more interviewers in the room.The main advantage of panel
interviewing is that it precludes any personal biases that might creep into the
assessment process.Each interviewer will pick up on different characteristics,
 strengths and weaknesses and together (hopefully) make a much fairer
judgement.

Advantages:

 No personal biases.
 The chance to compare different opinions.
 More chance to get notes (while others talk).
 All relevant people meet at the same time.
 Weak interviewers might need back-up.
 The candidate gets a chance to meet everyone.

Disadvantages:

 Some interviewers could get complacent.

 It could be overwhelming for the candidate (scary!)
 Interviewers could interrupt each other, striving for dominance.
 There’s a risk of disagreement.

4. The Assessment Day

Assessment “days” can be used to assess larger groups of interviewees at the same
time, for a range of different skills.Common amongst graduate employers, they are
a great way to evaluate candidates in more detail, for a longer period of time.If
you’re interviewing a large group and your offices are only small, it’s a good idea
to seek out a local assessment centre to host the day for you.

Advantages:

 You can assess a wide range of skills.

 Extra time to get to know each of the candidates.
 It minimises legal risk and is less disputable.
 You can assess interpersonal skills and teamwork.
  You can interview all candidates at once.
 It sparks competition.
 Out of the norm, so generates genuine answers.

Disadvantages:

 More difficult to administer effectively.

 The pressure will put some candidates off.
 You’ll have to focus for a longer time.
 Dominant personalities will quash others
 You could miss something or someone
 More difficult to build rapport with individuals
 Some candidates work better individually
 It requires more staff to pull off

5. Group Interviews

Group interviews are used a lot less regularly than the other interview techniques
we’ve mentioned, but they still have their place in modern recruitment.You could
conduct your group interview in two key ways… like an individual interview;
asking exactly the same questions that you would ask in an individual interview,
openly, to the whole group, allowing candidates .

Advantages:

 You can assess a wide range of skills.

 You can assess interpersonal skills and teamwork.
 It’s quicker (than assessment days).
 You can interview all candidates at once.
 It’s a good method to cull candidates early on.
 Sparks competition.
  Less individual pressure on candidates.
 Out of the norm, generates genuine answers.

Disadvantages:

 More difficult to administer effectively.

 The pressure will put some candidates off.
 Dominant personalities will quash others.
 More difficult to build rapport with individuals.
 Some candidates work better individually.
 It requires more staff to pull off.

chance to compete to impress.

6. Individual (face-to-face) Interviews

Individual, face-to-face interviews are by far the most popular and efficient form of
assessmentAllowing you to get up close and personal with each candidate while
keeping an eye on their body language is far more effective than any other
interviewing format.

Advantages:

 You can build rapport more easily

 You can thoroughly assess the individual
 You have opportunity to dig deeper
 You can read their body language
 You can test the candidate’s commitment
 You’re more flexible with location/ style (informal/ formal).

Disadvantages:
  Candidates can rehearse answers
 It’s time-consuming
 You’ll need a trained interviewer.
 Interviewer bias will affect the decision
 There’s no one present to assess the interviewer’s method
 It’s costly
 Interview techniques could be inconsistent
 Possible interview fatigue

3.what are the different methods of surveys? How many

types of survey can be conducted?State the application of
survey method?
If a decision is made to go ahead and conduct a survey, two more questions then
emerge - What type of survey should be used, and, should the survey be of the
entire population or a sample of the population being studied?
We are going to take a look at four different types of surveys - mail, group-
administered, telephone, and face-to-face interviews - and discuss some of the
advantages and disadvantages of each one.
Mail surveys are those conducted by mailing a questionnaire to a selected group of
respondents and requesting completion and return of the questionnaire. Group-
administered surveys are questionnaires completed in group settings, such as at a
screening clinic or in a classroom. Telephone and face-to-face interviews take
place on a one-on-one basis.
MAIL:
ADVANTAGES - It is easy and relatively inexpensive to let the post office do the
leg work; mailing costs are geographically uniform; special mailing lists, i.e.,
doctors, nursing homes, are available.
DISADVANTAGES - Historically low response rates; questions are open to
misinterpretation; mailing lists may be dated; the poorer, less educated are less apt
to participate; time-consuming.
GROUP-ADMINISTERED:
ADVANTAGES - Large group can be surveyed at one time; anonymity may
provide more honest answers to sensitive questions; costs are low; less staff is
needed than for personal interviews; controlled situation where staff can answer
questions and address concerns that also ensures a high response rate.
DISADVANTAGES - Not practical for most populations being studied; members
of the group are not independently chosen.
TELEPHONE INTERVIEW:
ADVANTAGES - Central location allows for close supervision of interviewers
and, therefore, a high degree of quality control; questions can be repeated and
interpreted; lower costs than face-to-face interviews; random-digit dialing
sampling can be used.
DISADVANTAGES - Households without phones are excluded; some resistance to
intrusion via telephone; inability to use visual aids, such as flash cards.
FACE TO FACE INTERVIEW:
ADVANTAGES - Controlled situation; very good response rate; individual
behavior can be observed; allows exchange of material/information between
interviewer and respondent.
DISADVANTAGES - Very expensive; time-consuming since travel is usually
involved.
Traditionally, the face-to-face interview has been considered the most reliable
method of data collection, especially when attitudinal behavior is of concern.
Unfortunately, it is the most expensive.
Lately, there have been studies conducted claiming that interviews done by phone
are fairly equivalent in quality to face-to-face interviews, and in some ways better.
People are sometimes unwilling to open their door and start answering questions
from a total stranger, yet, via a phone, may be willing.
Group-administered questionnaires are generally regarded as a middle-of-the-road
compromise between mail surveys and personal interviews - retaining some of the
advantages of both while overcoming some of the disadvantages of each. Lower
cost, compared to face-to-face and telephone interviews, is a major factor for
seriously considering group-administered procedures, where practical.
Mail surveys are often avoided unless some circumstance such as a legal
requirement can guarantee a high response rate. Some organizations have
developed methods which they claim have resulted in high/successful mail survey
response rates. These methods include multiple mailings, telephone reminders, and
the introduction of a "social reward" if the questionnaire is completed and returned.
These "social rewards" include explaining the personal/practical uses of the survey
results, being extremely polite and thankful, using personalized letters, and even
offering rewards ranging from copies of the results to money. However, the
additional cost of these methods may price the mail survey out of the low cost
category.
Deciding on which type of survey to use is your first major step in the active
survey process. You may even decide to use more than one type at different stages
of the process. It is very important that you review closely the pros and cons of
each type of survey in regard to your particular needs. This article has only
highlighted some of the many advantages and disadvantages. Talk to others you
may know who have conducted different types of surveys. Some private firms offer
consulting services on this subject.
4.Different methods(or)source of collectiong data for
research?advantages and disadvantages of types?why research
need collect data?
DATA COLLECTION METHODS:

Data can be collected in a variety of ways, in different settings—field or lab—and

from different source. “Data collection methods include interviews—face-to-face
interviews, telephone interviews, computer-assisted interviews, and interviews
through the electronic media; questionnaires that are either personally
administered, sent through the mail, or electronically administered; observation of
individuals and events with or without videotaping or audio recording; and a
variety of other motivational techniques such as projective tests”.

Three main data collection methods in survey research are:

 Interviewing

 Administering questionnaires

 observing people

The choice of data collection methods depends on the facilities available, the
degree of accuracy required, the expertise of the researcher, the time span of the
study, and other costs and resources associated with and available for data
gathering.

PART I: INTERVIEWING:
One method of collecting data is to interview respondents to obtain information on
the issues of interest. Interviews could be unstructured or structured, and con-
ducted either face to face or by telephone or online.

UNSTRUCTURED AND STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS:

 Unstructured Interviews:

Unstructured interviews are so labeled because the interviewer does not enter the
interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the
respondent. The objective of the unstructured interview is to bring some
preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what
variables need further in-depth investigationIn order to understand the situation in
its totality, the researcher will interview employees at several levels. In the initial
stages, only broad, open- ended questions would be asked, and the replies to them
would inform the researcher of the perceptions of the individuals. The type and
nature of the questions asked of the individuals might vary according to the job
level and type of work done by them. For instance, top and middle-level managers
might be asked more direct questions about their perceptions of the problem and
the situation. Employees at lower levels may have to be approached differently.

As managers and researchers, we should train ourselves to develop these listening

skills and identify the critical topics that are touched on. However, when some
respondents give a monosyllabic, crisp, short reply that is not informative, the
interviewer will have to ask questions that would call for details and cannot be
answered in one or two words.

 Structured Interviews:

Structured interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset what
information is needed. The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be
asked of the respondents either personally, through the telephone, or through the
medium of a PC. The questions are likely to focus on factors that had surfaced
during the unstructured interviews and are considered relevant to the problem. As
the respondents express their views, the researcher would note them down. The
same questions will be asked of everybody in the same manner. Sometimes,
however, based on the exigencies of the situation, the experienced researcher
might take a lead from a respondent‘s answer and ask other relevant questions not
on the interview protocol. Through this process, new factors might be identified,
resulting in a deeper understanding. However, to be able to recognize a probable
response, the interviewer must comprehend the purpose and goal of each question.
This is particularly important when a team of trained interviewers conducts the
survey.

FACE-TO-FACE AND TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS:

Interviews can be conducted either face to face or over the telephone. They could
also be computer-assisted. Although most unstructured interviews in
organizational research are conducted face to face, structured interviews could be
either face to face or through the medium of the telephone, depending on the level
of complexity of the issues involved, the likely duration of the interview, the
convenience of both parties, and the geographical area covered by the survey.
Telephone interviews are best suited when information from a large number of
respondents spread over a wide geographic area is to be obtained quickly, and the
likely duration of each interview is, say, 10 minutes or less. Many market surveys,
for instance, are conducted through structured telephone interviews. In addition,
computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI) are also possible, and easy to
manage.

Advantage of interviewing:

 flexibility in terms of adapting,

 adopting

 changing the questions as the researcher proceeds with the inter- views.

PART II: QUESTIONNAIRES:

A questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents

record their answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives.
Questionnaires are an efficient data collection mechanism when the researcher
knows exactly what is required and how to measure the variables of interest.
Questionnaires can be administered personally, mailed to the respondents, or
electronically distributed.
TYPE AND FORM OF QUESTIONS:

 Open-ended questions

It allow respondents to answer them in any way they choose.

 Closed question:

A closed question in contrast, would ask the respondents to make choices among
a set of alternatives given by the researcher.

 Positively and Negatively Worded Questions:

Instead of phrasing all questions positively, it is advisable to include some

negatively worded questions as well, so the tendency in respondents to
mechanically circle the points toward one end of the scale is minimized.

 Double-Barreled Questions:

A question that lends itself to different possible responses to its subparts is called a
double-barreled question. Such questions should be avoided and two or more
separate questions asked instead

 Ambiguous Questions:

Even questions that are not double-barreled might be ambiguously worded and the
respondent may not be sure what exactly they mean.

 Recall-Dependent Question:

Some questions might require respondents to recall experiences from the past that
are hazy in their memory. Answers to such questions might have bias.

 Leading Questions:

Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the respondents to
give the responses that the researcher would like or want them to give.

 Loaded Questions:

Another type of bias in questions occurs when they are phrased in an emotionally
charged manner.

 Length of Questions:

Finally, simple, short questions are preferable to long ones. As a rule of thumb, a
question or a statement in the questionnaire should not exceed 20 words, or exceed
one full line in print.

Advantage questionnaires :

 obtaining data more efficiently in terms of researcher time,

 energy

 costs

PART III: OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

 Observational Surveys:

Whereas interviews and questionnaires elicit responses from the subjects, it is

possible to gather data without asking questions of respondents. People can
beobserved in their natural work environment or in the lab setting, and their
activities and behaviors or other items of interest can be noted and recorded.

Apart from the activities performed by the individuals under study, their
movements, work habits, the statements made and meetings conducted by them,
their facial expressions of joy, anger, and other emotions, and body language can
be observed. Other environmental factors such as layout, work-flow patterns, the
closeness of the seating arrangement, and the like, can also be noted. Children can
be observed as to their interests and attention span with various stimuli, such as
their involvement with different toys. Such observation would help toy
manufacturers, child educators, day-care administrators, and others deeply
involved in or responsible for children‘s development, to design and model ideas
based on children‘s interests, which are more easily observed than traced in any
other manner.

The researcher can play one of two roles while gathering field observational data
—that of a nonparticipant-observer or participant-observer.
  Nonparticipant-Observer:

The researcher may collect the needed data in that capacity without becoming an
integral part of the organizational system. For example, the researcher might sit in
the corner of an office and watch and record how the manager spends her time.
Observation of all the activities of managers, over a period of several days, will
allow the researcher to make some generalizations on how managers typically
spend their time. By merely observing the activities, recording them systematically,
and tabulating them, the researcher is able to come up with some findings. This,
however, renders it necessary that observers are physically pre- sent at the
workplace for extended periods of time and makes observational studies time
consuming.

 Participant-Observer:

The researcher may also play the role of the participant-observer. Here,
the researcher enters the organization or the research setting, and becomes a part
of the work team. For instance, if a researcher wants to study group dynamics in
work organizations, then she may join the organization as an employee and
observe the dynamics in groups while being a part of the work organization and
work groups. Much anthropological research is conducted in this manner, where
researchers become a part of the alien culture, which they are interested in
studying in depth.

2marks
1.what is data mining

Data mining is the computational process of discovering patterns in large data

setsinvolving methods at the intersection ofartificial intelligence, machine
learning,statistics, and database systems. It is aninterdisciplinary subfield
of computer science.The overall goal of the data mining process is to extract
information from a data set and transform it into an understandable structure for
further use.

2.HOW IS SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINED?

Determining sample size is a very important issue because samples that are too
large may waste time, resources and money, while samples that are too small may
lead to inaccurate results. In many cases, we can easily determine the minimum
sample size needed to estimate a process parameter, such as the population mean .

When sample data is collected and the sample mean is calculated, that sample
mean is typically different from the population mean . This difference between the
sample and population means can be thought of as an error. The margin of error is
the maximum difference between the observed sample mean and the true value of
the population mean.

3.when to use the parametric statistical test?

Snowball sampling can happen in a number of ways, but generally it is when a

group of people recommends potential participants for a study, or directly recruits
them for the study. Those participants then recommend additional participants, and
so on, thus building up like a snowball rolling down a hill.

Snowball sampling, in general application, is a type of convenience sample

4.what are the different sampling techiqnes?

 Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to some

ordering scheme, a random start, and then selecting elements at regular intervals
through that ordered list.

 Simple Random Sampling

A simple random sampling (SRS) is a sample of a given size in which all such
subsets of the frame are given an equal probability to be chosen.

 Stratified Sampling

Stratified sampling is a method of probability sampling such that sub-populations

within an overall population are identified and included in the sample selected in a
balanced way.

5.what is the data collection

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted

variables in an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer
relevant questions and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of
research is common to all fields of study including physical and social sciences,
humanities and business.It help scientists and analysts to collect the main points as
gathered information. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring
accurate and honest collection remains the same. The goal for all data collection is
to capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and allows the
building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been posed.

6. what are the determinants of optimal sample size?

determinants of optimal sample size

 size of universe: the large the size of the universe, the bigger should be the
sample size.

 resources available: if the resources avai of alable are vast a large sample
size could be taken.

 degree of accuracy desired: the greater the degree of accuracy desired, the
larger should be the sample size.

 homogeneity or heterogeneity of the universe: if the universe consists of

homogeneous units a small may serve the purpose but if the universe
consists of heterogeneous unit a large sample may be inevitable.

7. what are the characteristics of the secondary data?

 realiabilty of data: finding out such things about the said data can test the
reliability that who collectednthe data, what where the sources of data,
where collected by using proper method and was it achieved.

 suitability of data: the data that are suitable for one enquiry may not
neccessarily be found in another enquiry.

 if the level of accuracy achieved in data found inadequate for the purpose of
the present enquiry, they will be considered an inadequate and should not be
used by the researcher.

8.list out the characteristics of a good sample design.

  true representative: a good sample is the true representative of the population
corresponding to its properties.

 free from bias: a good sample is free from bias. it does not permit prejudices,
pre-conceptions and imagination to influence its choice.

 accurate: a good sample maintains accuracy. it yeilds accurate estimates or

statistics and does involve errors.

 comprehensive: a good sample is comprehensive in nature. a comprehensive

sample is organished by specific purpose of the investigation.

9. define sampling.

" a sampling is the selection of certain percentage of a group of items according to

a pedetermined plan"

10. define probability sampling.

probability sampling is also known as 'random sampling'or 'chance sampling'.

under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of
invclusion in the sample.