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Applications Guide for

Compressed Air Systems
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ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
Foreword
This study was conducted for the Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(HQUSACE), under Project 40162784AT45, "Facility Infrastructure Technology";
Work Unit X051 "Compressed Air System Modernization." The technical moni-
tor was Robert Reeves, AMXIS-C, AMC I&SA.
The work was performed by the Energy Branch (CF-E) of the Facility Division
(CF), U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL). The
CERL Principal Investigator was Dr. Mike C.J. Lin. Literature reference cita-
tions shown in work were provided by Dlaram Punwani of Avalon Consulting,
Inc, under contract No. DACA42-01-C-0024-0002-BDD. Appendix material was
provided by Technology Management & Services, Inc., and by Xenergy, Inc., un-
der contract No. DACA88-98-D-0007-0002. The technical editor was William J.
Wolfe, Information Technology Laboratory. Larry Windingland is Chief,
CEERD-CF-E, and L. Michael Golish is Chief, CEERD-CF. The associated
Technical Director was Gary Schanche. The Acting Director of CERL is Dr. Alan
W. Moore.
CERL is an element of the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Cen-
ter (ERDC), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Commander and Executive Di-
rector of ERDC is COL John Morris III, EN and the Director of ERDC is Dr.
James R. Houston.
DISCLAIMER
The contents of this report are not to be used for advertising, publication, or promotional purposes. Citation of trade names
does not constitute an official endorsement or approval of the use of such commercial products. All product names and
trademarks cited are the property of their respective owners.
The findings of this report are not to be construed as an official Department of the Army position unless so designated by
other authorized documents.
DESTROY THIS REPORT WHEN IT IS NO LONGER NEEDED. DO NOT RETURN IT TO THE ORIGINATOR.
ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
Contents
Foreword 2
List of Figures and Tables 6
1 Introduction 7
Background 7
Objective 8
Approach 8
Mode of Technology Transfer 9
2 Compressed Air System Overview 10

Cost of Compressed Air 10
Cost of Air Leaks 10
CA System Parameters 11
Air Basics Translations 13
Compressor Selection Criteria 13
General Guidelines—First Cost 14
General Guidelines—Cooling 15
Regulation/Controls Applications 15
Regulation Basics 16
System Location and Arrangement 16
Environmental Factors 17
Ventilation 18
Conditions 18
Basics for Compressor System Components 18
Moisture Content 19
Typical" Real World System 20
3 Compressor Types 22
Introduction 22
Positive Displacement Compressors 22
Dynamic Compressors 25
4 Compressor Efficiency 27
Single vs. Multiple Stages 27
Single- vs. Double-Acting Reciprocating Compressors 27
Rotary Positive Displacement Compressors 27
ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
Centrifugal Compressors 28
Lubricant-Free Compressors 28
Prime Movers 28
5 Compressor Controls 29
Automatic Start-Stop 29
Continuous Run—Step 29
Continuous Run—Modulating 29
Throttled Inlet 30
Variable Displacement 30
Variable Speed Drive 30
6 Compressed Air Dryers 31

Deliquescent Air Dryers 31
Desiccant Air Dryers 31
Internal Heat Reactivated 32
Heatless or Pressure Swing 32
Purge Control System 32
Other Desiccant Drying Systems 33
Refrigerated Air Dryers 33
7 Compressed Air Line Filters 34

Cyclonic Separators 34
Particulate Filtration 34
Coalescing Filters 35
Absorption Filters 35
Adsorption Filters 35
8 Automatic Condensate Traps 36

Internal Pilot-Actuated Diaphragm Valves 36
Floating Seal Valves 37
Motorized Ball Drain Valves 37
9 Compressed Air Condensate Separators 38

Gravity Separators with Carbon After Filters 38
Gravity Pre-Separation with Coalescing Filters and "Carbon After Filters" 38
Membrane Separation (Ultrafiltration) 39
Membrane Separation (Nanofiltration) 39
Distillation Type 39
10 Compressed Air Distribution System 40

Centralized 40
Departmental 41
Suction Pipe 41
ERDC/CERL TR-01-65
Pipe Strain 41
Air Receiver 41
Drip/Drop Legs 42
Pressure Drop 42
11 Determining Compressed Air Requirements 44

Anticipating Future Requirements 44
CA Receiver 45
12 Compressed Air System Audit 46

Level of Air Treatment 47
Leaks 47
Pressure Levels 47
Controls 48
Heat Recovery 48
Distribution System 48
Load Profile 48
End-Use Equipment 48
Compressor Package 49
Filters 49
Aftercooler 49
Expansion/Economy 49
Air Receiver/Storage 50
More Comprehensive Evaluations 50
13 Compressed Air System Optimization 51

Design 51
Supply Management 51
Demand Side Management 52
Waste Management 52
Heat Recovery 53
References 54
Glossary 66
Appendix A: Compressed Air System Survey at Picatinny Arsenal 71
Appendix B: Compressed Air System Survey at Watervliet Arsenal 88
CERL Distribution 107
Report Documentation Page 108

ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
List of Figures and Tables
Figures
1 Ideal components layout 19

2 Reciprocating air compressors 23
3 Rotary screw air compressors 24
4 Rotary sliding vane 24
5 Rotary blower 26
6 Centrifugal air compressor 26
7 Centrifugal impeller 26
A1 Potential savings due to reductions in air leaks and the level of production
air supplied during nonproduction periods 72
A2 Picatinny CA flow and pressure 76
B1 Main air system operating costs 90
Tables
A1 Load profiles and power usage assessments for main compressed air
systems at Picatinny Arsenal 76
A2 Costs associated with tube / nozzle change to alter blowoff configuration 87
B1 Surveyed air compressor performance characteristics 92
B2 Estimated air compressor performance characteristics 92
B3 Estimated energy costs — current and proposed systems (all shifts) 93
B4 Energy cost summary 94
B5 Key performance characteristics by compressor type 98
B6 Costs and savings associated with implementing a leak management
program 105
ERDC/CERL TR-01-65
1 Introduction
Background
Compressed air (CA) is commonly used as a source of power for tools, industrial
processes, and equipment. Users often consider CA as a "fourth utility"—after
electricity, gas, and water. Most frequent use of CA include shop air, pneumatic
control systems, instrument and spray air, factory lab systems, outdoor and
pneumatic transport of materials, and breathing air. In most industrial plants
and shops, CA is centrally generated and distributed to all users through a pipe
network.
Although CA is a very convenient power source, CA systems are not cheap to op-
erate. The annual cost of electricity needed to run the air compressor can ap-
proach (and even exceed) the initial cost of the compressor itself. A large part of
these high energy costs can be attributed to recoverable losses. For example,
about 20 percent of the power input to the compressor is rejected as heat. Cool-
ing of the air compressor represents 5 percent of generation costs. Air leaks are
often the largest waste of energy associated with CA usage, sometimes totaling
30 percent of the total compressor output. Other costs (yearly maintenance
charges, labor, and materials) must be added to energy costs to arrive at the true
cost of CA. An analysis of the cost breakdown of a CA system shows that as little
as 10 percent of the input power supplied to the compressor is delivered as CA to
the system. This means that, at an average electricity cost of 5 cents/KWh, the
equivalent cost of CA to the "end-of-pipe" user is approximately 50 cents/KWh.
In fact, such high costs are the result of poor (or poorly planned) system man-
agement. A properly managed CA system can save energy, decrease downtime,
reduce maintenance, increase productivity, and improve the quality of service
the system can deliver. With proper management, nearly all industrial plants
can realize 25 to 40 percent savings on the power costs for the CA system with-
ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
out additional capital expenditures. The key to achieving such savings lies in
education (understanding the CA system), and proper operation and mainte-
nance. This work was undertaken to provide basic guidelines that both explain
CA system operation and methods to improve system efficiency.
Objective
This objective of this work was to create an applications guide for CA system op-
eration and maintenance that would explain the basics of industrial compressed
air systems, with an emphasis on the various terms and considerations for more
efficient system operation.
Approach
1. A literature search was done to gather current, complete information on com-
pressed air systems. The information is categorized in this report as follows:
a. Chapter 2 gives a general overview of compressed air systems.
b. Chapters 3 and 4 describe compressor types and efficiencies.
c. Chapter 5 describes typical compressor controls.
d. Chapters 6 through 10 describe system components including dryers, line
filters, condensate traps, oil/water separators and distribution piping are
shown with their functions specified.
e. Chapters 11 through 13 summarize how to determine the amount of com-
pressed air required and how to conduct system audit and optimization
are then provided, followed by a comprehensive list of references and
glossary of terminology.
2. Compressed air system surveys were conducted at Picatinny Arsenal, NJ (sum-
marized in Appendix A to this report), and Watervliet Arsenal, NY (summarized
in Appendix B).
Henry L. Kemp, Jr., Strategic Air Concepts, http://www.strait-air.com/index.html (qualified instructor for the Com-
pressed Air Challenge program).
ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
Mode of Technology Transfer
This guidebook will be furnished to the AMC base and headquarters personnel in
charge of compressed air system operations, and will also be published via the
World Wide Web at URL:
http://www.cecer.armv.mil/
10 ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
2 Compressed Air System Overview
Cost of Compressed Air
As a good approximation, typical compressor produces:
4 cubic foot per minute (CFM) per 1 motor hp (horsepower)

where:
1 hp = 0.746/0.9 = 0.829kW
Therefore:
1 CFM = 0.207kW
and, at $0.05/kW-hr:
1 CFM = $0.0104/hr
Thus, 10 CFM over 8000 hours per year costs:
1x8000x0.0104 = $83.20.
Cost of Air Leaks
Air leak represents one of the major costs of compressed air. Establishing a pro-
active leak detection and repair program is essential to reduce leaks to less than
10 percent of compressor output. Calculations for standard plant air system
generally assume:
• 8000 hrs per year operation
• Electrical costs = $0.05/kWhr,
• Plant line pressure = 100 PSIG,
therefore, the total cost assuming that one (1) 1/8-in. air leak = 26 CFM
would be:
26 x 8000 x $0.0104/hr = $2163
ERDC/CERL TR-01-65 11
• A typical plant can have air leaks equals to 20 percent of total air usage.
• Air leak can be calculated as follows:
Leakage (CFM free air) = V x (P, -P2) /1 x 14.7 x 1.25 Eq 1
where:
V = the system volume in cubic feet
Pi = the operating pressure in psig
P2 = the pressure after time t (in minutes) and should be a point equals to about
one-half the operating pressure PI
The 1.25 multiplier corrects leakage to normal operating pressure, allowing for
reduced leakage with falling pressure.
CA System Parameters
Three main parameters need to be considered in the compressed air system:

1. Pressure
2. Capacity
3. Horsepower.
Pressure (psi, or pounds per square inch):
Description
System pressure depends on user requirements, controls, and safety valves.
An unregulated compressor will keep increasing pressure until a failure occurs.
When plant capacity demand exceeds system capacity (CFM), compressor dis-
charge pressure will drop.
The Pressure - Capacity relationship is expressed as:
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 Eq 2
where^
Pl= Initial pressure
Vl= Initial capacity
P2= Final pressure
V2= Final capacity.
If a system needs more capacity (CFM) than available, plant pressure drops in
an unsuccessful trade of pressure for capacity.
J2 ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
The Cost of Pressure
A good "rule of thumb" in calculating the cost of pressure is:
Each pound (psi) of system pressure = 0.5 percent of system horsepower Eq 3
For example, one might calculate pressure cost as follows:
Assume that a 100-hp compressor is set to discharge at 125 psig to the

plant system, and that the plant system only requires 110 psig. If the user
resets the compressor discharge pressure to 110 psig (a 15 psi reduction),
then the excess consumption can be calculated as:
15 psi x 0.5% = 7.5% of hp = 7.5 hp
and savings can be calculated as
7.5 x 0.746/.85 = 6.6kW x 8000 hrs x $0.05/kWhr = $2633 (savings per year)
Capacity (Flow, in CFM)
Description
Most capacity measurements are referred back to inlet conditions. Capacity var-
ies only slightly with a change in discharge pressure, for a given compressor
model
Capacity Measurement:
In the pneumatics industry, all capacities are measured in reference to inlet con-
ditions. It is important for users to require vendors to define which unit of
measurement they use, and where (under what conditions) since various formu-
lae are used to define capacity (CFM):
• SCFM (standard)
• ACFM (actual)
• ICFM (inlet)
• FAD (free air delivery).
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the Compressed Air and
Gas Institute- Europe Committee of Compressors, Vacuum Pumps & Pneumatic
Tools (CAGI-PNEUROP) have generally accepted testing standards.
ERDC/CERLTR-01-65 13
Tolerances
Capacity tolerances may vary from vendor to vendor. Users should request the
vendor to define its unit(s) of tolerance.
Horsepower
Typically, electric motor nameplate displays a horsepower (hp) number. For

natural gas-driven engine, the nameplate will generally also display the
MCHP(Max Continuous hp), that is, the work it takes to compress "X" CFM up
to "Y" psi. Motor driver hp is usually fixed. If either CFM or psi is increased,
the driver may overload, unless regulation, a speed reduction, or a change in ei-
ther CFM or psi takes place. Horsepower tolerances may vary from vendor to
vendor. The user should request a definition of horsepower tolerances from the
vendor.
Air Basics Translations
Capacity (CFM) does the work. Pressure affects the rate at which the work is
done. A trending decrease in plant air pressure typically indicates a require-
ment for more capacity (CFM), not for more pressure. Increasing or decreasing
the existing compressor discharge pressure will normally have negligible effect
on the compressor capacity.
Compressor Selection Criteria
In selecting a compressor, the user should consider the following criteria:

• first cost
• efficiency
• controls
• maintenance
• cooling
• air quality
• durability.
General Guidelines—First Cost
Single-Stage Rotary Screw
Single-stage, rotary screw compressors have the following characteristics:

• typically, the lowest first cost
• greatest market growth, largest population
• typically, the lowest efficiency.
Possible alternatives to single-stage, rotary screw compressors are:

• two-stage rotary screw
• oil free rotary screw (depending on air quality requirements)
• centrifugal (depending on air quality requirements).
Centrifugal Compressors
The advantages of centrifugal compressors are that:

• They are only the real option over 600 hp.
• They can maintain high air quality (0 ppm oil carryover).
• They operate at moderate to high efficiency.
• They have a longer design life than rotary-screw compressors.
The disadvantages of centrifugal compressors are that:

• They have a higher initial cost than rotary-screw compressors.
• They are fluid cooled only.
• They operate at constant speed with limited range of flow (and are unstable
beyond this range).
Reciprocating or Rotary Screw Designs
Reciprocating or rotary screw designs are distinguished by the following charac-

teristics:
• constant CFM; variable pressure
• adaptable to variable speed drive
• variable speed and unloading provide close alignment with system demand.
Rotary Screw (Oil Flooded- Single Stage)
Oil Flooded Rotary Screws are the "design of choice" for natural gas engine
driven air compressors (NGEDAC's). Their advantages are that:
• They have a low first cost.
• They have low maintenance costs.
• They have a simple packaged design.

• The are adaptable to variable speed drives.
The disadvantages of oil flooded rotary screws are that:

• They operate at somewhat lower efficiency than other types.
• They show only moderate durability, 10 to 15 years operating life on average.
Rotary Screw (Oil Free)
The advantages of oil free rotary screw compressors are that:

• They can maintain high air quality«) PPM oil carryover).
• The operate at moderate efficiency.
• They have a packaged design.
The disadvantages of oil free rotary screw compressors are that:

• They have a higher initial cost.
• They have higher maintenance cost than other types.
• The maintenance requirements may not fall within the capabilities of on site
maintenance personnel.
• (Consequently), they may require contract maintenance.
General Guidelines—Cooling
In general, users should consider the following cooling characteristics when con-
sidering specifying compressor designs:
• Fluid-air cooled designs are less expensive.
• Most designs have fluid or fluid-air cooled design options available.
• Closed evaporative cooling towers, open towers, and external fluid-to-air cool-
ers are also viable cooling options.
Regulation/Controls Applications
Users should consider the following typical characteristics when considering (or
specifying) system regulation or controls:
• Average number of compressors = 2.5 per facility.
• A typical system has manual controls.
• Each incremental 1PSIG of unnecessary pressure cost 0.5 percent of com-
pressor horsepower.
• Each electric motor driven compressor running unloaded = 35 to 50 percent
of the full loaded electrical costs.
16 ERDC/CERL TR-01-65
Regulation Basics
General considerations with regard to compressed air system regulation are:

• Do not run compressors unnecessarily.
• Evaluate current regulation parameters.
• Consider upgrading substandard controls.
• The most efficient operating point is 100 percent full load.
System Location and Arrangement
Outdoors
Some advantages of locating compressed air systems outdoors are that the sys-
tem would:
• require zero floor space
• impose zero heat load.
Some disadvantages of locating compressed air systems outdoors are that the
system might:
• be exposed to potential weather damage (freezing, water, etc.)
• potentially lack proper maintenance (i.e., the system would be "out of sight,
out of mind").
Indoors, Centralized
Some advantages of placing compressed air systems in an indoor, centralized lo-

cation are that the system would:
• be protected from elements
• potentially be easier to access.
Some disadvantages of placing compressed air systems in an indoor, centralized

location are that the system would:
• occupy the greatest floor space
• potentially require long piping runs.
Indoors, Decentralized
Some advantages of placing compressed air systems in an indoor, decentralized

location are that:
• It would be possible to install the system closest to large air users.
• The system could be designed to allow the least amount of pressure drop
through air lines.
Some disadvantages of placing compressed air systems in an indoor, decentral-

ized location are that:
• Such a location yields the highest probability of incorrect regulation.
• The decentralized location carries the greatest potential to spread noise and
heat, cause complaints to broadest number of employees.
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors to consider are:

• temperature
• ventilation
• conditions.
Temperature—Low
At temperatures below 35 °F, possible problems are:

• possible control freeze problem
• possible condensate freeze problem
• possible fluid misapplication.
Recommended solutions to low temperature-related problems are:

• install heaters
• install heat tracing key elements
• relocate the compressor.
Temperature—High
At temperatures above 100 °F, possible problems are:

• unit shutdown
• increased engine maintenance
• decreased lubricant life.
Recommended solutions to high temperature-related problems are:

• Improve ventilation/relocate.
• Use higher performance lubricant.
• Specify a more suitable equipment design.
Ventilation
Consequences of insufficient ventilation can be:

• possible unit shutdown
• increased maintenance
• possible decreased lubricant life.
To meet ventilation (cooling) requirements, the user must specify equipment

that is either:
• air-cooled
• water-cooled.
Conditions
Surrounding air quality, noise level, ambient temperature, etc. are all primary
concerns.
Basics for Compressor System Components
Design Criteria
The user must consider the following criteria before specifying an air compressor
system:
• air quality required by user
- moisture content
- oil carryover
contaminants
• pressure drop
• demand characteristics
• energy profile.
Ideal Components for a Compressed Air System
An ideal compressed air system should contain the following elements (Figure 1):
compressor
aftercooler
wet receiver
pre-filter
dryer
after filter
dry receiver
"Dry"
■3 i 1
After-Cooler Pre- Receiver
filter
fl mam _-_ H_
Compressor I
p1 1
»—pj2 P"™!?
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'^^fLjA
Dryer -j^
1
■■■gg^i i
9r
L23M
ULI | After-
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Figure 1. Ideal components layout.
The last two items in this list deserve explanation.
After Filter (Recommended)
The purpose of an after-filter is to reduce oil carryover. The benefit of this is de-
rived from improved air quality, and improved product quality. One ready ex-
ample of an application that would require this instrument would be a painting
process.
Dry Receiver (Recommended)
The purpose of a dry receiver is to provide a reservoir of clean dry air to meet
fluctuating system demands. The benefit of this item is that, when sized and
installed correctly, a dry receiver can minimize airline pressure fluctuations.
This also prevents short term capacity requirements from overloading cleanup
equipment.
Moisture Content
The term "pressure dew point" refers to the temperature at which water vapor
condenses into liquid in a compressed airline. A good "rule of thumb" is to select
a dew point 10 to 20 °F below the lowest temperature the compressed airlines
will be subjected to. Note that this rule of thumb applies only to general indus-
trial applications. Specific applications may have specific dew point require-
ments (i.e., paint booths, electronic instruments, etc.).
Typical" Real World System
Description
A "typical real-world" compressed air system is assumed here to be a 1000 CFM

system with:
• lowest plant ambient temperature of 60 °F
• sensitivity to lubricant
• fairly steady plant demand.
Pressure Drop
Users should bear in mind that:

• Pressure drop is the cost of air quality.
• Every air clean up device will use 2 to 10 psi to perform its function.
• Air dryers typically caused 3 to 5 psi pressure drop.
• Air filters typically resulted in 2 to 10 psi pressure drop (dependent on how
long the element has been in place).
• Each pound of pressure drop equals to 0.5 percent total energy cost and addi-
tional filters may become needlessly expensive.
Demand Characteristics
In a typical system, receiver size and placement will vary depending on plant
demand cycle and receiver size. Also, it is possible to supply a new intermittent
large air user with a properly sized and installed receiver tank.
Oil Content Requirements
Whether the oil is removed at the compressor, or at the point of use, should be
determined by overall plant requirements. Users should note that, although
some equipment may benefit from (or even require) lubricant in compressed air,
many other applications (paint booths, instrumentation) cannot tolerate it.
Typical Compressor Oil Carryover Values:
Reciprocating Compressors
- Lubricated: 50 to 100 PPM
- Nonlubricated: 0 PPM
Rotary Compressors
- Oil Flooded: 3 to 10 PPM
- Oil Free: OPPM
- OPPM
3 Compressor Types
Introduction
Compressors may be divided into two main types: positive displacement and dy-
namic compressor. Positive displacement compressors are the reciprocating, ro-
tary screw, rotary sliding vane, liquid ring, and rotary blower. Dynamic com-
pressors include centrifugal and axial types. The positive displacement
compressor draws air into an enclosed space where it is compressed into a
smaller space. A dynamic compressor draws air in and accelerates it to a higher
velocity. The accelerated air then enters the compressed air system where it is
slowed down. When the air velocity decreases, the pressure rises.
Positive Displacement Compressors
Reciprocating
A reciprocating air compressor functions much like a standard automobile en-

gine (Figure 2). A piston is driven inside a cylinder by a crankshaft. As the pis-
ton is drawn towards the crankshaft, an intake valve opens in the cylinder head.
The cylinder fills with air until the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder. As
the piston then begins to travel away from the crankshaft, the intake valve
closes. As the piston is driven away from the crankshaft, the air inside the en-
gine is compressed. When the compressed air reaches a high enough pressure, it
opens an exhaust valve in the cylinder head and pushes compressed air into the
compressed air system. A single acting reciprocating air compressor uses valves
on only one end of the cylinder, compressing in only one direction. To increase
efficiency, two cylinders may be operated with the same piston by placing an in-
take and exhaust valve at either end of the cylinder. With this arrangement, the
piston compresses air in each direction. This is called a double acting reciprocat-
ing air compressor. The power to compress the air comes from an electric motor,
an engine, or some other device that turns the crankshaft to drive the piston in
the cylinder.
Compressed Air Output

tL_r
Rir Being
Control Vabes Piston
< Compressed
I
fiir Input Cylinder
ß
Figure 2. Reciprocating air compressors.
Rotary Screw
Rotary screw air compressors come in two drive configurations for the same basic
design. The basic design is two rotors (one male and one female) meshed to-
gether and turning in opposite directions (Figure 3). One end of the rotors is ex-
posed to the intake air, and the other is exposed to the compressed air system.
The compression process begins with air filling the channels of the female rotor.
The air fills the channels all the way around the rotor until the male rotor seals
the channel. As the rotors turn, the air is driven into the compressed air system
by the action of the male and female rotors pushing the air along the channel.
One form of drive is with timing gears. The rotors are set within very close tol-
erance, and they do not touch. With this configuration, there is no need for oil
within the system. Another form of drive is to have one rotor turn the other.
This system requires oil to decrease wear and aid in cooling. Power is provided
to the system by either driving the timing gear, or by driving the driven rotor.
Rotary Sliding Vane
Rotary vane air compressors are simple, self-lubricating, long-life units. The ro-
tor is a cylindrical shaft with slots cut into it from the surface of the shaft to-
wards the center of the rotor (Figure 4). Free-floating vanes rest in the slots,
and are pushed out by centrifugal force. The vanes are pushed against the stator
as the rotor turns creating a seal. The inner diameter of the stator is larger than
the outer diameter of the rotor, and the rotor is offset within the stator. As the
rotor turns, the vanes slide in as the air is compressed, and slide out as they
draw in more air. The vanes are self-lubricating, and the oil on the surface of
the stator leads to negligible wear of the vane tips.
Figure 3. Rotary screw air compressors.
Figure 4. Rotary sliding vane.

Liquid Ring
The liquid ring compressor operates much as the sliding vane compressor. How-
ever, in the liquid ring compressor the vanes, do not touch the wall of the stator.
Instead, liquid (usually water) fills much of the stator to create a seal. As the
rotor turns, the water is thrown against the stator walls by centrifugal force. Air
cannot escape past the vanes due to the water, and the air is compressed. The
air is compressed as the rotor spins because the rotor is offset in the stator. This
allows larger air volumes on one side of the rotor than the other with the liquid
acting as a piston to compress the air. The intake and exhaust air ports are lo-
cated in the shaft of the rotor. The water in this system fulfills two responsibili-
ties. The first is to seal the compression chambers, and the second is to provide
cooling for the compressor. Power is provided to this system by spinning the ro-
tor much like the rotary vane. This is also the simplest system because the rotor
is the only moving part.
Rotary Blower
The rotary blower is a low-pressure compressor that does not operate in exactly
the same manner as the other positive displacement compressors. The other
positive displacement compressors compress the air before it is pushed into the
compressed air system. The rotary blower does not compress the air before it
adds it to the system, but rather lets the added air do the compressing as it en-
ters the system. The Rotary Blower operates much like the rotary screw. How-
ever, the rotary blower does not use the male and female screw assembly. In-
stead, there are two "figure-8" shaped rotors that turn in opposite directions
(Figure 5). On one side of the rotors is the intake air, and on the other side is the
compressed air. The rotors seal off a preset volume of air against the rotor hous-
ing, and push it through to the compressed air side. These systems rarely exceed
15 psig, and multiple blowers must be run in series to reach higher pressures.
Dynamic Compressors
Centrifugal
The centrifugal air compressor is a dynamic compressor that operates by impart-

ing kinetic energy to the air. When the air enters the system, it is slowed down,
and the kinetic energy is turned into pressure. A centrifugal air compressor acts
by spinning a fan with an intake in the middle of the fan (Figure 6). As the fan
spins, the air is thrown to the outside of the fan housing, and exits the compres-
sor via the exhaust port.
Compressed Air Output

-3»- Reservoir
D iff users
Air Input
B laded Uheel
Figure 5. Rotary blower. Figure 6. Centrifugal air compressor.
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Figure 7. Centrifugal impeller.
Axial
The axial compressor is a dynamic compressor with a tapered turbine (Figure 7)

that compresses the air through a series of rotating blades and stators. The ro-
tating blades are affixed to a rotating shaft, and the stators are affixed to the ta-
pered housing. As the shaft spins, the blades throw air into the turbine. As the
air goes through the turbine, the stators slow it down to increase the pressure
along with the taper.
4 Compressor Efficiency
Inherent differences between air compressor types affect their efficiencies. The
difference may have to do with the set up of the machine, and/or the cycle used to
compress the air. Following are simple considerations on compressor efficien-
cies.
Single vs. Multiple Stages
Multiple stage units are theoretically more efficient. They can cool down the air
between stages reducing the work required to compress the air. However, single
stage units are cheaper to buy.
Single- vs. Double-Acting Reciprocating Compressors
Single-acting reciprocating compressors are cheap and light. They are generally
used in applications with smaller power requirements, and are usually air-
cooled. Due to their small size, they do not require substantial base pad sizes.
The downside of these compressors is their low efficiency.
Double-acting reciprocating compressors are the most efficient in the business.

They are usually used in applications with higher power requirements, and are
usually water-cooled. However, these compressors are quite heavy, and require
substantial base pads. They are also more expensive to purchase than single-
acting reciprocating compressors, and also cost more to install and maintain.
Rotary Positive Displacement Compressors
Rotary positive displacement compressors are smaller and quieter than recipro-
cating compressors. They also have smaller footprints than equal size recipro-
cating models, and may be installed directly on the factory floor. They also do
not produce the pulsations typically found in reciprocating compressors due to
continuous flow. Two-stage rotary compressors are more efficient than single-
stage reciprocating, but not as efficient as two-stage, double-acting reciprocating
units, or three-stage centrifugal. Another drawback of rotary units is that their

efficiency quickly decreases at part load.
Centrifugal compressors are usually used in high load applications. As size (and
number of stages) increases, so does efficiency. In fact, the efficiency of large
centrifugal compressors can approach that of two-stage, double-acting reciprocat-
ing compressors. One major benefit of centrifugal compressors is their smaller
size. Since they operate at high speeds, the internal parts do not need to be as
large. This creates a smaller overall package. Centrifugal compressors are best
used for constant load conditions where other compressors may pick up the ex-
cess.
Lubricant-Free Compressors
These compressors are less efficient than compressors that use lubricant. How-
ever, they may be more efficient in that no oil will enter the system from the
compressor. They can also help meet environmental restrictions by reducing the
amount of lubricant that is evaporated into the compressed air system. Cen-
trifugal compressors are naturally oil-free.
Prime Movers
Electric motors are the most common prime movers for all types of air compres-
sors. Federal requirements have been increasing the minimum efficiency re-
quirements for these motors, and they now routinely have efficiencies between
85 and 95 percent. However, as the efficiency is increased, the starting torque is
decreased. Also, the operating speed of the motor must increase. Other common
prime movers are diesel engines and natural gas engines. The benefit of engine
driven air compressors is their higher efficiency when throttled for part load ap-
plications.
5 Compressor Controls
Compressed air systems controls must efficiently provide sufficient compressed
air to satisfy demands. In doing so, the controls must not over pressurize the
system, and they must turn off unneeded compressors until they are required
again. There are a variety of pressure controls that will provide this service:
automatic start-stop, continuous run (step or modulating), throttled inlet, vari-
able displacement, and variable speed.
Automatic Start-Stop
This is the most efficient manner of operating an air compressor. Air compres-
sors are most efficient at full load, or off. The cycling of the compressor drive
from full load to off will only consume energy in the most efficient manner until
sufficient pressure has built up within the system. The drawback to start-stop
operation is that many AC motors can only handle a certain amount of starts in
a given timeframe before they will overheat.
Continuous Run—Step
This system uses two or more steps to vary the output of the compressor. The
full open step is for 100 percent power. The full stop step is when the inlet is
fully closed and the compressor is at idle. Any number of steps may exist in be-
tween, depending only on the complexity of the controller. The full open step
and the idle step are the two most efficient levels for running operation of the
compressor. This system's major drawback is that there must be adequate stor-
age or the compressor will wear itself down with frequent starting and stopping.
Continuous Run—Modulating
Modulating the compressor to deliver the exact volume of air required delivers a
stable air supply pressure, efficient operation, and quick response. The air sup-
ply is held at a relatively stable pressure due to the quick response of the modu-
lating controller. The compressor runs more efficiently at higher demand pres-
sures than other systems because it never has to provide greater pressure to the
system to "store up and turn off" as the other systems do. It merely provides the
required air pressure, which is more efficient (increasing air pressure decreases
efficiency). Since the controller has direct feedback from the system, it can
quickly modulate output to air demand.
Throttled Inlet
In a "throttled inlet" system, when system pressure goes up due to a decrease in

required air, a signal is sent to a valve in the compressor intake line to close.
This throttles the intake air, decreasing the amount of compressed air entering
the system. The advantage of such a system is that there is almost no cycling
effect on any of the components. This decreases component wear and provides a
constant system pressure. Also, the compressor does not have to "work extra
hard" to build up supply so that it may shut off. This means that it does not
have to run at higher than required pressures. This allows it to run at higher
efficiency with less wear. This system is, however, less efficient at lower demand
loads.
Variable Displacement
Variable displacement controls are primarily found in lubricated rotary screw

compressors. Decreasing the effective length of the rotor compression volume
makes the adjustment in airflow. The benefit from this system is that the inlet
pressure remains the same since the decrease in airflow is controlled within the
compressor. This means that the compressor does not have to work any harder
to pull the air in, in addition to less work being required during compression be-
cause some of the air is left out of the process. The only drawback is that the
venting options may add inherent inefficiencies that will show up at higher de-
mand loads.
Variable Speed Drive
This is a very attractive control for varying load compressors. The power versus
capacity curve shows that, from around 50 percent on up, the percent of max
power drawn is close to an equal percent of max output. However, variable
speed drives on electric motors require extra electrical hardware that will de-
crease efficiency of the motor. For these systems, natural gas engine-driven air
compressor are more efficient than electrical motor driven air compressors due to
greater energy efficiency of engines at lower output demands.
6 Compressed Air Dryers

Compressed air systems and tools operate much longer with properly dried air.
Water in the lines washes away lubricant, fouls measuring devices, corrodes
measuring devices, and fouls tools and equipment. The water comes from the air
entering the compressor. Normal atmospheric air contains varying amounts of
water vapor. When air is compressed, there is a temperature rise. This keeps
the water vapor from condensing within the compressor. However, when the air
goes through the aftercooler, condensation forms and must be removed. The air
that leaves the aftercooler is now saturated with water vapor for the tempera-
ture at which it leaves. This water vapor must be removed before the air is used.
The degree to which this air must be dried depends upon its ultimate use. The
measure of the dryness is determined by the designed dew point of the air. The
dew point is the temperature at which the vapor in the air condenses. Different
driers are available to achieve these different dew points: Deliquescant, Desic-
cant, Internal Heat Reactivated, Heatless or Pressure Swing, Purge Control Sys-
tem, and Refrigerated air dryers.
Deliquescent Air Dryers
In a deliquescent air dryers, the compressed air is filtered through a chemical,

which reacts with the water vapor in the air. The reaction (absorption) products
are a liquid that may then be drained off. These dryers can suppress the dew
point from 15 to 50 °F with appropriate bed level.
Desiccant Air Dryers
In desiccant air dryers, the compressed air is filtered through a chemical just as
with the Deliquescent systems. However, the desiccant chemical does not react
with the water vapor, but instead adsorbs it. Adsorption is a process of attract-
ing and containing on the surface of the absorbing material. The material may
then be removed and dried, or dried within the desiccant tower if supplied with
heat, so the desiccant can be reused. To keep the desiccant dryer constantly op-
erational, two towers may be employed. One tower may be used to dry the air
while the other tower is being regenerated with heat.
Internal Heat Reactivated
Internal heat reactivated systems are used to regenerate desiccant air dryers.
The upside is that the system handles drying itself with a controlled, internal
heater. The downside is the purge air draws 2 to 3 percent of the rated flow, or
an equal amount of alternate energy, to supply the purge air. Also, the system
has a high initial cost, the heaters have a high repair cost, and the desiccant ma-
terial has a short life, usually 1 to 2 years.
Heatless or Pressure Swing
Heatless or pressure swing systems are also used as desiccant air dryers. The
heat of adsorption is used along with compressed air straight from the compres-
sor to clean the water out of the desiccant material. The life of the desiccant in
this system ranges from 3 to 5 years. The drawback with this system is the large
amount of compressed air required (around 15 percent of rated flow). However,
this system does not require internal electric heating, which reduces initial and
repair costs.
Purge Control System
Purge controls are implemented to save energy on desiccant dryers. If the inlet
conditions change from those assumed, then the desiccant will not be fully satu-
rated when the automatic drying cycle begins. This wastes energy, and can be
controlled. By measuring when the desiccant is saturated, the desiccant may be
dried at optimal times. This decreases operating costs by not wasting purge air
(internal heat and heatless systems) and outside heat (internal heat activated).
The savings become even more noticeable with heatless systems where large
amounts of purge air are used.
The two common methods are to skip the drying cycle and continue drying with
the same tower, or to vary the purge flow. In the first instance, the dry cycle
may be skipped until the tower is saturated. However, the limiting factor is the
heat of adsorption process, which requires the dry cycle to start while there is
adequate heat. In the second case, a varying purge control allows the tower to
dry at the end of its cycle, but only the amount required (as automatically meas-
ured). The benefits of the varying cycle over the skip cycle are when the air de-
mand suddenly increases to full load. The varying cycle will easily keep up, but
the skip cycle will not catch up until the air demand decreases. This results in
the desiccant becoming supersaturated until the drying cycle has a chance to
catch up. The benefit of the skip cycle over the varying cycle is the decrease in
energy required and the low possibility of the supersaturated condition arising.
Other Desiccant Drying Systems
Several other methods may be used to dry desiccant materials:

1. An external blower may be used to force air over the desiccant. This will be more
costly than using a heatless system, but the operational savings may justify the
extra cost.
2. A small air stream may also be split from the operational tower supply. This air
is then heated and fed through the drying tower. After this air leaves the drying
tower, it is cooled to ambient temperature to release the purged water, and then
fed back into the operating tower. This system looses no purge air, but does re-
quire extra cost to set up initially.
3. External heating of the dried compressed air reduces the amount of air required
to clean the desiccant. However, the extra cost of heating and installation must
be factored into the cost assessment.
The heat present in the compressed air after it exits the compressor may also be
used to dry the towers. The air is vented from the compressor outlet before en-
tering the aftercooler. This air is vented through the drying tower and then
cooled to remove the moisture. The air is then mixed back with the air entering
the operating tower.
Refrigerated Air Dryers
Refrigerated air dryers are typically used after a moisture separator and after-
cooler. The air is then cooled within the air dryer, and the condensation is
drained off. The outgoing air then helps cool the incoming air to decrease the
load on the air dryer. The air is typically cooled below 40 °F, but above 32 °F to
prevent freezing within the system. Cycling refrigerated dryers, as well as re-
frigerant bypass valves, may be used to respond to system demands.
34
ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
7 Compressed Air Line Filters

Compressed air line filters are designed to remove oil, water, and solids that
make their way into the compressed air system. The water and water vapor
comes from the compression process. The solids that are present have either got-
ten past the compressor inlet filter, or have come from combustion of the com-
pressor oils, as the cylinder temperatures in the compressor can be quite high.
The oil can come in liquid or vapor form. The liquid form comes from condensa-
tion of oil vapors, as well as oil getting through the oil separator. The oil vapors
come from vaporization of the lubricating oils under the high heat of the com-
pression process.
Cyclonic Separators
Liquids may be removed from the CA system by mechanical impaction and cen-
trifugal force. The filter is designed so that incoming air will begin to spin inside
the separator chamber. The heavier droplets will impact the side of the cham-
ber, and fall to the bottom. The air then passes through a screen where the re-
maining droplets are combed from the air. Another popular system is to run the
air past baffles that knock the liquid out of suspension. The remaining air then
passes through a screen to scrub away the rest of the liquid. Separators are best
used before filters to reduce the demand and increase the life of the filter. Some
manufacturers offer combination separator/filters that have both systems con-
tained within one package. However, separators are unable to remove vapors;
this requires a filter to be used after the separator.
Paniculate Filtration
Particulate filters are used for dry contamination. They are placed in point of
use locations (i.e., in front of instruments, downstream of desiccant and deliques-
cent dryers that contribute particulate matter, and even in front of expensive
coalescing filters). These filters are rated for a certain size. The rating states
that any particle equal to or above the stated size will be stopped with 100 per-
cent certainty. This should be achieved with a high "dirt-load life," and a rea-
sonably low-pressure drop.
Coalescing Filters
Coalescing filters combine aerosols intolarger droplets within the filter. These
droplets eventually achieve sufficient size to fall out of the filter into the bottom
of the device for draining. An example of coalescing filters is glass fiber media.
This material is neither absorbent, nor adsorbent. It will retain its dry proper-
ties throughout its useful life, which may be compromised by oils and particulate
matter.
Absorption Filters
These filters actually absorb the liquids within their fibers. However, they do
not perform well when saturated, and must be refreshed. The filter media may
be composed of felt, cotton, wool, etc.
Adsorption Filters
Adsorption filters remove vapors from the compressed air. They do so by adsorp-
tion onto the surface of the filter media. A common media is activated carbon,
which will remove oil vapor, but not water vapor. The only downside to acti-
vated carbon filters is that there is no way of determining the remaining life of
the filter without accessing the air stream. The pressure drop will not change, so
the air itself must be tested to determine the shape of the filter.
8 Automatic Condensate Traps

These traps eliminate the condensation that collects within the CA piping sys-
tem, separators, aftercoolers, dryers, and receivers. This condensate must be
drained to prevent its backing up into the compressor, or continuing throughout
the piping system to the end use where filter, instrument, and tool damage may
occur. The major operational issues regarding these systems are how to effi-
ciently drain the condensate, and how to resist "gumming up" due to sludge
buildup. When installed, these valves must be periodically checked to ensure
correct operation. It is quite possible that a valve might stick open (which re-
sults in an audible and expensive problem), or stick close (which is silent, but a
potentially disastrous problem). The most commonly used valves are: internal
pilot actuated diaphragm, floating seal or guillotine, and electric motorized ball
drain valves. Most electric valves used today have an electric timer that opens
and closes them at specific intervals for designated amounts of time.
All these valves require regular maintenance and correctly set timers. Without
regular maintenance, a valve can fail open or closed, and cause considerable
damage or utility loss. Adjusting the electric timing for the operating conditions
encountered is very important. If the valve does not exhaust all the condensate
it receives, then the condensate may back up into the system and cause consid-
erable damage. If the valve is exhausting too much air, then there will be a con-
siderable increase in power consumption. Condensate valves are also available
with automatic detection to drain the valve only when sufficient condensation
has built up. Some valves are also designed so that there will be no excess air
exhausted after the condensate has left the system. These valves eliminate the
noise associated with such a process.
Internal Pilot-Actuated Diaphragm Valves
Internal pilot-actuated diaphragm valves (the cost of which ranges from about
$125 to $200) are the simplest and cheapest types of valves used today. They
have an internal valve that is operated by a solenoid. The valve opens to vent
condensation. These valves are fairly resistant to fouling, but will still fail due
to solenoid failure, faulty timer, bad diaphragm (valve), or because the vent hole
has become plugged with accumulated, semi-solid residue ("gunk") from the sys-
tem. A filter screen is recommended downstream.
Floating Seal Valves
Floating seal valves (the cost of which ranges from about $175 to $275) operate
by sliding across the opening of a tube to open or close it. They are self-lapping
and self-cleaning, but they usually have a much smaller orifice, which clogs more
easily. These style valves require a strainer downstream.
Motorized Ball Drain Valves
Motorized ball drain valves (the cost of which ranges from about $320 to $450)
use a ball valve that is operated by an electric motor. These valves are very re-
sistant to fouling, and their common cause of failure is with the timing mecha-
nism or electric motor.
9 Compressed Air Condensate Separators

Oil/Water separators can save condensate disposal fees as well as ensure legal
compliance. Whether your compressed air system is operated by an oil free com-
pressor or not, there is always a possibility of oil in the system. This oil, when
separated from the air, must be drained off. However, if the oil is drained off
with the water condensate, then the condensate must either be separated for
proper disposal of the oil and the water, or the water must be disposed of at a
much higher cost. Considering the large amount of condensate generated by a
large CA system, the cost of disposing of many 50-gal drums of oil/water conden-
sate can be quite high. If the oil is not separated, and the condensate is simply
dumped, then environmental fines may soon accrue. However, if the oil is sepa-
rated from the condensate, then the water may be dumped cheaply, and the
waste oil may be handled separately in the (much lesser) quantity generated.
Gravity Separators with Carbon After Filters
These filters operate a skimming technique to remove the hydrocarbons from the
water as it floats to the top of the chamber. However, this process will not re-
move any oil that is in suspension or solution, or that has a similar specific grav-
ity to that of water. The removal of the remaining oils will depend on a carbon
filter. The remaining condensate will be filtered through the activated carbon to
satisfactory conditions. The only disadvantage of the carbon filter is that it can-
not be tested for remaining life. Instead, the effluent will have to be tested for
conformance to determine the state of the filter. The activated carbon also has to
be replaced when used up, which will result in another disposal fee.
Gravity Pre-Separation with Coalescing Filters and "Carbon After

Filters"
Coalescing filters and "carbon after filters" operate in much the same manner as
gravity separators, except that they use a coalescing filter before the activated
carbon filter. This removes the larger particles from the condensate leaving just
the smaller particles for the activated carbon filter to manage. These type filters
manage unstable oil suspension and emulsion very well, but need excessive car-
bon filtering to deal with stable emulsions or suspensions.
Membrane Separation (Ultrafiltration)
This is an additional filter to be used with the above-mentioned systems. This

filter will remove everything but stable emulsions and polyglycols.
Membrane Separation (Nanofiltration)
This type of filter is used after a gravity system with surge dissipation, a circula-
tion pump, and coalescing filtration. This manner of filtration will meet or ex-
ceed all requirements presently in place throughout the United States. The
downside of these filtering devices is their relatively short life and the sensitivity
of the units.
Distillation Type
These separators do not require filters of any kind. The condensate is heated to
drive the water to a vapor state (this is done at a temperature lower than the
significant vapor points of the oils in the condensate). The water is then vented
off to the atmosphere, and the remaining solution is disposed of.
10 Compressed Air Distribution System

In general, distribution systems fall into two categories: centralized and de-
partmentalized. Many systems are composed of variations and/or combinations
of the two types. Within these main systems, certain components should be used
to ensure that the CA system operates efficiently and safely.
Centralized
All air compressors are located in a room or building with all air treatment
equipment. This allows the use of larger (more efficient) equipment, and limits
the need to route electricity and water to one location. The larger, more efficient
compressors that may be used usually require less maintenance. This feature
along with placement of all CA equipment in the same location help to decrease
maintenance costs. The central location also makes heat reclamation in these
systems easier and more efficient. Instead of retrieving heat from various CA
heat sources scattered throughout the complex, the heat may be pulled from one
central location with fewer and larger equipment used to recover the heat. Lar-
ger equipment usually offers higher efficiencies, so the net heat recovered will be
higher. Since the equipment is installed in one area, total installation costs are
reduced.
The downsides of this system result from the CA being produced in mass at one
location and one specified outlet condition. Such a system will require a larger
and more expensive piping system to accommodate the greater volume of com-
pressed air coming from one location. Friction within the extensive piping sys-
tem will also cause losses that will require the central system to run at higher
load for the required output. This means that, if the CA demand increases, the
pipes will have to be replaced with larger pipes to accommodate the higher de-
mand without increasing pressure loss. This radical solution is not a commonly
taken; it is more likely that the same pipes will be used and the efficiency of the
system will decrease. The end result of this practice will be strain on the central
system. Another area of trouble is with part load requirements. Where a de-
partmental system can be turned on and off, a central system will have to run at
a part load condition for large air uses such as sandblasting. This will require
the central system to run at low efficiency to supply the low demand. Finally, if
a higher CA demand is called for, another compressor will have to be added in
line to meet the requirement instead of raising the pressure of the main station,
which will be very inefficient.
Departmental
Departmental systems use multiple compressors where and when they are
needed. Hence, certain compressors may be shut off when they are not needed,
and varying air pressures may be supplied on demand with decreases in effi-
ciency at only the specified areas. In addition to varying air pressures on de-
mand, air quality may be varied from department to department. Without the
need for continuous piping throughout the complex, the piping will not have to
be as large. This will also decrease the pressure losses associated with long pipe
runs. With the systems in the locations for which they are designed, high effi-
ciency will result from the ability to nm full on with demand, or full off when not
required. If any department cannot handle its peak load requirement, then an-
other department can be patched in to aid in peak demand. Finally, plant ex-
pansion will be easy to accommodate with additions to the system.
Suction Pipe
Intake pipes for air compressors should never be smaller than the intake for the
compressor. Long runs should be avoided, and larger diameter piping should be
used just before the compressor intake. The large diameter piping will dampen
intake pulsations as well as act as a trap for condensate in the intake air.
Pipe Strain
All piping should be supported so that the compressor will not experience life-
shortening strain. Also, the aftercooler should be mounted as close to the exit of
the compressor as possible. This will decrease the pipe strain associated with
thermal expansion of the pipes. However, by-pass piping should be provided so
that the aftercooler may be isolated and worked on without shutting down the
CA system.
Air Receiver
The air receiver serves a number of purposes other than merely to store air. The
air exiting the compressor can set up pulsations that can damage the CA system.
i? ERDC/CERL TR-01-65
The air receiver serves to reduce the severity of these pulsations by slowing
down the air as it enters. This actions itself also aids in drying the air. As the
air is slowed down, condensation forms. This condensation can then be removed
decreasing the work required by the dryer downstream. For large, reciprocating
compressors, another pulsation controller should be added after the receiver
unit.
Drip/Drop Legs
Drip legs are merely extension of the piping system that catch any moisture that
condenses inside the pipe. They are especially useful for pipes that experience
lower temperatures than the dryers are designed for. The drip leg should come
off the piping system at the lowest local point. It should also be outfitted with a
blow-down valve at the bottom of the pipe. The drip leg should attach to the
main piping system at the bottom of the pipe. All piping in the CA system
should slope 1 in. for every 10 ft along the direction the air flows. This will aid in
the collection of condensation by the drip pipes. Drop legs supply air to locations
directly below a major CA pipe. They should come off the top of the main pipe so
that minimal condensation will enter the drop pipe, and the outlet valve should
be located on the side of the drop pipe so that any condensation that does make it
into the drop pipe will be contained below the outlet valve. A blow-down valve
should also be installed at the bottom of the drop pipe.
Pressure Drop
Pressure drop in a CA system can add substantially to the utility costs. As the
pressure drops in a CA system, the inlet pressure must be increased to deliver
the required pressure downstream. However, increasing pressure 2 psig can in-
crease power consumption 1 percent. This means that decreasing the pressure
drop within your CA system can save significantly on utility costs. Methods to
decrease pressure drop include: increasing the diameter of the CA piping; de-
creasing the friction coefficient of the pipe; decreasing the number of bends,
valves, couplings, and other fittings; and decreasing the length of the piping.
The increased piping diameter reduces the velocity of the flow, the decreased
frictional coefficient and decreased number of fittings decrease the friction en-
countered by the flow, and decreasing the length decreases the frictional surface
area encountered by the flow. Careful design and control of the CA system can
reduce pressure drop dramatically. This will save in utility costs.
The most efficient pipe setup is to run a loop system that will send compressed
air in either direction to the operational tool. The addition of receivers through-
out the system (positioned in areas of sporadic, heavy demand) will also help re-
duce pipe friction by effectively supplying air closer to the location of demand.
This decreases the distance the air must travel in large volumes at high-pressure
drops. Also, the air driven into the receiver is driven by a smaller pressure drop
(from compressor pressure to receiver pressure which is essentially the same).
This will result in a lower ultimate velocity of the make-up air, thus decreasing
the energy wasted on overcoming friction.
i4. ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
11 Determining Compressed Air

Requirements
Many considerations should be taken into account when deciding upon the sys-
tem best suited for the user's applications. Anticipated future growth, magni-
tude of constant demand and surge demand (and frequency and duration of
surges), repair and maintenance, and air quality.
To better understand how to determine CA requirements, it helps to understand

how to calculate the demand placed on the compressed air system in relation to
the system's capacity. If you start with a 100 cu ft tank of air at 0 psi, then add
100 cu ft of air at atmospheric pressure, the pressure in the tank will increase by
14.7 psi. This can be used to determine the amount of air consumed by your CA
system, as well as the amount of air supplied by your compressor. If you cut off
the supply to your system, then measure the amount of time it takes to drop the
pressure from one measured point to another, you can determine the draw of the
system using the equation:
capacity = (volume of receiver) x (change in pressure) /14.7 / (time in minutes) Eq 4
This can also be used to determine the supply from the compressor if the system
is shut off from the receiver. The safety factors you should be looking for are: 20
percent of supply goes to leaks and overcapacity, 30 percent oversize for water-
cooled compressors and 40 percent oversize for air-cooled. If the supply does not
retain these safety factors, then the compressor may be overloaded.
Anticipating Future Requirements
Future requirements should be considered when designing or retrofitting a CA

system. First, evaluate expected pressure losses from added hose, pipe, in-line
filtering, and regulators/disconnects. Then, anticipate load requirements for fu-
ture tool and machine addition from manufacturer specifications as well as air
cleaning capacity and receiver capacity requirements. Finally, examine the cur-
rent system to see if it may be designed to run economically with these future
requirements already implemented (to save retrofitting costs down the road).
CA Receiver
Size and placement of receivers should be taken into account. If future addition
are already known, then design current system receivers to handle the additions.
Also, a receiver cannot be too large, so size for present plus future demands if
possible. To size the receiver, use the equation:
Vr = (Vsx14.7)/AP Eq 5
where:
Vr = receiver volume, cu ft
Vs = usable stored free air vol, cu ft
AP = pressure drop in receiver, psig.
12 Compressed Air System Audit

An audit is a powerful tool that can help reduce energy consumption, increase
productivity, decrease labor, and decrease waste. Periodic audits should be per-
formed to evaluate the current operating conditions of compressed air systems.
The more often changes are done to the system, or the more often design changes
occur throughout your facility, the more often there will be the chance for ineffi-
ciency to increase. An auditor will be able to locate and reduce these inefficient
operations, and will bring alternate ideas that might not be immediately appar-
ent to the user. Bear in mind that even small plant changes can have significant
effects on CA system efficiency. Keeping abreast of the changes in the plant, and
monitoring air use can help uncover inefficiencies before they become expensive.
Also, alternate methods and other improvements will become more noticeable. A
CA system audit can help determine the actual cost of compressed air, and even
identify some opportunities to decrease waste/improve efficiency. Outside, inde-
pendent companies may be hired to perform an audit, but care should be taken
that they are not promoting any particular brand. Some utility companies may
even help fund an audit.
An audit should examine air production and air use. It should also investigate
the manner in which it goes from supply to each end use. The cost side of an au-
dit should measure the output of the system, and calculate the energy consumed
and annual cost. The final point of investigation is air leaks. All components of
a CA system should be investigated for significant air leaks, and each leak
should be labeled. The final report should then outline all leaks, inappropriate
uses, demand events, poor design, and system dynamics with a recommended
course of action.
The auditor should also address system issues. System issues involve the entire
system, not just individual parts. The issues most often addressed are:
• level of air treatment (and efficiency)
• leaks
• pressure levels
• controls
• heat recovery.
On the demand side, issues most often addressed are:

• distribution system
• load profile
• end-use equipment.
On the supply side, issues most often addressed are:

• compressor package
• filters
• aftercoolers
• dryers
• automatic drains
• air receivers
• storage.
On the supply side, the efficiency of the receiver package as well as the individ-
ual components of air treatment should be examined for efficiency, expected life,
type, and application.
Level of Air Treatment
The auditor should examine the current system and the end-uses of the air. The
air should then be tested and it should be determined whether or not the level of
treatment is correct. If it is not high enough, then corrective actions should be
taken. If the level of air is too high, then actions should again be taken if a sav-
ings in operational costs is evident. However, if there are multiple levels re-
quired, then consideration as to the appropriate output and subsequent treat-
ments before the end-use should be recommended.
Leaks
The auditor should identify all leaks in the system and identify the magnitude of
the leaks. The auditor should also recommend a management schedule to deal
with leak prevention.
Pressure Levels
The auditor should also specify a minimum pressure level for the system. The
pressure level should consider the minimum pressure allowable per critical ap-
plications within the system. However, if dedicated storage or differential reduc-

tion are a possibility for a high pressure application, then they should be noted
and investigated for possible overall system pressure reduction.
Controls
The auditor should examine the load profile of the system. Systems with widely
differing load profiles benefit most from more sophisticated controls. The auditor
should evaluate the existing controls to determine if an upgrade would be benefi-
cial. Air receivers should also be considered for controls modifications. However,
correct placement in the system is crucial, and may require other modifications.
Heat Recovery
The auditor should identify uses for recovered heat if there are no current sys-
tems for heat use.
Distribution System
The auditor should examine the condensate removal, pressure drop, and effi-
ciency of the piping system. Recommendations may be made on simple changes
that will have noticeable benefits.
Load Profile
The auditor should measure system flow over a period of time (usually 24 hours),
and take into consideration changes in demand over the course of the year.
End-Use Equipment
All equipment and processes that use compressed air will be evaluated. In some
cases, equipment that uses lower air pressure will be recommended. Also, local
storage and critical air applications will be examined. The auditor will not nec-
essarily recommend compressed air improvements, because there may be alter-
nate energy source tools that could fulfill the requirements (i.e., electric drills).
Compressor Package
The compressor will be evaluated on its operating condition and the suitability
for its application. The site will be evaluated on its access to cooling water, fresh
air, ventilation, etc. These factors along with estimated compressor efficiency
will be used for alternate system recommendations (if any). The auditor should
also give a general appraisal of the compressor.
Filters
The current filters will be examined for suitability and pressure drop. Higher
performance filters may be recommended, and a maintenance schedule should be
developed for the filters.
Aftercooler
The effectiveness of the entire cooling system (cooling, condensate separation,

separator efficiency, etc.) will be measured and evaluated. Alternatives and
modifications will be recommended.
Dryer
The auditor will evaluate the dryer according to end-use applications. In addi-
tion, the pressure drop, efficiency, and sizing should be measured and evaluated.
The auditor should make recommendations for modifications and replacement if
necessary.
Automatic Drains
Demand and supply side drains should be examined for location, application and
effectiveness. Alternatives should be recommended if necessary,
Expansion/Economy
What opportunities exist for expansion? How easy will it be to expand, and what
will the efficiency of the expanded system be? If the demand for compressed air
decreases, are there ways to economize the system?
Ü2 ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
Air Receiver/Storage
The effectiveness of the receiver tanks will be evaluated. Location and size
should be considered, as well as pipe layout. The drain trap should also be
evaluated to determine whether or not it is operating correctly. Other storage
solutions (or modifications or additions to the current system) should be investi-
gated, and recommendations should be made if necessary.
More Comprehensive Evaluations
If a system is found to be operating far off optimum values (i.e., efficiency, size,
reliability, etc.), then a more comprehensive audit should be done. This audit
should include measurements and analysis of the entire system including
changes due to varying demand. A financial evaluation may also be performed
to compare the present system to a recommended one.
13 Compressed Air System Optimization

The goal of system optimization is to achieve the lowest possible level of overall
cost per unit of product. System optimization comes from a variety of tasks:
supply management, waste management, demand side management, design,
heat recovery, and audits.
Design
First and foremost is the design of the system. The system must be designed
with the lowest pressure drop possible. (The pressure drop should be less than
10 percent from compressor to end-use.) This will allow a lower pressure to be
run throughout the system, which will decrease energy consumption. However,
care must be taken that pressure will not drop below minimum during periods of
high demand. In these cases, adequate air storage must be used. The system
must also be designed by compressor capacity, and not by compressor hp. When
designing the system, care should be taken to reduce the distance the air must
travel to its end-uses. The less distance air has to travel, the less energy loss
due to pipe friction. When the air actually arrives at the point-of-use, the air
must be able to exit freely to the tool. One major cause of leaks is poorly speci-
fied equipment. It is usually worthwhile to spend the extra money on an effi-
cient component with higher efficiency than on a cheap component that will con-
sume larger amounts of energy. This can be found in the supply side as
improperly specified filters (consider dirt load and standard P-drop), cheap regu-
lators, separators, and dryers, and on the demand side with high quality hoses,
regulators, and disconnects. Because all of these components will contribute to
energy consumption throughout the life of the system, higher efficiency items
will more than likely pay off. The final point of the system design is the actual
construction of the piping. The proper distribution design should be installed
depending upon the intended use of the compressed air.
Supply Management
Managing the compressed air at the source is crucial to increase efficiency.

Many facilities operate their compressed air systems higher than the minimal,
optimum pressure. If the system is operating at 100 psi, but the use require-
ments are only 80 psi, then substantial savings will result from lowering output
pressure. If any certain process in the plant requires higher than standard air,
then a higher-pressure compressor or a booster compressor may be in order.
Component maintenance is also necessary to keep the pressure drop across fil-
ters and separators as low as possible, as well as to decrease corrosion due to wa-
ter. The final point of the supply side is the air quality. If the quality of the air
being produced is higher than necessary, then too much energy is being ex-
pended on cleaning the air. Measures should be taken to ensure minimum air
quality, but not more.
Demand Side Management
Demand side management relies on design as stated above, but also requires
maintenance and periodic checks. The maintenance should cover all regulators,
connectors, and hoses. If any of these components leaks, then they should be re-
paired as quickly as possible. Also, if any of the hoses, connectors, or regulators
are damaged or restricted in any way, then measures should be taken to restore
them to proper operating capacity. Finally, the regulators should be checked to
ensure that they are placed at the proper settings. Many operators set the regu-
lators at higher pressures than necessary. This results in tools drawing com-
pressed air at inefficient rates in comparison to the work being done.
Waste Management
Waste management mainly involves leak management and air conservation on

the compressed air side. To this end, production managers and operators should
be in contact with maintenance personnel to report air leaks and other system
troubles. To aid in air conservation, inappropriate uses should be avoided. In-
appropriate uses may range from using the wrong energy source to unregulated
end-use to abandoned equipment. An example of inappropriate end-use is using
an air-powered drill for an application where an electric drill would fulfill the
same function with higher efficiency. Unregulated end-use was mentioned above
in demand side management, but should be monitored by a waste management
team. Abandoned equipment provides the possibility for massive compressed air
loss. Whenever possible, abandoned equipment should be removed from the
compressed air line as far back into the system as is possible. To give an idea, a
typical system without any leak management program can lose 20 to 30 percent
of its compressed air to leaks. With an effective leak management team, this
value can be reduced to 10 percent. Leaks do more than just tax the compressor.
A leak can decrease the pressure at the point of use so that the tool in question
does not receive the pressure it requires. This will decrease the efficiency of the
tool, and compound the loss in efficiency.
Heat Recovery
Fully 80 to 90 percent of the energy consumed by an air compressor is turned

into heat. This is the primary reason for the low "wire-to-work" ratio for com-
pressed air. However, all this energy does not have to go into compressed air
flow to be used. The heat can be used for other processes at up to 90 percent re-
covery rates. These processes can range from heating and industrial processes to
make up air and boiler make-up water heating. In general you can expect 50,000
Btu/hour from 100 cfm of capacity at full load. This will decrease the energy
consumed throughout the rest of the plant so that savings are evident even
though the energy consumption of the air compressor has not decreased.
54
ERDC/CERL TR-01-65
References
A wide range of information is available on the application and use of com-

pressed air systems. Information presented here was compiled in the following
categories:
• books and reports
• brochures
• periodicals
• software
• videos workshops and training courses
• glossary of terminology.
The resources and tools presented here are not intended to represent all avail-
able information pertaining to compressed air systems. This list presents the
reference material and tools specifically of interest to those involved in energy-
efficient compressed air systems. Availability of this information does not imply
any endorsement for any product or information.
Books and Reports
The books and reports listed are grouped into one of the following three catego-
ries:
1. Documents on compressed air systems focusing on performance improvement
2. Specialty books on compressors (e.g., compressor design)
3. Information on the compressed air market
Documents Focusing on Performance Improvement
Air Compressors and the Compressed Air System

Author: William Scales, P.E.
Description: A comprehensive text on maintaining compressed air systems for peak
performance.
Available from:
Scales Air Compressor Corporation
110 Voice Road
Carle Place, NY 11514
Phone: (516) 248-9096
Fax: (516) 248-9639
Assessing Processes For Compressed Air Efficiency

Authors: Bill Howe, P.E. and William Scales, P.E.
Description: The report presents 11 questions managers should answer about their
compressed air applications to determine whether compressed air is the right tool for
the job, how compressed air is applied, how it is delivered and controlled, and how the
compressed air system is managed.
Available from:
E SOURCE Reprints Service
1033 Walnut Street
Boulder, CO 80302-5114
Phone: (303) 440-8500
Fax: (303) 440-8502
Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, Fifth Edition

Author: Various Compressed Air and Gas Institute members with John P. Rollins, ed.
Description: A comprehensive reference work on all phases of compressed air and gas, this
handbook covers reciprocating, rotary, and dynamic compressors; pneumatic tools;
construction equipment pneumatic controls; materials handling equipment; and many
other topics. The sixth edition will be published in 1998.
Available from:
Prentice-Hall Publishers
200 Old Tappan Road
Old Tappan,NJ 07675
Phone: (800) 223-1360
Fax:(800)445-6991
Compressed Air Management, Energy Efficiency in Compressed Air Systems Seminar Workbook
Author: TF. Taranto
Description: Used in seminars, this work book is a resource for the industrial compressed
air user. Topics include concepts of compressed air system management, compressed
air system investment, cost of compressed air, system performance modeling, bench
marking system performance with data measurement, and system management
strategies.
Available from:
Data Power, Inc.
P.O. Box 182
Baldwinsville, NY 13027
Phone: (315) 635-1445
FAX: (315) 635-1445

Author: HP. Van Ormer
Description: This handbook discusses compressed air systems including departmental
and central air systems. It covers topics such as compressor types; application,
selection, and installation of rotary and centrifugal air compressors; compressor
capacity controls; compressor terminology; determination of air requirements;
compressed air dryers; and optimization of systems.
Available from:
Air Power USA, Inc.
P.O. Box 292
Pickerington, OH 43147
Phone: (614) 862-4112
Fax: (614) 862-4112
Compressed Air Systems Solution Series

Author: Scot Foss
Description: This comprehensive text discusses ways to improve the performance of
compressed air systems. It is published as a 2-year, bi-monthly subscription series. It
covers topics such as design issues, troubleshooting, instrumentation, storage, piping,
controls, demand issues, and supply issues.
Available from:
Bantra Publishing
Phone: (704) 372-3400
Compressed Air Systems: A Guidebook on Energy and Cost Savings

Author: E.M. Talbott
Description: This guidebook covers topics ranging from compressed air equipment and
distribution system layout to final application and system operation.
Available from:
Prentice-Hall Publishers
Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Phone: (800) 223-1360
Fax: (800) 445-6991
Compressed Air Technology Seminar Workbook: Opportunities and Solutions

Author: HP. Van Ormer
Description: Used in Mr. Van Ormer's compressed air seminars, this workbook serves as a
good resource for those looking to improve the efficiency of their compressed air
systems. Topics discussed include compressed air basics, supply equipment,
regulation and controls, system design, receiver demand flow regulation, maintenance
and reliability, power savings, leak surveys, and flow meters.
Available from:
Air Power USA, Inc.
P.O. Box 292
Phone: (614) 862-4112
Fax: (614) 862-4112
Compressor Engineering Data

Author: William Scales, P.E.
Description: A handbook of reference material on compressed air systems.
Available from:
Scales Air Compressor Corporation
110 Voice Road
Carle Place, NY 11514
Phone: (516) 248-9096
Fax: (516) 248-9639
Compressors and Expanders: Selection and Application for the Process Industry
Author: Heinz P. Bloch
Description: This book identifies preferred equipment types for specific uses, provides
easy-to-understand explanations and examples, examines the limitations of the
machinery, and compiles data that is scattered throughout the literature. The
potential audience includes engineers interested in gas separation, cryogenic
processes, and compression stations; manufacturers and purchasers of compressors
and turboexpanders; and contractors involved in plant design and machinery
selection.
Available from:
Marcel Dekker, Inc.
270 Madison Ave.
New York, NY 10016
Phone: (212) 696-9000
Fax: (212) 685-4540
Compressors: Selection and Sizing, 2d ed

Author: Royce N. Brown
Description: This reference text provides information on compression principles,
equipment, applications, selection, sizing, installation, and maintenance; allowing
proper estimation of compressor capabilities and selection of designs. Updated with
new American Petroleum Institute standards and current technology in areas of
efficiency, 3-D geometry, electronics, and plant computer use, this guide covers
reciprocating, rotary, and centrifugal compressors and compares their reliability.
Available from:
Gulf Publishing Company
P.O. Box 2608
Houston, TX 07675
Phone: (713) 520-4444
Fax:(713)520-4433
Pumps I Compressors I Fans: Pocket Handbook

Authors: Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff, Paul N. Cheremisinoff
Description: This handbook provides a concise presentation of the fundamentals—design,
function, and applications—of pumps, compressors, and fans. It is organized for easy
reference and illustrated with more than 80 photographs, diagrams, and other
schematics. This text will help engineers and other plant operations personnel in
their selection and utilization of pump, fan, and compressor equipment.
Available from:
Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.
851 New Holland Ave.
Box 3535
Lancaster, PA 17604
Phone: (800) 233-9936
Fax: (717) 295-4538
Specialty Books
Centrifugal Compressor Design and Performance

Author: David Japikse
Description: This publication is both a state-of-the-art review of the technology base of
centrifugal compressors and a practical guide to designers.
Available from:
Concepts ETI, Inc.
4 Billings Farm Road
White River Junction, VT 05001
Phone: (802) 296-2321
Fax: (802) 296-2325
Compressor Performance: Selection, Operation, and Testing ofAxial and Centrifugal Compressors
Author: M. Theodore Gresh
Description: This book is divided into two main sections. In the theory section of the
book, the Author introduces aerodynamics, thermodynamics, aerodynamic
components, and compressor characteristics. In the application section, the Author
discusses equipment selection, operation, field performance testing, troubleshooting,
and flow meters.
Available from:
Butterworth Heinemann
225 Wildwood Ave.
Woburn, MA 01801
Phone: (617) 928-2500 or (800) 366-2665
Fax: (617) 933-6333
Control of Centrifugal Compressors

Author: Ralph L. Moore
Description: This text provides comprehensive information on the techniques for
controlling centrifugal compressors. In addition to compressor control issues,
optimization of compressor operation and multiple compressor systems are topics also
discussed.
Available from:
Instrument Society of America
67 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12277
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
Phone: (919) 549-8411
Fax: (919) 549-8288
Fluid Movers, 2d ed.

Authors: Nicholas P. Chopey and Chemical Engineering Magazine Editors
Description: This text is a compilation of current articles on the movement of fluids with
pumps, compressors, fans, and blowers from Chemical Engineering Magazine.
Available from:
McGraw-Hill
P. O. Box 546
Blacklick, OH 43004-0546
Phone: (800) 722-4726
Fax: (614) 755-5654
Leak-free Pumps and Compressors, 1st ed.

Author: Gerhard Vetter
Description: As environmental regulations concerning leaks and emissions become more
stringent, this practical reference manual targets those concerned with systems using
leak-free pumps or compressors. This handbook explains the various designs and
properties of leak-free pumps and helps in the selection of the right pump or
compressor to ensure leak-free systems, whatever the application.
Available from:
Elsevier Advanced Technology
Mayfield House
256 Banbury Road
Oxford 0X2 7DH England
Phone: 01865-512242
Fax: 01865-310981
Optimization of Unit Operations: Boilers, Chemical Reactors, Chillers, Clean Rooms, Compressors,
Condensers, Heat Exchangers, HVAC Systems, Pumping Stations, Reboilers, and
Vaporizers
Author: Bela G. Liptak
Description: This text examines the technical and practical applications of plant
multivariable development control. Optimization of various systems is discussed in
detail.
Available from:
Krawse Publications
700 E. State St.
Iola, WI 54990
Phone: (888) 457-2873
Fax: (715) 445-4087
Reciprocating Compressors: Operation and Maintenance

Authors: Heinz P. Bloch and John J. Hoefner
Description: This book discusses the theory of operation and describes methods of proper
installation, troubleshooting, overhauling, and repairing of all types of reciprocating
compressors. Engineers and maintenance personnel in the process industries such as
mining, food processing, pharmaceuticals, and petrochemicals will find this text
useful.
Available from:
Gulf Publishing Company
P.O. Box 2608
Houston, TX 77252-2608
Phone: (713) 520-4444
Fax: (713) 520-4433
Rotary Screw Air Compressors

Author: H. P. Van Ormer
Description: This guide provides a close look at the lubricant-cooled rotary compressor
and its role in construction and industrial applications. It discusses the history,
development, basic technology, application, selection, installation, and general
maintenance of rotary screw air compressors.
Available from:
Air Power USA, Inc.
P.O. Box 292
Phone: (614) 862-4112
Fax: (614) 862-4112
Information on the Compressor Marketplace
Compressors—Air & Gas Wholesale

Description: This annual directory features information on 4180 wholesalers of air and
gas compressors.
Available from:
American Business Information, Inc.
5711 South 86th Circle
P.O. Box 27347
Omaha, NE 68127-0347
Phone: (402) 593-4500
Fax:(402)331-5481
Compressors, Vacuum Pumps, and Industrial Spraying Equipment

Author: Specialists in Business Information, Inc.
Description: The U.S. market for air and gas compressors, vacuum pumps, and industrial
spraying equipment strengthened in 1995 and 1996. Specialists in Business
Information (SBI) has compiled and analyzed data on U.S. factory shipments,
imports, exports, industry costs structure, and the competitive environment to
uncover strategies that will allow manufacturers and marketers to penetrate growing
markets in this $4-billion industry. SBI has also profiled worldwide manufacturers
and reviewed their recent developments as part of an exhaustive effort to provide
competitor intelligence. In addition, SBI has extracted sales and profit trends for 16
manufacturers in order to compare company performance with industry averages.
Some of the major producers profiled include Dresser-Rand, Gardner Denver,
Nordson, and Sunstrand.
Available from:
Specialists in Business Information, Inc.
3375 Park Ave.
Wantagh, NY 11793
Pumps and Compressors

Author: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census
Description: This annual Current Industrial Report provides statistics on the quantity
and value of manufacturers' shipments, number of producers by product type and
industry, exports, and imports. These statistics reflect market trends in the pump
and compressor industry.
Available from:
U.S. Department of Commerce
Bureau of the Census
Gaithersburg, MD
Phone: (301) 457-4100
Fax: (301) 457-4794
The report can be downloaded from the Census Bureau's Web site
(http://www.census.gov).
The U.S. Pump and Compressor Industry

Author: Business Trend Analysts, Inc.
Description: This market research report assesses the market for pumps and
compressors, including reciprocating, rotary, and centrifugal air compressors, by
gathering data and conducting analyses. The report presents data on U.S.
manufacturers' sales and analysis of end-use demand by industry for pumps and
compressors. Additional information includes pump and compressor industry
statistics, trade, corporate profiles, and a directory of manufacturers.
Available from:
Business Trend Analysts, Inc.
2171 Jericho Turnpike
Commack, NY 11725-2900
Phone: (516) 462-5454
Fax: (516) 462-1842
U.S. Stationary Compressors Market

Author: Frost & Sullivan
Description: This report provides forecast information for the entire U.S. compressor and
vacuum pump market. Market forecasts are based on revenues and growth rates,
unit shipments and pricing trends, competitive analyses, and market and technology
trends. The market is also analyzed by examining advancements in technology,
materials, and manufacturing processes. The market is comprised of major segments
which include positive-displacement compressors and dynamic-type compressors.
Available from:
Frost & Sullivan
90 West Street, Suite 1301
New York, NY 10006
Phone: (212) 964-7000
Fax: (212) 619-0831
Brochures
The following brochures are available from the Compressed Air and Gas Insti-
tute at:
The Compressed Air and Gas Institute
1300 Sumner Avenue
Cleveland. OH 44115-2851
Phone: (216) 241-7333
Fax: (216) 241-0105
cagi@taol.com
www.taol.com/cagi
Air Compressor Selection and Application: *A hp through 25 hp

Author: CAGI
Description: This publication provides a detailed summary of the types of compressors
available, their intended application, and selection criteria for a variety of industries.
Compressed Air and Gas: An Introduction

Author: Lynn Adkins Guda
Description: This booklet presents a brief discussion of compressed air as an important
means of transmitting power. It introduces compressed air and gas theory,
compressors, and uses.
Compressed Air and Gas: In Manufacturing

Author: William D. Ellis
Description: This brochure describes the uses of compressed air in producing capital and
consumer goods. Examples of compressed air use include lightweight pneumatic tools
and controls on the assembly line and in automation.
Compressed Air and Gas: The Process Industries

Author: William D. Ellis
Description: This booklet discusses the role of compressors in the process industries,
where products such as chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and plastics require large
volumes of compressed air and gas for production.
Compressed Air and Gas Drying

Author: CAGI
Description: This brochure explains the need for air and gas drying. It includes a step-by-
step dryer specifying guide, technical illustrations, and appropriate technical
appendices.
Refrigerated Compressed Air Dryers-Methods for Testing and Rating

Author: CAGI
Description: This brochure provides a uniform procedure to measure and rate the
performance of refrigerated compressed air dryers.
Rotary Air Compressor Selection Guide

Author: CAGI
Description: This publication covers the complete range of rotary air compressors and
discusses selection criteria, capacity control, compressor accessories, and examples of
applications.
Safety Aspects of Compressor Lubricants

Author: CAGI
Description: This publication discusses the safety aspects of petroleum-based and
synthetic lubricants for air and gas compressors.
Periodicals
Compressed Air
Description: Compressed Air is Ingersoll-Rand's magazine of applied technology and
industrial management and contains informative articles on compressed air and gas
applications and other related technological innovations.
Available from:
Compressed Air
253 East Washington Avenue
Washington, NJ 07882-2495
Phone: (908) 850-7817
Fax: (908) 689-3095
Impact Compressor /Turbine News & Patents

Description: This newsletter (10 issues per year) describes new compressor/turbine
patents and new developments in the compressor/turbine field. It includes listings of
current articles, seminars, books, and industry news.
Available from:
Impact Publications
Ketchum, ID
Phone: (208) 726-2133
Fax: (208) 726-2155
Other Periodicals
The following magazines often contain articles about improving the performance
of compressed air systems, and can be a very good source of state-of-the-art in-
formation:
• AFE Facilities Engineering (Association of Facilities Engineering)
• Maintenance Technology
• Plant Engineering
• Plant Services.
Software
AIRMaster: Compressed Air System Assessment Software

Description: AIRMaster is a software package that enables engineers, auditors, energy
managers, and utility staff to assess the performance of their industrial compressed
air systems. The latest version of this software, AIRMaster+, is in development and is
projected to be available in late 1998. For more information and to request to be put
on the AIRMaster+ mailing list, contact the Motor Challenge Information
Clearinghouse.
Available from:
The Motor Challenge Information Clearinghouse
P.O. Box 43171
Olympia, WA 98504-3171
Phone: (800) 862-2086
Fax: (206) 586-8303
www.motor.doe.gov
C-MAX Engineering Software

Description: C-MAX™ software's compressor module is designed for systems analysis of
centrifugal compressors, reciprocating compressors, and rotary screw compressors.
Multiple compressors and "what if case studies can be modeled for pure gases or
gaseous mixtures such as dry or wet air, hydrogen, nitrogen, refinery gas mixture,
fuel gas, and natural gas. The software allows users to perform "off-line" modeling of
compressor performance, energy, and flow capacity calculations, and to create case
studies by changing process, mechanical, or load variables. An evaluation copy is
available on the Unicade web site.
Available from:
UNICADE INC.
13219 NE 20th Street/Suite 211
Bellevue, WA 98005-2020
Phone: (425) 747-0353
Fax: (425) 747-0316
Web: www.unicade.com
e-mail: unicade@unicade.com
CHEMCALC15: Centrifugal Compressor Design and Rating

Description: Based on the theories of Elliott and Ingersoll-Rand, CHEMCALC 15 will:
(1) design a compressor and analyze a multi-stage compressor with up to four stages
of compression; (2) analyze the performance of an existing compressor by calculating
new operating conditions based on design operating conditions and curve and actual
process conditions; and (3) calculate the thermodynamic properties of a gas mixture,
including molecular weight, critical temperature, critical pressure, specific heat ratio,
and gas constant.
Available from:
Gulf Publishing Company Software
P.O. Box 2608
Houston, TX 77252-2608
Phone: (800) 231-6275, (713) 520-4448
Fax: (713) 520-4433
Compressed Air Survey

Description: The software is a comprehensive, interactive software tool designed to
provide a quantitative assessment of a compressor system's operating costs and the
potential efficiencies resulting from system improvements. The EPRI Compressed Air
Handbook (CR-104546) accompanies the software.
Available from:
EPRLAMP
8000 Ravines Edge Court
Columbus, OH 43235-9939
Phone: (614) 846-7322
Fax: (800) 832-9267
Videos
Three videos are available from CAGI:
Compressed Air: Industry's Fourth Utility

Description: This video presents a broad overview of air compression, distribution, and
treatment. It describes key considerations in designing and specifying a compressed
air system, including compressor selection, distribution considerations, air dryers,
and filters. (Running time: 13 minutes)
Performance Under Pressure

Description: This video discusses the role of compressed air and gas in various
applications ranging from residential to industrial. (Running time: 16 minutes)
Principles ofAir Compression

Description: In nontechnical terms, this video explains the theory and principles involved
in air compression. It illustrates the operation of both positive-displacement and
dynamic-type compressors and introduces key terms, such as PSIG, SCFM, relative
humidity, and dew point, to the audience. (Running time: 14 minutes)
All available from:
The Compressed Air and Gas Institute
1300 Sumner Avenue
Cleveland, OH 44115-2851
Phone: (216) 241-7333
Fax: (216) 241-0105
cagi@taol.com
www.taol.com/cagi
Safety and Use ofAir Compressors

Description: This video program shows how to operate an air compressor system safely
and efficiently. Topics include moving the air compressor, compressor parts,
lubrication, and maintenance. (Running time: 13 minutes)
Available from:
SafetyCare Inc.
26161 La Paz Road Suite A
Mission Viejo, CA 92691
Phone: (714) 452-1555
Fax: (714) 452-1556
http://www.safetycare.com.au
Workshops and Training Courses
Workshops focusing on energy efficiency and performance improvement in com-

pressed air systems are developed and presented by independent consultants,
equipment manufacturers, distributors, and others. Many compressed air sys-
tem consultants offer workshops and training courses on improving the perform-
ance of compressed air systems. In addition, some equipment manufacturers
and distributors offer training to their customers. Workshops are sometimes
sponsored by electric utilities, universities, and state energy offices. The Com-
pressed Air Challenge™ is developing a training program for plant operating
personnel which will be piloted in early 1999 and available on a widespread ba-
sis by mid-1999. To get on the Compressed Air Challenge™ mailing list for fu-
ture information, contact:
Energy Center of Wisconsin
595 Science Drive
Madison, WI53711-1060
Phone: (800) 559-4776
Fax: (608) 238-8733
Glossary
Absolute Pressure — Total pressure measured from zero.
Absolute Temperature — See Temperature, Absolute.
Absorption — The chemical process by which a hygroscopic desiccant, having a high affinity with
water, melts and becomes a liquid by absorbing the condensed moisture.
Adsorption — The process by which a desiccant with a highly porous surface attracts and
removes the moisture from compressed air. The desiccant is capable of being regenerated.
Actual Capacity — Quantity of gas actually compressed and delivered to the discharge system at
rated speed and under rated conditions. Also called Free Air Delivered (FAD).
Air Receiver — See Receiver.
Aftercooler — A heat exchanger used for cooling air discharged from a compressor. Resulting
condensate may be removed by a moisture separator following the aftercooler.
Atmospheric Pressure — The measured ambient pressure for a specific location and altitude.
Automatic Sequencer — A device which operates compressors in sequence according to a

programmed schedule.
Brake Horsepower (bhp) — Horsepower delivered to the output shaft of a motor or engine, or the
horsepower required at the compressor shaft to perform work.
Capacity — The amount of air flow delivered under specific conditions, usually expressed in cubic
feet per minute (cfm).
Capacity, Actual — The actual volume flow rate of air or gas compressed and delivered from a
compressor running at its rated operating conditions of speed, pressures, and
temperatures. Actual capacity is generally expressed in actual cubic feet per minute
(acfm) at conditions prevailing at the compressor inlet.
Capacity Gauge —A gauge that measures air flow as a percentage of capacity, used in rotary
screw compressors as an estimator during modulation controls.
Compression, Adiabatic — Compression in which no heat is transferred to or from the gas

during the compression process.
Compression, Isothermal — Compression is which the temperature of the gas remains constant.
Compression Ratio — The ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the absolute inlet pressure.
Constant Speed Control —A system in which the compressor is run continuously and matches
air supply to air demand by varying compressor load.
Cubic Feet Per Minute (cfin) — Volumetric air flow rate.
Cfin, Free Air — Cfm of air delivered to a certain point at a certain condition, converted back to
ambient conditions.
Actual Cfin (acfin) — Flow rate of air at a certain point at a certain condition at that point.
Inlet Cfin — Cfm flowing through the compressor inlet filter or inlet valve under rated conditions.
Standard Cfin — Flow of free air measured and converted to a standard set of reference
conditions (14.5 psia, 68 "F, and 0 percent relative humidity).
Cut In/Cut Out Pressure — Respectively, the minimum and maximum discharge pressures at
which the compressor will switch from unload to load operation (cut in) or from load to
unload (cut out).
Cycle — The series of steps that a compressor with unloading performs; (1) fully loaded,
(2) modulating (for compressors with modulating control), (3) unloaded, and (4) idle.
Cycle Time —Amount of time for a compressor to complete one cycle.
Degree of Inter cooling — Difference in air or gas temperature between the outlet of the
intercooler and the inlet of the compressor.
Deliquescent — Melting and becoming a liquid by absorbing moisture.
Desiccant —A material having a large proportion of surface pores, capable of attracting and
removing water vapor from the air.
Dew Point — The temperature at which moisture in the air will begin to condense if the air is
cooled at constant pressure. At this point the relative humidity is 100 percent.
Demand — Flow of air at specific conditions required at a point or by the overall facility.
Discharge Pressure —Air pressure produced at a particular point in the system under specific
conditions.
Discharge Temperature — The temperature at the discharge flange of the compressor.
Efficiency, Compression — Ratio of theoretical power to power actually imparted to the air or
gas delivered by the compressor.
Efficiency, Isothermal — Ratio of the theoretical work (as calculated on a isothermal basis) to
the actual work transferred to a gas during compression.
Efficiency, Mechanical — Ratio of power imparted to the air or gas to brake horsepower (bhp).
Efficiency, Volumetric — Ratio of actual capacity to piston displacement.
Free Air — Air at atmospheric conditions at any specified location, unaffected by the compressor.
Full-Load — Air compressor operation at full speed with a fully open inlet and discharge
delivering maximum air flow.
Gauge Pressure — The pressure determined by most instruments and gauges, usually expressed
in psig. Barometric pressure must be considered to obtain true or absolute pressure.
Horsepower, Brake — See Brake Horsepower.
Horsepower, Theoretical or Ideal — The horsepower required to isothermally compress the air
or gas delivered by the compressor at specified conditions.
Humidity, Relative — The relative humidity of a gas (or air) vapor mixture is the ratio of the
partial pressure of the vapor to the vapor saturation pressure at the dry bulb temperature
of the mixture.
Humidity, Specific — The weight of water vapor in an air vapor mixture per pound of dry air.
Indicated Power — Power as calculated from compressor-indicator diagrams.
Inlet Pressure — The actual pressure at the inlet flange of the compressor.
Intercooling — The removal of heat from air or gas between compressor stages.
Leak —An unintended loss of compressed air to ambient conditions.
Load Factor — Ratio of average compressor load to the maximum rated compressor load over a
given period of time.
Load Time — Time period from when a compressor loads until it unloads.
Load-Unload Control — Control method that allows the compressor to run at full-load or at no
load while the driver remains at a constant speed.
Modulating Control — System which adapts to varying demand by throttling the compressor
inlet proportionally to the demand.
Perfect Intercooling — The condition when the temperature of air leaving the intercooler equals
the temperature of air at the compressor intake.
Piston Displacement — The volume swept by the piston; for multistage compressors, the piston
displacement of the first stage is the overall piston displacement of the entire unit.
Pneumatic Tools — Tools that operate by air pressure.

Pressure — Force per unit area, measured in pounds per square inch (psi).
Pressure Dew Point — For a given pressure, the temperature at which water will begin to
condense out of air.
Pressure Drop — Loss of pressure in a compressed air system or component due to friction or
restriction.
Pressure Range — Difference between minimum and maximum pressures for an air compressor.
Also called cut in-cut out or load-no load pressure range.
Rated Capacity — Volume rate of air flow at rated pressure at a specific point.
Rated Pressure — The operating pressure at which compressor performance is measured.
Required Capacity — Cubic feet per minute (cfm) of air required at the inlet to the distribution
system.
Receiver —A vessel or tank used for storage of gas under pressure. In a large compressed air
system there may be primary and secondary receivers.
Relative Humidity — The ratio of the partial pressure of a vapor to the vapor saturation pressure
at the dry bulb temperature of a mixture.
Sequence — The order in which compressors are brought online.
Specific Humidity — The weight of water vapor in an air-vapor mixture per pound of dry air.
Specific Power —A measure of air compressor efficiency, usually in the form of bhp/100 acfm or
acfm/bhp.
Specific Weight — Weight of air or gas per unit volume.
Standard Air — The Compressed Air & Gas Institute and PNEUROP have adopted the definition
used in ISO standards. This is air at 14.5 psia (1 bar); 68 °F (20 °C) and dry (0 percent
relative humidity).
Start/Stop Control — A system in which air supply is matched to demand by the starting and
stopping of the unit.
Surge —A phenomenon in centrifugal compressors where a reduced flow rate results in a flow
reversal and unstable operation.
Temperature, Absolute — The temperature of air or gas measured from absolute zero. It is the
Fahrenheit temperature plus 459.6 and is known as the Rankine temperature. In the
metric system, the absolute temperature is the Centigrade temperature plus 273 and is
known as the Kelvin temperature.
Temperature, Discharge — The total temperature at the discharge connection of the compressor.
Temperature, Inlet — The total temperature at the inlet connection of the compressor.
Temperature Rise Ratio — The ratio of the computed isentropic temperature rise to the
measured total temperature rise during compression. For a perfect gas, this is equal to the
ratio of the isentropic enthalpy rise to the actual enthalpy rise.
Temperature, Static — The actual temperature of a moving gas stream. It is the temperature
indicated by a thermometer moving in the stream and at the same velocity.
Temperature, Total — The temperature which would be measured at the stagnation point if a
gas stream were stopped, with adiabatic compression from the flow condition to the
stagnation pressure.
Theoretical Power — The power required to compress a gas isothermally through a specified
range of pressures.
Torque —Atorsional moment or couple. This term typically refers to the driving couple of a
machine or motor.
Total Package Input Power — The total electrical power input to a compressor, including drive
motor, cooling fan, motors, controls, etc.
Unload — (No load) Compressor operation in which no air is delivered due to the intake being
closed or modified not to allow inlet air to be trapped.
Appendix A: Compressed Air System

Survey at Picatinny Arsenal
Executive Summary
The purpose of the site assessment is to determine if Picatinny Arsenal has the
desired characteristics to be selected for the "Demonstration of Natural Gas En-
gine Driven Air Compressors at Department of Defense Industrial Facilities"
(NGEDAC). The NGEDAC initiative is managed by the U.S. Army Construction
Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL) and is being implemented by Technol-
ogy and Management Services, Inc. (TMS) and Xenergy, Inc. The site assess-
ment was conducted during the week of 28 August 2000.
The preliminary assessment provides an overview of the facility's compressed air

system, outlines potential areas for reducing system demand, evaluates the gen-
eral economics of a gas driven system at the site, and identifies potential benefits
or problems associated with implementing a gas driven system. The preliminary
assessment concludes that the Picatinny Arsenal is a good candidate for addi-
tional consideration as a demonstration site.
Current air flow of the main system is approximately 925 acfm at a supply pres-
sure of 80 psig with an annual energy cost of $100,000. This figure is a reduction
of $25,000 that had been previously achieved by operating personnel who low-
ered the final discharge pressure to the system from 100 psig to 80 psig. In mov-
ing forward, potential reductions in air leaks and the level of production air sup-
plied during nonproduction periods could decrease air requirements by 500 acfm
or an additional $42,000, leaving an annual energy bill of $58,000 (Figure Al).
Such a reduction level is realistic and will be verified by a leak study if the Picat-
inny site is selected for a Detailed Assessment Study.
Other demand-related aspects that will be investigated are the feasibility of

shutting down the main system during nonproduction periods, closing off sec-
tions of the distribution system instead of repairing the associated leaks, and re-
viewing several cost saving opportunities associated with the Arsenal's subsys-
tems for compressed air.
Energy Cost To Operate

Main Air System
$125,000
"Previous Demand Previous energy cost (electric) for Main System before
Reductions" base staff were able to reduce pressure from 100 psig
to 80 psig
$100,000
"New Demand Reductions" Current energy cost (electric) for Main System
$58,000
Estimated energy costs (electric) with Demand-side

"NGEDAC Reductions"
Improvements
$26,000
"Remaining Energy Cost"
Figure A1. Potential savings due to reductions in air leaks and the level of production air
supplied during nonproduction periods.
The Picatinny site demonstrates favorable economic conditions for implementa-

tion of a gas engine driven system. Such a system is estimated to save $32,000
annually in fuel costs based on an interruptible gas supply price of $3.41 per mil-
lion Btu. The gas driven engine system would incur $11,000 in incremental an-
nual maintenance costs based on a 2-year maintenance contract for the gas sys-
tem. The resulting net operating cost of the gas system is $21,000 less than the
current electric system.
Preliminary estimate of the installed system cost for the gas technology is ap-
proximately $160,000. This estimate could vary up or down depending on spe-
cific installation conditions and/or desired equipment features. For example, an
air-cooled engine feature would add about $4000 to the system cost, but may be
otherwise beneficial. System environmental emission levels are based on limits
of 0.70 gm/bhp/hr for NOx and 0.48 gm/bhp/hr for CO.
The total estimated project cost does not include any potential electrical demand
reduction rebates for which this project may qualify. This issue will be investi-
gated during the Detailed Assessment Study and after the Arsenal has obtained
approvals for the TMS Team to discuss such opportunities with the appropriate
utility or state staff.
Other supply-related issues to be investigated include definitively firming final

price of natural gas, addressing potential environmental issues that currently
appear to be minimal, and finalizing the overall equipment requirements so
price estimates can be formalized.
The Picatinny site has a number of other positive aspects that help make it a
good demonstration site candidate. Gas supply is readily accessible. Physical
space is available and plant modifications would be minimal. Experience and
confidence gained by Arsenal staff and contractors in developing and operating
the 2.2 MWe gas-fueled cogeneration system are a significant plus and may help
reduce cost estimates for maintenance contracts for the gas engine compressed
air system.
The Picatinny site provides for a fairly straightforward technology application

and demonstration with a very manageable system size. It affords the Depart-
ment of Defense an excellent opportunity to test operating a "gas/electric hybrid
system." In addition, the Arsenal would be provided an opportunity to gain ex-
perience in using energy savings performance contracting (ESPC) vehicles for
implementing the recommended system optimization improvements which are
outside the scope of this NGEDAC project, but are essential in properly sizing
the project's gas engine system and reducing the overall operating costs of Picat-
inny Arsenal.
Section 1. Compressed Air System Overview
Introduction
The compressed air system at Picatinny Arsenal encompasses an extensive geo-

graphical area. Today, there are almost 27 miles of compressed air piping, join-
ing 15 to 16 areas of production buildings. With air usage levels significantly
less than those required during the height of production at the Arsenal, there are
numerous opportunities to improve energy efficiency in the system and to fur-
ther reduce system operating costs by implementing a gas engine driven com-
pressed air system.
The main compressed air system is fed by a compressor plant in the main Power
House Building 506. Average flow for the main system is 925 acftn at 80 psig
with the system operating 8760 hours per year. The air delivered from the
Power House is dried only with a water-cooled aftercooler. When the site visit
took place on a 79 °F ambient day, the compressed air system was delivering
80 °F saturated air at 80 psig to the system.
There are three other independent compressed air systems:

1. Wind Tunnel. A special application for projectile testing at supersonic, transonic,
and subsonic speeds. This system requires higher pressure (110-120 psig) and
significant storage (16,000 cu ft) for proper operation. Average flow for the Wind
Tunnel system is 2200 acfm. The system operates 500 hr per year.
2. Building 3150 (Machine Shop). This building houses a large machine shop and
runs with its own air compressor supply. Average flow is 20 acfm with the sys-
tem operating 8760 hours per year. There is no feeder line from the main air sys-
tem to this building.
3. Building 3028. This building also has no feed from the main air supply and cur-
rently has its own air system. Average flow is 40 cfm with the system operating
8760 hours per year.
There are also several dedicated systems in the Main Power House: one for en-
gine starting of the 12-cylinder Caterpillar natural gas engine generator/fuel cell
power system and one for the instrument air and HVAC control systems.
There are other dedicated control and fire suppression compressed air systems
throughout the Arsenal. In general, these units are small horsepower duplex
units with compressed air dryers. They do not normally run many hours a year
and are not part of the main air system. These are not included in the system
evaluation of this report.
In summary, Picatinny Arsenal has a large volume air system that is currently
supplying a relatively small system demand. This "system downsizing" presents
many opportunities for energy savings that are addressed in this report.
Previous System Improvements
The Arsenal personnel have already implemented several key programs that
have successfully lowered the energy cost.
Power House (506)
Operating personnel have lowered the final discharge pressure to the system
from 100 psig to 80 psig. This has reduced electrical demand by approximately
31.69 kW resulting in savings of $24,430 per year. Today the system still runs
effectively at this reduced pressure level.
Building 3150
This system previously ran a 100 hp, 490 acfm Quincy Rotary Screw Compressor
with apparent demand of 40 cfm or less, running 10 percent loaded continuously.
This was a very inefficient mode of operation and resulted in excessive wear on
the compressor. The system operated at 59.4 kW with an annual energy cost of
$45,790.
Today the machine shop typically runs two small 4.7 hp tank-mounted units.
Ten of these units (IMC) are located strategically around the building. The op-
erating pairs are alternated as required. These units operate at 14.21 kW. Since
they are commercial as opposed to industrial units, the motors are a low-
efficiency, single-phase type. Today, the operating cost of $10,923 per year re-
sults in savings of $34,867 per year.
Building 3028
This building previously ran a 40 hp/35 kW 150 cfm Ingersoll Rand ESV nonlu-
bricated, double-acting, water-cooled, single-stage compressor. At 40 cfm de-
mand, this unit operated at 13.2 kW for a cost of $10,175 per year.
Today, air is supplied by a 25 hp Ingersoll Rand Model 3000, delivering 100 cfm
at 100 psig at 27 bhp/22.8 kW. At 40 cfm average demand, this unit operates at
approximately 8.8 kW over 8760 hours or $6791 per year operating cost, a net
savings of approximately $3384 per year.
System Load Profile and Cost Analysis
Based on optimum performance of each compressor—compared to Load Cycle—

and on discussions with plant personnel, load profiles and power usage assess-
ments were developed for each of the main compressed air systems (Table Al).
Table A1. Load profiles and power usage assessments for main compressed air systems at
Picatinny Arsenal.
Main Power House Wind Tunnel Bldg 3028 Bldg 3150 Total
Average 900 acfm 2,200 acfm 40 acfm 20 acfm NA
System Flow
Average 126.75 kW 356.28 kW 14.21 kW 8.8 kW NA
Prod kW
Annual System 8760 hrs 500 hrs 8760 hrs 8760 hrs NA
Operating Hrs
Specific Power 7.1 cfm/kW 6.17cfm/kW 2.81 cfm/kW 2.27 cfm/kW NA
Energy Cost -- $108.57 cfm/yr $7.13 cfm/yr $274.33 cfm/yr $339.95 cfm/yr NA
$ cfm/yr
Air Energy $488.54 psig/yr $78.49 psig/yr $54.77 psig/yr $37.30 psig/yr NA
Cost - $ psig/yr
Est Air Energy $99,487/yr $15,689/yr $10,973/yr $6,791 /yr $132,940/yr
Cost - $/yr
Note: Blended Power Rate = 0.088 kWh; Power House Operating Pressure = 80 psig.
Measured Flow
Flow and pressure were measured for 24 hours beginning the morning of 29 Au-
gust 2000. The flow measurement was taken with a Sierra-heated wire ane-
mometer (0-20,000 fpm ± 3 percent). Readings were taken (on average) every 11
seconds. The curve shown is with these readings averaging every 10 minutes
(Figure A2).
Picatinny Flow and Pressure!
2S AIM OO TO 30 AUO 00
Figure A2. Picatinny CA flow and pressure.

The trended curve shows 800 scfin (900 acfm) in a continuous demand over the
24-hour period, both during production and nonproduction periods. Picatinny is
essentially a one-shift operation. This indicates a significant number of leaks
and/or process air "left on" during nonproduction hours. Both of these conditions
represent an energy savings opportunity (refer to the Leak Management sec-
tion). Arsenal personnel are in the process of determining which production ac-
tivities were operating and which were not. This information will help deter-
mine the source and level of opportunity.
Pressure
The pressure was recorded at the same trending rates and at the same point as
the flow. The pressure transducer was zeroed out against a calibrated Helcoid
DP250 digital test gauge. The pressure held a steady 79 to 80 psig during the
entire test.
The actual plant electrical power cost for the combination of the main system
and satellite subsystems, as running today, is in excess of $130,000 per year.
The load profile or demand of this system is almost like "process air" and is rela-
tively stable during all shifts. The full load operating range is 365 days a year,
24 hours a day, 8760 hours a year (see flow meter readings).
There are no significant cost savings within the current air supply configuration
for the main Power House, except for the potential for moving to gas engine
drives. Moving the subsystems associated with Buildings 3028 and 3150 to the
main system would save roughly $13,000 annually based on being to supply at
an incremental cost of $80 per cfm relative to the current cost averaging $300
per cfm for the 60 cfm requirement.
Other Issues
The electrical power cost per hour per "loaded cfm" of air used was determined.
Electrical power cost is used as a quahfying factor since it is "real bottom line
dollars." This is an absolute number and not a subjective or opinion. All pay-
backs for savings projects are estimated using the "full load operating efficien-
cies," which are very conservative.
If the compressed air is not used, the compressor either shuts off or unloads. If it
shuts off, there is a 100 percent saving of the power cost.. If it unloads, there is a
25 to 90 percent savings of the power cost.
It is important to note that all recoverable compressed air costs should also be
considered, i.e., maintenance, water costs, depreciation, etc. Usually, the electri-
cal power cost is between 50 and 75 percent of the total "variable compressed air
costs." Associated maintenance and other costs will be, in all probability, at least
50 percent or more of the identified electrical power cost. Existing records may
be available to estimate these more accurately.
Plant Compressed Air Survey
The primary objective of the survey was to review the basic system dynamics
and identify the current basic load/power profile and then to project what it will
be when optimized with this data. The objective is to size and recommend an
appropriate natural gas engine-driven compressor to effectively carry the base
load and optimize the natural gas engine savings over conventional electric
driven units. This action is to evaluate this Arsenal's operating characteristics
to reflect accurate and effective results with a natural gas engine driven air
compressor demonstration unit.
Some specific selected steps were identified:

• Determine the follow-up plans and actions appropriate to lower the overall
compressed air energy cost in the continuing short and long terms.
• Evaluate the potential energy cost savings in compressed air demand side
conservation programs:
- Leak control/management;
- Specific demand side requirements.
• Review appropriateness of compressed air equipment to produce proper qual-
ity and quantity of usable compressed air power at the acceptable efficiency.
• Identify a relatively accurate load profile.
• Identify your current electric power cost per cfm and per psig to calculate an-
ticipated return.
• Key concepts to consider if a Level II Audit is implemented:
- Identify and target opportunities for compressed air savings on the de-
mand side.
- Outline plans for point of use pressure and quality management.
Evaluate characteristics and appropriateness of central compressed air
control system.
Identify savings potential in use of air saving devices—nozzles and auto
drains.
Identify savings potential in replacement or re-evaluation of "misapplied
air"—cabinet coolers, vacuums, pumps, and bearing cooling.
- Review total piping system and leaks. Develop action plan to remove as
much pipe as possible, then repair leaks on what is left.
Above-Ground Leak Needing Immediate Repair
Note that during the site visit, a significant air leak was identified in an above-
ground, rusted-out distribution line under enclosed walkway between Building
807 and Building 810. This creates a USEPA violation (oil in ground) and a sig-
nificant "safety issue" (possible blowout). The audit team pointed this out to
Arsenal personnel on site and at the "wrap-up" meeting and recommend this
leak and any others like it be "corrected immediately."
Section 2. Current System Review
Power House Building
506 Main Compressor Room Supply
The basic air supply consists of running either compressor Unit 1 or 2. Unit 1 is
currently not operational. Both units are 18 Vfc-in. and 11 V2-U1. x 8 V£-in. stroke,
double-acting reciprocating Ingersoll Rand 200 bhp (1130 acfm at 100-110 psig)
compressor with 5-step unloading.
These units are the most power efficient units on the Arsenal and have a capac-
ity control system, which effectively translates lower air demand with lower in-
put energy.
The audit team observed Unit 2 running and except for a little too much oil from
the oiler, it appeared to be in very good shape. These units are applied excel-
lently and there are no more power efficient units available in this size class.
They are still state-of-the-art systems.
Main Compressor Room
The back-up air is supplied by:

• 75 hp Atlas Copco. Two-stage, water-cooled, single-acting DR 2 compressor
with water-cooled heads and jackets. This unit is smaller and is 10 percent
less driver efficient than the XLE. Parts are usually hard to obtain for these
since they are manufactured in Belgium. The unit should be run as little as
possible.
• 40 hp Gardner Denver. WXE air-cooled delivering 157 acfm at 41 BHP. It is
also a 2-stage, single-acting unit and relatively old. It is also 10 percent less
efficient than the XLE and should be run as little as possible.
• 25 hp Champion R70-12. 25 hp two-stage, single-action, tank-mounted (120

gal) reciprocating compressor delivering 91 cfm at 27 BHP. This unit is 15
percent less efficient than the XLE and should be run as little as possible.
These three back-up units will certainly not be required in the future if the
NGEDAC unit is installed and the system is optimized, unless a significant low
load condition occurs. Consideration should be given to using these units at se-
lected places within the production areas, if required.
Compressor Capacity Controls
The most effective way to run an air compressors is either to let it run at full
load, or to turn it off. Capacity controls are methods of restricting the output air
volume delivered to the system, while the unit is still running—in other words,
by running the compressor at less than full load. This is always a compromise,
and on a specific power (cfm/hp) basis, is never as efficient as full load.
Reciprocating Controls
The main Power House base reciprocating compressor is a double-acting, water-

cooled unit with five-step unloading. This is an efficient compressed air unload-
ing system, reciprocating five-step unloading will efficiently translate percentage
of "less air used" into almost a comparable reduction in energy cost.
Rotary Screw Controls
The two most common controls used are modulation and online/offline. Modula-
tion is relatively efficient at very high loads—and very inefficient at lower loads.
Online and offline is a very efficient commercial control available for loads below
60 percent when properly applied with adequate time for blow down. There are
several other ("rotor length adjustment" or "variable displacement," and "vari-
able speed drive") that have very efficient turn down from 100 percent load to
about 60 percent load.
These controls must be installed properly to operate correctly and efficiently.

The installation should have piping and storage available close to the unit with
no measurable pressure loss at full load to allow the signal to closely' match the
air requirements. Also the systems at Picatinny have some modulation units
(Sullair) and some online/offline (Atlas Copco). All appear to be installed prop-
erly and run correctly.
Recommendations—Short Term
All of the units involved have or are very close to having unloading controls ca-
pable of translating "less air used" into a comparable reduction in power cost.
These controls will work effectively with your current piping and air receiver
storage situation.
Recommendations—Long Term
With the system stabilized and balanced in the main Power House (506), con-
sider a microprocessor-driven centralized full networking electronic control sys-
tem. This will automatically place the most efficient machine online and assure
no more than one partial loaded unit at a time.
Air Treatment and Air Quality
General Air Treatment Concepts
Eliminating Water I Oil in Air Systems
The correct way to eliminate water and oil in your air system is to clean and dry
the air immediately after it is produced in the compressor room. Then store
clean dry air in a separate air receiver and flow it to the system as required.
Addressing Water and Oil Carryover Problems in a Compressed Air Sys-

tem
The water (condensate) and oil carryover problems in an air system are real and
we can expect them to increase in magnitude in the extreme weather. Some
guidelines regarding water and oil carryover control in compressed air systems
are:
1. Generally, it is best to eliminate the water and oil at the air source before it en-
ters the air system.
2. Every 20 °F increase in temperature doubles the "moisture load" the compressed
air will hold.
3. Compressed air dryers are usually capacity rated with 100 °F, 100 psig inlet air
conditions. At 120 °F, 100 psig, the dryer's capacity rating is reduced by 50 per-
cent.
4. Putting "dry or oil free" air into your system 90 percent of the time and then al-
lowing wet/oily air in sporadically 10 percent of the time will, in reality, give you
a "wet/oily" system all the time. The liquid water and/or oil will fall out in the
piping system continuing to "re-entrain" and contaminate and/or collected in the

"low spots" of the system, thus recontaminating as it is pulled into the flowing
compressed air system. A wefoily system may well take many months of contin-
ued flow of clean dry air to "clean up."
5. Identify required pressure dew point.
Refrigerated Air Dryers
Refrigerated dryers require a refrigeration system to mechanically cool the air.

The lowest possible consistent pressure dew point with a noncycling dryer is
+40 °F. Cycling dryers not only save power (60 to 75 percent), but also can de-
liver a lower pressure dew point (down to +35 °F to + 38 °F). Picatinny has some
refrigerated dryers throughout the system, most in the dedicated control/fire air
systems.
Desiccant Dryers
Desiccant dryer regeneration types remove moisture vapor by "adsorbing" it to

activated alumina desiccant beads. These dryers can consistently deliver a pres-
sure dew point to -40 °F or lower, which removes much more water than conven-
tional refrigeration units. To regenerate the wet tower while the other tower is
drying, requires the use of heat in some form and some dry air to "sweep" or
"purge" the exchanged moisture out. Desiccant dryers are usually rated at the
same 100 °F inlet, 100 psig conditions.
Current Air Treatment System
The only dryers noted were in the dedicated systems:

• Wind Tunnel - desiccant
• Engine Starting - desiccant
• Instrument Air/Control Air - desiccant and refrigeration.
All these dryers are sized to their specific application and must have their own
air supply. These units normally run a very limited number of hours per year,
and therefore, offer few significant opportunities for energy recovery. Nothing
observed would change this opinion. If in the future this changes, then that op-
eration should be reviewed again.
The main Power House air is dried by water-cooled aftercoolers delivering 80 °F

saturated on a 79 °F day, about as good as one might expect. The smaller units
throughout the system have appropriate air- or water-cooled aftercoolers that

appear to be satisfactory.
The Wind Tunnel use outside-mounted air-cooled after cooler to a dryer. This
appears to work very well.
There are no compressed air line filters in the main Power House air (506).
Basic System Header/Piping and Interconnecting Piping Between the

Primary Air Compressors and the Distribution System
Basic Header Piping
Headers were checked at appropriate points with a single test gauge and there
was little or no pressure loss in the header systems. Consequently, it is believed
that the header system today can deliver the required air to any area without
any significant pressure loss. Any low-pressure problems encountered will, in all
probability, be in the feeds from the header to the area. The header runs be-
tween building is long, extensive, and old. Leaks resulting from holes rusted
through the pipe not only lose air, but create safety problems as well.
Interconnecting Piping
Air is being delivered from the compressors to the interconnecting piping ranges
between 78 and 80 psig and getting into the main air system at 78 to 80 psig.
This is an apparent pressure loss of 0 psig, which is very good.
Flow Regulation At The Process
Some flow regulators are probably set higher than the feed pressure required by
the process, and some are left wide open to full header pressure. In this type of
operation, it is very important that the actual inlet pressure to the process be
known and that the lowest effective pressure be held steady for the proper prod-
uct quality. Picatinny may need to install storage bottles downstream of the
regulator to "close up" the pressure readings at rest and at operation. The
minimum effective pressure at operation for each product run, established at the
unit, needs to be established and adhered to.
Auto Condensate Drains
Automatic drain traps come in three categories. Level Operated Mechanically

Activated Drains do not waste air, but are prone to clogging and require continu-
ing maintenance to assure operation. These work best in a "Power House situa-
tion" where continuing regular attention is part of the system.
Dual Timer Electronic Drains use an electronic timer to control the number of
times per hour it opens and the duration of the opening. The theory is that you
adjust the times to be sure to fully drain the condensate and minimize the open
time without water that wastes compressed air. The reality is that the cycles
either do not get reset from the original factory settings (which causes conden-
sate build up in the summer) or they get set wide open and not closed down later
in cooler weather thus wasting more air. When they "fail open," they blow at a
full flow rate of about 100 cfm.
Consider that the usual factory setting is 10 minutes with a 20-second duration.
Consider that 1500 scfm of compressed air will generate about 63 gal/day in av-
erage weather or 2.63 gal/hour. Each 10-minute cycle will have 0.44 gal to dis-
charge. This will blow through a V4-in. valve at 100 psig in approximately 1.37
seconds. Compressed air will then blow for 18.63 seconds each cycle, 6 cycles a
minute will equal 111.78 seconds per hour of flow or 1.86 minutes per hour of
flow. This will waste about 3.1 cfm. A 1/8-in. valve will pass about 100 cfm. The
total flow will be 100 x 1.86 = 186 cu ft in 1 hr x 60 minutes = 3.1 cu ft/min av-
erage. Energy cost/lost air = $310 /year/valve.
Level Operated/Electronic Drains can receive the signal to open from the con-
densate high level and the signal to close from the condensate low level. These
waste no air and (from a power cost standpoint) are the best selection and their
reliability is usually many times greater than the level operated mechanical.
There is no doubt that automatic drain traps are a much better idea than man-
ual drains for Picatinny's circumstance. The Arsenal should take the following
action:
• For air conservation and enhanced performance, all dual timer electronic
drains and manual drains should be replaced by level-actuated electronic or
air-operated drains. Timer-activated drains or dual-timer drains may not be
able to handle "heavy loads" of condensate unless continuously "monitored
during the summer conditions."
• Be sure your auto drains are set up to work effectively, for examples:
Drains should not be tied together to a common header
Be sure all drains can be checked easily for operation
Be sure all drains are properly "vented."
The survey of the condensate handling system revealed several issues. Arsenal
personnel stated that the condensate goes to a mechanical oil/water separator
and then to the storm sewer and lake. According to plant personnel, the dis-
charge is monitored constantly to assure no USEPA violation. If ,this is always
in effect, there is no apparent problem.
If Picatinny is discharging filtered condensate to a storm sewer or in some other

manner to ground water (the USEPA minimum is 10 ppm), or if the Arsenal is
required to separate it by local water treatment facility, this issue should be dis-
cussed in detail.
Leak Management Programs
With a campus facility of this type, an effective leak control program could well
save in the average range of 300 to 400 cfm, which could potentially result in an
annual power cost savings of $30,000 to $40,000. The estimated recoverable
value is $25,000 /yr.
To effectively control and manage leaks in such an extensive operation as Picat-

inny Arsenal, a continuing economical program must be in place. Generally
speaking, the most effective programs are those that involve the production su-
pervisors and operators working positively with the maintenance personnel.
Accordingly, the TMS Team recommends:

• In the short-term, set up a continuing leak inspection by Maintenance Per-
sonnel so that for a while, each primary sector (see drawing) of the plant is
inspected once a quarter or at a minimum, once every 6 months to identify
and repair leaks. A record should be kept of these findings and overall re-
sults.
• In the long-term consider setting up programs where the production people
(particularly the operators and their supervisors) are positively motivated to
identify and repair these leaks. The Project Cost Section includes a quota-
tion for your information on a very effective ultrasonic leak locator.
• The Project Cost Section also lists some electric-operated automatic ball
valves that can be installed in the main feed line to a piece of equipment and
be wired in so as to open and close when the machine is powered up or shut
off and thus eliminate off-production leaks and open air left on.
Cabinet Coolers
There may be cabinet coolers in use in the facility. Some with refrigeration
(1500 Btu), some with compressed air-driven vortex coolers; and some may just
have compressed air blowing into them. These all may be able to be replaced
with "heat tube" cabinet coolers with a potential savings of 3.5 to 4 kW each.
The initial cost for this range is usually in the $700 to $750 range with a poten-
tial resultant electric savings of $1000 to $2000/year each.
Blow Offs
Picatinny may have 1/8-in. and V4-in. lines running as blow off on units at 80
psig. These will use 8 to 35 cfm each.
An alternate is an air amplifier that takes less compressed air and through Ven-
turi action amplifies the usable air by pulling in significant amounts of ambient
air and mixing it directly into the air stream. These have amplification ratios up
to 25:1. Using 10 cfm of compressed air would generate a savings of 25 cfm com-
pressed air per V4-in. blow off and flow 250 cfm total air at the process.
For example, ^-in., 1-ft-long tube will flow 35 cfm at 80 psig inlet, at an annual
cost power of $3500/yr/ea. Place a variable flow Venturi nozzle to amplify flow
on the end of this tube and it will now only use 10 cfm and flow 250 cfm at the
work. Table A2 summarizes the associated costs.
Vacuum Generators
Production may use vacuum generators, which are:

• convenient
• responsive
• inefficient compared to positive displacement pumps, e.g., rotary screw, re-
ciprocating.
Note that energy cost escalates as vacuum goes down with Venturi generators.
Energy cost also falls as vacuum goes down after about 14 in. with positive dis-
placement pump. It is very important to only run a Venturi vacuum generator to
a minimum vacuum and a minimum acceptable "on time" cycle at the lowest
possible pressure.
For example, if generator uses 60 scfm at 80 psig, it can pull a 20-in. vacuum in
about 0.25 seconds. If shut off at 20-in. vacuum, total air demand will be about
0.25 scfm with Energy Cost = $25 /yr. If allowed to run continuously, air usage
60 scfm with Energy Cost = $6000 /yr.
Table A2. Costs associated with tube / nozzle change to alter blowoff configuration.
Parameter Cost
Annual power cost of one Vi-in. tube (continuous) $3500 /yr/each
Annual power cost of one venturi nozzle (continuous) $1000/yr/each
Energy cost saved $2500/yr/blow off
Recoverable energy cost $1750/yr/blowoff
Nozzle cost $17
Annual power cost of one Win. tube (10% use) $350 /yr/each
Annual power cost of one venturi nozzle (10% use) $100/yr/each
Energy cost saved $250 /yr/blow off
Recoverable energy cost $175/yr/blow off
Nozzle cost $17
Air-Operated Diaphragm Pumps
Air-operated diaphragm pumps are generally used because they tolerate aggres-
sive conditions relatively well and run without catastrophic damage even if the
pump is dry. Efficiency is not usually considered.
There are several areas to pursue here in the future to perhaps generate signifi-
cant air savings:
• Is the air-operated diaphragm pump the right answer? An electric pump is
significantly more power efficient. Electric motor driven diaphragm pumps
are available.
• Consider the installation of electronic or ultrasonic controls to shut the
pumps off automatically when they are not needed. Remember the pump
uses the most air when it is pumping nothing.
• Is Picatinny running most of the time at the lowest possible pressure? The
higher the pressure, the more air used. For example, in a filter pack opera-
tion, the pump often does not need high pressure except during the final
stages of the filter packing cycle. Controls can be arranged to accomplish
lower pressure in the early stages and higher pressure later, which may gen-
erate significant savings.
Misapplied High Pressure Air
High pressure air being used for very low pressure applications is not an efficient
use of energy. A close review of your system should be made and measurements
taken to identify if there is any potential energy savings in using an alternate
source of low pressure air in the production area.
Appendix B: Compressed Air System

Survey at Watervliet Arsenal
Executive Summary
The purpose of the preliminary site assessment was to determine whether Wa-
tervliet Arsenal has the desired characteristics to be selected as a demonstration
site under the project "Demonstration of Natural Gas Engine Driven Air Com-
pressors at Department of Defense Industrial Facilities" (NGEDAC). The
NGEDAC initiative is managed by the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Devel-
opment Center (ERDC), Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL)
and is being implemented by Technology and Management Services, Inc. (TMS)
and Xenergy, Inc. The preliminary assessment provides an overview of the facil-
ity's compressed air system, outlines potential areas for reducing system de-
mand, evaluates the general economics of a gas driven system at the site, and
identifies potential benefits or problems associated with implementing a gas
driven system. The site assessment was conducted during the week of 30 Octo-
ber 2000.
The preliminary assessment concludes that the Watervliet Arsenal is a good

candidate for additional consideration as a demonstration site. Initial considera-
tion for locating the unit is in Building 110 along the South Wall.
The current air flow of the main system is approximately 2000 to 2500 acfm at a
supply pressure of 83 to 85 psig. When the site visit was conducted, the main
centrifugal compressor was not in operation. The estimated annual energy costs
to operate the existing compressed air system is $306,000 when the centrifugal
unit is operating (the normal situation) and $277,000 when the centrifugal unit
is offline (the situation on the day of the site visit).
Based on an interruptible gas supply cost of $5.00 per million Btu, using
NGEDAC technology to supply about two-thirds of the compressed air demand at
Watervliet will reduce energy costs to $200,000 annually. This reduction trans-
lates into an energy savings of $106,000 relative to the costs associated with the
normal operating configuration using the centrifugal unit and $77,000 relative to
the costs associated with the centrifugal unit off-line. A change in the price of
natural gas of $1 per million Btu, will change the level of savings by $25,000.
If the Arsenal moves forward with a Level II Assessment, two specific demand
reduction strategies should be explored. Potential reductions in air leaks on the
order of 300 cfm could save $22,000 in annual operating costs. The use of low-
pressure air or blowers for agitator applications could save even more
Maintenance costs for the NGEDAC technology are $15,000 higher annually
than the existing system based on the cost of a 2-year comprehensive mainte-
nance contract. The resulting net operating savings for NGEDAC technology is
$91,000 with the centrifugal unit operating and $62,000 with the centrifugal
unit off-line.
The preliminary estimate of the installed system cost for the gas technology is
$350,000 to $400,000. This cost could vary up or down depending on specific in-
stallation conditions and desired equipment features. The preliminary capital
cost estimates are based on system environmental emission limits of 2.60
gm/bhp/hr for NOx and 1.75 gm/bhp/hr for CO. The total estimated project cost
does not include any potential electrical demand reduction rebates for which this
project may qualify.
Other potential cost issues to be investigated in the design phase include assess-
ing the price of natural gas, addressing potential environmental issues that cur-
rently appear to be minimal, and finalizing the overall equipment requirements
so price estimates can be formalized. Figure Bl shows the main air system op-
erating costs.
The Watervliet site has a number of other positive aspects that help make it a
good demonstration site. Gas supply is readily accessible, though it may be un-
der-pressured. The Watervliet site provides for a fairly straightforward technol-
ogy application. It affords the Department of Defense an excellent opportunity
to test operating a "gas/electric hybrid system." In addition, the Arsenal would
be provided an opportunity to gain experience in using one of the larger-sized
units available with NGEDAC technology.
Energy Cost to Operate

Main Air System
$306,000
^
"Main Centrifugal Current energy cost (electric) for Main System with
Operating" Centrifugal operating
$277,000
*v
"NGEDAC Reductions - Current energy cost (electric) for Main System with
Gas @ $6/MBtu Centrifugal taken off-line
$225,000
^
"NGEDAC Reductions - Estimated energy costs (gas & electric) with NGEDAC
Gas @ $4/MBtu" Technology and Gas @ $6/MBtu
--- $176,000
*v
"Demand-side Estimated energy cost (gas & electric) with NGEDAC
Improvements" Technology and Gas @ $4/MBtu
$154,000
^
"Remaining Energy Cost" Estimate energy cost with Demand-side improvement
and NGEDAC Technology and Gas @ $4/MBtu
Figure B1. Main air system operating costs.
Section 1. Current System Review
Background
The Watervliet Arsenal has a very extensive compressed air system linking
many separate buildings and spread over a large geographical area. The air sys-
tem reaches most production sectors and runs building to building, eventually
completing a full "loop" system. The compressed air supply is primarily gener-
ated in Building 110 with one large 2000 cfm (450 hp) class Joy centrifugal com-
pressor and two 125-hp Ingersoll-Rand XLE (650 cfm per machine) reciprocating
compressors.
There are six other major compressors tied in to the main air system in sur-
rounding buildings. There are also a number of smaller air-cooled reciprocating
units throughout the Arsenal either as part of the separate "controls air system"
or dedicated air to a particular process.
Air drying is provided by both desiccant and refrigeration units and appears to
be working well according to plant personnel and survey results. Most of the
compressors are water cooled, but some have their own air-cooled, radiator-type,
closed-cooling systems, which also appear to be working well.
The complete air system appears to be very well laid out, well maintained and
operated consistently with the type of controls on each compressor unit. How-
ever, on the demand side of the system, there are a number of areas that should
be reviewed in the future in more detail, as they appear to be significant
opportunities reducing air consumption.
The overall usage in the full system today is on the order of 2000 to 2500 cfm. In
the past, when there was a higher level of production at the site, the overall us-
age was larger. The results of the preliminary site survey suggests there are
leaks amounting to at least 300 cfm that could be identified and repaired, which
would reduce annual electric costs by over $22,000. There seem to be some tank
agitation applications that could perhaps be powered by low-pressure air com-
pressors or blowers rather than costly high-pressure air. These and other de-
mand-side savings opportunities will be enumerated in the Level II Assessment
if Watervliet Arsenal is selected as a NGEDAC demonstration site.
Current and Reconfigured System Baseline
The key characteristics describing the performance and economics of the current
and proposed compressed air system are summarized in Tables Bl, B2 and B3.
The table was developed based on the data collected during the site visit and in
discussions with plant personnel. The proposed system estimates are technically
and economically conservative and reflect the observed performance of each
compressor compared to load cycle.
Observations of Plant Personnel
At current load, the Joy centrifugal 450-hp will "carry the plant" with some as-
sistance from the IR LLE-5 (Building 25), which provides on the order of 100 cfm
for several hours a day. Usage levels for the second and third shifts do not seem
to fall much, probably due to high use of aeration air, vortex cooling, leaks, etc.,
which occur 24-hours per day. The estimated average system flow is approxi-
mately 2000 to 2500 acfm.
Table B1. Surveyed air compressor performance characteristics.

Bldg Unit FLkW FL acfm % Load Net cfm NetkW
25 IR LLE-5 100.80 653 75% 490 80.64
20 ED 100 11.79 446 85% 379 74.68
35 (3)WN112 «Off» — — — —
110 XLE-2 100.51 687 100% 687 100.51
110 JoyTA18 « Off» — — — —
110 XLE-2 100.51 687 90% 618 95.48
125 WN112 « Off» — — — —
Total 2,174 351.31
Table B2. Estimated air compressor performance characteristics.

Bldg. Unit1 FLkW FLacfm % Load Net cfm NetkW
25 IR LLE-5 100.80 653 27% 174 35.28
110 JoyTA18 353.37 2,000 100% 2,000 353.37
Total 2,174 388.65
1
Assumes all other units off.
Observations of Audit Team
The main air supply was on and running during the plant survey period from
10:30 am to 1:00 pm on 31 October 2000. The system supply pressure was ob-
served in the operating range of 83 to 85 psig. The pressure at the compressors
was observed in the operating range of 90 to 100 psig. In most cases, the cen-
trifugal unit is operated at full load. However, on the day of the visit, the cen-
trifugal unit was not operating.
The blended electric rate equals $0.09/kWh. Average annual electric rates at the
plant are $0.09/kWh. The actual plant electric cost for air production, as cur-
rently operated, is in excess of $300,000 per year. The load profile or demand of
this system is relatively stable during all shifts. The full load operating range is
24 hours a day, 365 days a year, for 8760 hours a year. The system pressure ap-
pears to operate in the range of 83 to 85 psig at the headers during production
periods. There are no flow meters in the system.
The standard performance measure used for this analysis is "electric cost per
hour per loaded cfm" of air. Annual electric cost was selected as the key project
evaluation factor, since it is a good overall indication of system costs and savings
associated with potential measures. It is an quantitative number and not a sub-
jective opinion, i.e., if the compressed air is used, these dollars are spent.
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All paybacks are estimated using "Full Load Operating Efficiencies," which are
very conservative. If the compressed air is not used, the compressor either shuts
off or unloads. If it shuts off, there is a 100 percent saving of the electric cost. If
it unloads, there is a 25 to 90 percent savings of the electric cost.
It is important to note that other recoverable compressed air costs should also be
considered, e.g., maintenance, cooling water costs, and depreciation. Usually,
the electricity cost is between 75 and 90 percent of the total "variable compressed
air costs." Associated maintenance and other costs will be, in all probability, at
least 20 percent or more of the identified electric cost. Existing plant records
may already have these identified.
Energy Cost Baseline
Table B4 lists recent history of energy expenditures at Watervliet Arsenal.
Gas costs averaged $4.21 per million Btu in Fiscal Year 1999. This average was
up about 10 percent over Fiscal Year 1998 and by about 20 percent over Fiscal
Year 1997. These gas prices include $0.60 per million Btu transportation costs.
An estimate of $5 per million Btu was used as the baseline for this assessment
with $4 and $6 per million Btu used as a sensitivity analysis. A $1 increase in
gas price increases operating costs by about $25,000 for the NGEDAC.
Table B4. Energy cost summary.
Electric Natural Gas

Rate Use Rate
Month Use (kWh) Cost ($) ($/kWh) (MMBtu) Cost ($) ($/MMBtu)
FY-97 32,240,516 2,751,330 0.0853 32,963 116,433 3.5322
FY-98 31,404,550 2,322,902 0.0740 24,611 97,380 3.9568
Oct-99 2,573,874 185,904 0.0722 15,100 57,609 3.8152
Nov-99 2,363,428 179,699 0.0760 23,690 108,690 4.5880
Dec-99 2,430,821 178,911 0.0736 34,303 119,123 3.4727
Jan-00 2,705,661 213,373 0.0789 20,593 77,053 3.7417
Feb-00 2,417,303 183,645 0.0760 43,095 177,984 4.1300
Mar-00 2,501,397 191,840 0.0767 27,822 111,626 4.0121
Apr-00 2,344,946 193,010 0.0823 10,389 43,444 4.1817
May-00 2,557,299 216,039 0.0845 3,862 31,089 8.0500
Jun-00 2,646,735 273,949 0.1035 0 1,014 0.0000
Jul-00 2,371,271 212,614 0.0897 0 1,014 0.0000
Aug-00 2,938,037 275,736 0.0939 0 23,350 0.0000
Sep-00 2,503,698 218,487 0.0873 29 1,921 66.2414
FY-99 30,354,470 2,523,207 0.0831 178,883 753,917 4.2146
Electric costs averaged $0.83 per kWh during Fiscal Year 1999. At the end of
December 2000, a special contract that Watervliet had with NIMO,expired. The
net impact of this change will be an increase to $0.09 per kWh as the average
rate for Watervliet in moving forward. This level of impact was provided by Wa-
tervliet staff and confirmed by project staff. The value of $0.09 per kWh was
used in the project assessment.
Section 2. Supply-Side System Review
Primary Air Compressor Supply
The following is an overview of the compressed air supply system as observed on

31 October 2000.
Building 110
Units 110N and 110S are each 125-hp class Ingersoll Rand, two-stage, water-
cooled, double-acting reciprocating XLE compressors. They are also of a continu-
ous duty design. These are the most power-efficient air compressors at full load
and when at part load to meet varying demand. They appear to be in good oper-
ating condition, although the inspection team did not perform any tear down in-
spection. There is no reason from a power efficiency standpoint to replace these
units.
Unit 110 Center is a 450-hp Joy three-stage centrifugal (oil-free) TA18 compres-
sor delivering 1850 to 2000 acfm at 100 psig at 450 bhp. This is a dynamic com-
pressor, and actual air delivered and performance will vary with operating con-
ditions. From a full load power efficiency standpoint, the TA18 is about the
same as the XLE. However, the TA18 does not unload or meet part load de-
mands as efficiently in "turndown" much below 25 percent when operating cor-
rectly. This unit is very power efficient from about 2000 to 1500 acfm flow. This
TA18 is equipped with inlet guide vanes (IGVs), which allow almost "perfect
turndown" from 2000 to 1500 acfm load. At flows below 1750, it will be less effi-
cient, and at lower loads it will be very inefficient with the current installed con-
trol system. Other than a more efficient unloading central controller, there is no
reason from a power standpoint to replace or modify this unit.
Because of its central location on the system, proximity to other compressor

units, available physical space, and easy access to gas, Building 110 is the lead-
ing candidate as the site for the proposed NGEDAC system. Preferred location is
probably along the south wall of building.
Building 125
Building 125 houses a Joy WN112 75-hp two-stage, double-acting, water-cooled

compressor delivering 405 acfm at 100 psig at 77.3 bhp. This unit also appears
to be in excellent shape and, according to plant personnel, runs very well. Even
though it is an older unit (circa 1956), it is of the best designs for its type. There
is no reason from a power efficiency or application standpoint that it should have
to be replaced.
Building 35
Building 35 has three Joy WN112 compressors, the same as described above.
One unit is a 75-hp (405 acfm @ 100 psig) and the other two are 100-hp (564
acfm @ lOOpsig). They all appear to be in good working order and well main-
tained.
Building 25
Building 25 houses a 125-hp Ingersoll Rand LLE-5 two-stage, double-acting, wa-

ter-cooled compressor delivering 653 acfm @ 100 psig @ 125 bhp. This is the
newest of the double-acting, water-cooled units and is of "leading edge technol-
ogy." Key characteristics of this "balanced drive" include:
• Extra large valve area—shorter lift—cooler running

• Large cooling jackets
• Built-in high performance intercooler and aftercooler.
As in the case of the rest of the double-acting units, the unit runs well and ap-
pears to be in good shape, and is very well maintained. There is no reason to re-
place this unit based on power efficiency. As in the case of the other compres-
sors, it is continuous duty rated.
Building 20
Building 20 has a new Ingersoll Rand EP100 single-stage, lubricant-cooled, ro-

tary screw air compressor. This unit is air cooled, but it is also continuous duty.
The EP100 is obviously state-of-the-art and very conservatively applied. Its 100-
hp motor is designed to run with a 1.15 service factor and the basic unit delivers
446 acfm at 125 to 135 psig at full load. It has been applied in the system very
professionally with an operating band of 90 to 100 psig. This puts a load of 96.25
bhp or less on the 115-hp rated motor. It should do very well in the long run
and, of course, save energy.
General Comments on the Air System
1. The above listed units are the main or primary air compressors used to support
manufacturing and test operations at Watervliet. All but one (a rotary screw) are
water-cooled units and each unit has its own polyglycol closed-cooling system.
This utilization of available equipment is an excellent operational strategy and
appears to be working well. This type of operation eliminates many of the prob-
lems associated with water-cooled units. The 450-hp Joy centrifugal has a closed-
radiator-type system also, and according to plant personnel, it works well except
for several hours a day during extremely hot weather (>90 °F). To alleviate this
problem, there is a manually operated spray line set up to super cool when neces-
sary. Centrifugal and rotary screws are more sensitive to cooling conditions in
both useful life and performance than industrial reciprocating units. The sprayer
is currently working. In the future, some consideration could be given to an
automatically controlled high-performance secondary inline cooler between the
radiator discharge and the compressor water inlet.
2. Buildings 133 and 40 have are some Worthington M-Iine, single-acting, air-
cooled reciprocating units which are not operating under continuous duty. These
type units are not well suited to industrial production applications. They are
rated very low in power efficiency. One of these is inoperable now; these units
should be kept only for emergency backup air, if at all.
3. In addition to these 50- and 100-hp air-cooled units, there are at least nine 25-hp
air-cooled Ingersoll Rand compressors in Building 15; one 15-hp air-cooled Wayne
compressor in Building 120; and one 25-hp Champion (Speedair) compressor in
Building 120. These types of units are well applied at or near the point of end-
use production, particularly where higher than the 85 psig systems pressure is
needed, to feed an intermittent demand. They are not continuous duty and
should be applied on about a 50 percent duty cycle for normal life, operating, and
maintenance costs. They are not particularly power efficient and should not be
run in place of general system units unless higher pressure is required.
4. Well over 20,5-hp and smaller air-cooled reciprocating compressors are set up on
appropriately sized horizontal air receivers and refrigerated air dryers through-
out the Arsenal. Most of these are not part of the control system and are sepa-
rate from the main system air. Where a 5-hp or fractional-hp unit is run instead
of the general air system, utilization of these units should be questioned unless it
is for higher air pressure than the main system. These units are not even close in
power efficiency performance to the main air system units.
5. There is also a Breathing Aid compressor and system in Building 110 South and
123 for painting processes. These are well applied and only used when painting
is in progress.
6. All units have their own local capacity control system and all, except the 450-hp
Joy centrifugal, are set up to start automatically when air is needed and to shut
off automatically when not needed. This control strategy appears to work very
well and is a very positive step in air conservation already taken.
The primary compressed air supply is produced by relatively efficient air com-
pressors that are capable of delivering the 100 psig full load pressure continu-
ously. The units are well applied. They appear to be in good operating order and
well maintained. Table B5 lists key characteristics of the units.
Compressor Capacity Controls
The two most effective ways to run air compressors are at "Full Load" and "Off."
Capacity controls are a means of restricting the output cfm delivered to the sys-
tem while the unit is still running. This is always a compromise and it is never
as efficient as full load on a specific power (cfm/bhp) basis.
Controls for Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating compressors are double-acting, water-cooled units with multi-step

unloading. This is an efficient compressed air unloading system. Reciprocating
multi-step unloading will efficiently translate percentage of "less air used" into
almost the same proportional reduction in energy cost.
Table B5. Key performance characteristics by compressor type.
Double Double Double Double Single-stage

Acting Acting Acting Acting Rotary
Performance Recip Centrifugal Recip Recip Recip Screw
Characteristics (2 units) (1 unit) (2 units) (2 units) (1 unit) (1 unit)
Brand IR Joy Joy Joy IR IR
Model XLE TA18 WN112 WN112 LLE-5 EP100
Air Capacity (acfm) 687 2,000 564 405 653 446
FL Press 100 100 100 100 100 100
FLkW@ 100 psig 100.51 353.37 88.69 64.79 100.8 77.79
Cfm/kW/100psig 6.83 5.66* 6.36 6.25 6.48 5.73
Annual Electric Cost $115.43 $139.29 $123.92 $126.14 $121.66 $137.59
($/cfm)
Annual Electric Cost $396.25 NA $349.61 $255.41 $397.35 $306.64
($/psig)
For more precise performance measures, see OEM curve or measure actual flow and input kW - compare in
scfm, unit was down for repairs during the site visit. Data were obtained from plant personnel. Blended elec-
tric rate equals $0.09/kWh.
ERDC/CERLTR-01-65 gg
The current system has two-step, free air unloading on the Ingersoll Rands and
two-step total closure on the Joys. They are very responsive and power efficient.
There are also newer electronic Intelysis controls on the IRs.
Controls for Rotary Screw Compressors
The two most common controls used rotary screw compressors are modulation
and online/offline. Modulation is relatively efficient at very high loads—and in-
efficient at lower loads. Online/offline controls are very efficient for loads below
60 percent, when properly applied with adequate time for blow down. There are
several other control types (e.g., "rotor length adjustment" or "variable displace-
ment" and "variable speed drive") that have very efficient turndown from 100
percent load to about 60 percent load.
These controls must be installed correctly to operate efficiently. Piping and stor-
age should be available close to the unit with no measurable pressure loss at full
load to allow the signal to closely match the air requirements.
The current system has online/offline controls with an automatic electronic up-
per range modulator on the new IR rotary screw. It is very well applied and in-
stalled and appears to be working well.
Controls for Centrifugal Compressors
The two most common controls used for centrifugal compressors are modulation
and blow off. Modulation is relatively efficient at very high loads, but will not
work much below 75 percent load. After modulation or turndown, the compres-
sor then just blows off excess air. The basic power draw at the blow off point
then stays the same regardless of the load. The Watervliet unit uses these types
of controls, and also uses IGVs to allow efficient turndown.
Today's modern electronic control systems can be applied to effectively close off
the inlet and blow the unit down to idle, significantly reducing the kW draw.
The Quad II control system installed now is somewhat limited, but the new
Quad 2000 by Cooper (Joy) would do this with some system storage and piping
modification. There is no reason to pursue this as long as the unit stays in base
load and does go into continuing blow off.
The centrifugal units involved have capacity controls capable of translating "less
air used" into a comparable reduction in electric cost. These controls will work
effectively with current piping and the air receiver storage situation at today's
conditions.
Long-Term Recommendation
With the system stabilized and balanced and with the primary air supply cen-
trally located, consider a microprocessor-driven, centralized, full networking
electronic control system. This will automatically place the most efficient ma-
chine online and assure use of no more than one partial loaded unit at a time. It
will operate at a fixed system target pressure.
Air Treatment and Air Quality
Aftercoolers
Aftercoolers are mostly water cooled and appear capable of delivering 100 °F or
lower temperature compressed air to the dryer during all seasons. The new ro-
tary screw unit has a high performance air-cooled aftercooler.
Dryers
Refrigerated dryers require a refrigeration system to mechanically cool the air.

The lowest possible consistent pressure dew point with a noncycling dryer is
+40 °F. Cycling and variable speed-driven dryers not only save power (60 to 75
percent), but also can deliver a lower pressure dew point (down to 35 to 38 °F)
when:
• air is delivered to the dryer at no more than 100 °F
• the condensate driven out of the aftercooler, prefilter, dryer and afterfilter is
immediately removed from the system and not allowed to re-entrain or build up
• the dryer is not overloaded in volume (scfm).
Desiccant dryer regeneration equipment removes moisture vapor by "adsorbing"

it to desiccant beads. These dryers can consistently deliver a pressure dew point
to -40 °F or lower, which removes much more water than conventional refrigera-
tion units. To regenerate the wet tower while the other tower is drying requires
the use of heat in some form and some dry air to "sweep" or "purge" the ex-
changed moisture out. Desiccant dryers are usually rated at the same 100 °F
inlet, 100 psig conditions. They also require:
• that air is delivered to the dryer at no more than 100 °F
• that the condensate driven out of the aftercooler, pre-filter, dryer and after-
filter is immediately removed from the system and not allowed to retrain or
build up.
The current system has a refrigerated dryer on most of the air compressors, and
they all appeared to be well applied and maintained. Those that were in use
were running well. There are also two heatless, twin-tower regenerative dryers
(670, 730 scfm each), which deliver dryer air to specific areas. These are also
relatively well applied and, even though they use 15 percent purge air, they are
equipped with new point removal purge controllers, which will usually reduce
this by about 50 percent.
The centrifugal goes through a 2500 scfm rated Van Air internally heated twin-
tower regenerative dryer, which is the most energy efficient type of dryer available
except heat of compressors. It takes less intensive energy because of induction
compared to the condition heating of the bead with other types and uses much less
purge air. It is also equipped with a dew point demand purge controller.
Water or Oil Carryover in System
Water (condensate) and oil carryover problems in the current air system are not
significant. The correct way to eliminate water and oil in the air system is to
clean and dry the air immediately after it is produced in the compressor room.
Then, clean dry air can be stored in a separate air receiver and delivered to the
system, as required. Some guidelines for controlling oil and water carryover in-
clude:
1. Generally, it is best to eliminate the water and oil at the air source before it en-
ters the air system.
2. Every 20 °F increase in temperature doubles the "moisture load" the compressed
air will hold.
3. Compressed air dryers are usually capacity rated with 100 °F, 100 psig inlet air
conditions. At 120 °F, 100 psig, the dryer's capacity rating is reduced 50 percent.
4. Putting "dry or oil free" air into the system 90 percent of the time and then allow-
ing wet or oily air in sporadically 10 percent of the time will, in reality, make the
system wet or oily all the time. The liquid water or oil will fall out in the piping
system continuing to "re-entrain" and contaminate or collect in the "low spots" of
the system, thus causing recontamination as air is pulled into the flowing com-
pressed air system. A wet or oily system may well take many months of continu-
ous flowing of clean dry air to "clean up."
5. Identify required pressure and dew point.
102
ERDC/CERL TR-01-65
Pre-Filters and After-Filters
Pre- and after-filters are generally either particulate or coalescing type, and
their use depends on the type of dryer being used and various installation con-
siderations.
Desiccant dryers always require a high-quality coalescing pre-filter to keep liq-

uid oil and water out of the drying tower. They also always require an effective
particulate filter after the dryer to keep "desiccant dust" from migrating into the
system.
Refrigerated dryers may or may not need pre- and after-filters depending on the
piping, type of compressor, and desired degree of cleanliness. If the inlet air is
apt to be dirty and fouled with carbon scale, etc., a particulate pre-filter is re-
quired. If the inlet air is liable to have significant liquid or heavy oil mist, a coa-
lescing (or combination coalescing particulate) pre-filter may be needed. If oil or
water mist is leaving the dryer, a coalescing after-filter may be in order.
Care in selection must be taken in all cases because:

• Wasted air pressure costs energy dollars.
• Wasted air pressure neutralizes the operating pressure band early.
• Standard coalescers will usually not perform effectively at flows much below
20 percent of their rated capacity.
• Standard coalescers life will be significantly shortened by particulate load
• Loose-packed, deep-bed mist eliminators (those with correct elements) will
coalesce effectively throughout the total scfm range.
• Loose-packed, deep-bed mist eliminators (those with correct elements) have
very high particulate load capability.
The pre- and after-filter(s) in this system are well applied and apparently well
maintained.
Automatic Condensate Drains
The configuration and performance of condensate drains in the plant's system do

not need to be modified. However, there still are some dual-timer drains that
should ultimately be replaced with level-actuated ones.
Demand-Side System Review
It is the job of the main header system to deliver compressed air for production
use from the compressor area to all sectors of the plant with little or no pressure
loss—with 1 to 2 psig being a reasonable target. It is also desirable that the

compressed air velocity in the main headers be kept below 20 fps to allow effec-
tive dropout of contaminants and to minimize pressure losses caused by exces-
sive turbulence. The magnitude of the turbulence effect also depends on piping
design and layout.
Basic System Header and Piping
Headers were checked at appropriate points with a single test gauge and there is
a pressure loss of approximately 1 psig or less in the header systems. This indi-
cates that the header system today can deliver the required air to any area with-
out any significant pressure loss. Low-pressure problems encountered may be in
the feeds from the header to the area.
Minimum Effective System Pressure
The system is currently running at 83 to 85 psig. However, there are additional

direct power cost savings that will accrue from continuing to lower the overall
system operating pressure. A steady delivered pressure to the system will allow
follow-up programs at each process to establish the lowest effective pressure.
This will enhance productivity, quality, and continue to reduce air usage.
The cornerstone of any effective demand-side air conservation program is to

identify and operate at the lowest acceptable operating pressure at various sec-
tors and operating units in the plant. This conservation program should be a
part of any training, operating, and maintenance procedures.
Check Regulator
Some regulators are probably set at higher feed pressures than necessary for the
process, with some regulators set for wide open to full header pressure. Arsenal
personnel should always keep certain questions in mind. Is there a minimum
effective pressure at operation established at the unit for each product run? If
so, is it being adhered to?
In this type of operation, it is very important that the actual inlet pressure to the
process be known and that the lowest effective pressure be held steady for the
proper product quality. Installation of storage bottles downstream of the regula-
tor may be needed to "close up" the pressure readings at rest and at operation.
Recommended Investigation
Determine whether regulators and regulated flow at process can be modified to

reduce overall system pressure.
Compressed Air Condensate Handling
Reviewing the condensate handling system, we understand that the condensate

goes to water treatment. If this is true, and discharge condensate meets the re-
quirements of the water treatment facility plant, there is no problem. However,
if condensate is discharging to a storm sewer or in some other manner to ground
water (Federal EPA minimum is 10 ppm), or is required to be separated it by the
local water treatment facility, this practice should be investigated in detail.
Review compressed air condensate handling system to ensure compliance with

environmental regulations.
Leak Identification And Repair
With a plant of this type, an effective leak control program could save 300 cfm or
the equivalent of repairing 100 leaks averaging 3 cfm each. On a percentage ba-
sis, this leak level is then about the same as leak levels in other plants. A leak
level of 300 cfm translates into an annual loss of $30,000 in electric cost, at
$100/cfm. A comprehensive leak management program could reduce such levels
by 75 percent, saving up to $22,000 annually.
Consider implementing a continuing leak identification and repair program with

ultrasonic locators.
There should be a continuing cost minimization program in place. Generally

speaking, the most effective programs are those that involve the production su-
pervisors and operators working positively with the maintenance personnel. Ac-
cordingly, it is suggested that the program consist of the following:
Short Term
Set up a continuing leak inspection by maintenance personnel so that for a

while, each primary sector of the plant is inspected once a quarter, or at a mini-
mum, once every 6 months, to identify and repair leaks. A record should be kept
of the findings and overall results.
Long Term
Consider setting up programs where the production people (particularly the op-
erators and their supervisors) are positively motivated to identify and repair
leaks. One method that has worked well with other operations is to monitor the
airflow to each responsible section (perhaps with the use of recording the nonre-
cording flow meters) and to identify the air usage as a measurable part of the
operating expense ofthat area. This usually works best when combined with an
effective in-house training and awareness program. Table B6 lists costs and sav-
ings associated with implementing a leak management program.
Automatic Ball Valves
Some of the most significant areas for leaks in any high-production plant involve
shutting off the air supply to machinery when not in use. When these opportuni-
ties are found, there are usually some very economical and easy methods to
automatically shut off machinery air supply when not in use.
Cabinet Coolers
Cabinet cooling is often required to obtain reasonable life and performance of the
electronic equipment in control cabinets. There are various means of accom-
plishing this cooling: blowing compressed air into the cabinet, and by using vor-
tex coolers, refrigeration units, or heat tube cabinet coolers. Blowing straight
compressed air into the cabinet is generally very inefficient.
Table B6. Costs and savings associated with implementing a leak management program.
Parameter Cost / Savings
w Leak detection equipment $2,800
M
o Leak program development and detection equipment training $1,000
u
Leak repair (100 teaks @ $30 materials per leak and $50 labor per leak) $3,000
Calculated electric savings from leak program $22,000 per year
Estimated number of leaks 100 leaks
w Estimated average leak size
O) 3 cfm per leak
c
> Estimated leak level 300 cfm
a
V) Potential value of leak reduction $100 per cfm
Estimated unit electric savings $30,000 per year
Recoverable leak losses 75%
Total Program Cost $5,000 plus $1,000
annually for ongoing
repairs
Vortex coolers can use chilled air with no moving parts and use less air. Vortex
coolers should always:
• be regulated to the lowest effective pressure
• be equipped with the lowest possible flow generator
• be equipped with automatic temperature controlled shutoffs.
Refrigeration units should be carefully selected and equipped with automatic

regulation control. Heat tubes are the most energy efficient when applied and
can cool a "sealed cabinet." There are some cabinet coolers in use in the plant.
These may all be replaced with "heat tube" cabinet coolers with a potential sav-
ings of 3.5 to 4 kW each.
CERL Distribution
Chief of Engineers
ATTN: CEHEC-IM-LH (2)
Engineer Research and Development Center (Libraries)

ATTN: ERDC, Vicksburg, MS
ATTN: Cold Regions Research, Hanover, NH
ATTN: Topographic Engineering Center, Alexandria, VA
Army Materiel Command (AMC)

Installations (41)
Defense Tech Info Center 22304

ATTN: DTIC-0
50
8/01
Form Approved
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE OMBNo. 0704-0188
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1. REPORT DATE (DD-MM-YYYY) 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (From - To)
09-2001 Final
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER
Applications Guide for Compressed Air Systems
5b. GRANT NUMBER
5C. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER
6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER

Mike C.J. Lin and Yezin E. Taha 622784AT45
5e. TASK NUMBER
5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER

X051
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC) NUMBER
Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL) ERDC/CERLTR-01-65
P.O. Box 9005
Champaign, IL 61826-9005
9. SPONSORING / MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSOR/MONITOR'S ACRONYM(S)

Rock Island Arsenal AMXIS-C
Bldg 60
Rock Island, IL 61299-7190 11. SPONSOR/MONITOR'S REPORT
NUMBER(S)
12. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Copies are available from the National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
14. ABSTRACT
Compressed air (CA) is used as a source of power for tools, industrial processes, and equipment. It is often considered as a fourth util-
ity, after electricity, gas, and water. In most plants/shops, CA is centrally generated and distributed to all users through a pipe network.
Although CA systems are a very convenient power source, they are not cheap to operate. However, nearly all industrial plants can real-
ize from 25 to 40 percent savings on the power costs for the CA system without additional capital expenditures. Through improved
management, CA systems can save energy, decrease down time, reduce maintenance, increase productivity, and improve quality. This
applications guide is meant to acquaint C A system operation and maintenance personnel with the basics of industrial compressed air
systems needed to achieve efficient system operation
15. SUBJECT TERMS

compressed air (CA) energy conservation operation and maintenance
compressors industrial compressed air systems
16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. LIMITATION 18. NUMBER 19a. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE PERSON
OF ABSTRACT OF PAGES Mike C.J. Lin
a. REPORT b. ABSTRACT C. THIS PAGE 19b. TELEPHONE NUMBER (In-
Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified clude area code)
SAR 110
(217) 352-651 l,X-7358
Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8-98)
Prescribed by ANSI Sid. 239.18

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US Army Corps

Applications Guide for

Applications Guide for

List of Figures and Tables 6

2 Compressed Air System Overview 10

6 Compressed Air Dryers 31

7 Compressed Air Line Filters 34

8 Automatic Condensate Traps 36

9 Compressed Air Condensate Separators 38

10 Compressed Air Distribution System 40

11 Determining Compressed Air Requirements 44

12 Compressed Air System Audit 46

13 Compressed Air System Optimization 51

Appendix A: Compressed Air System Survey at Picatinny Arsenal 71

Appendix B: Compressed Air System Survey at Watervliet Arsenal 88

CERL Distribution 107

Report Documentation Page 108

List of Figures and Tables

1 Ideal components layout 19

Mode of Technology Transfer

2 Compressed Air System Overview

Cost of Compressed Air

As a good approximation, typical compressor produces:

4 cubic foot per minute (CFM) per 1 motor hp (horsepower)

Thus, 10 CFM over 8000 hours per year costs:

Cost of Air Leaks

Three main parameters need to be considered in the compressed air system:

Pressure (psi, or pounds per square inch):

System pressure depends on user requirements, controls, and safety valves.

An unregulated compressor will keep increasing pressure until a failure occurs.

The Pressure - Capacity relationship is expressed as:

The Cost of Pressure

A good "rule of thumb" in calculating the cost of pressure is:

Each pound (psi) of system pressure = 0.5 percent of system horsepower Eq 3

For example, one might calculate pressure cost as follows:

Assume that a 100-hp compressor is set to discharge at 125 psig to the

15 psi x 0.5% = 7.5% of hp = 7.5 hp

and savings can be calculated as

Capacity (Flow, in CFM)

Typically, electric motor nameplate displays a horsepower (hp) number. For

Air Basics Translations

Compressor Selection Criteria

In selecting a compressor, the user should consider the following criteria:

General Guidelines—First Cost

Single-Stage Rotary Screw

Single-stage, rotary screw compressors have the following characteristics:

Possible alternatives to single-stage, rotary screw compressors are:

The advantages of centrifugal compressors are that:

The disadvantages of centrifugal compressors are that:

Reciprocating or Rotary Screw Designs

Reciprocating or rotary screw designs are distinguished by the following charac-

Rotary Screw (Oil Flooded- Single Stage)

• They have a simple packaged design.

The disadvantages of oil flooded rotary screws are that:

Rotary Screw (Oil Free)

The advantages of oil free rotary screw compressors are that:

The disadvantages of oil free rotary screw compressors are that:

General considerations with regard to compressed air system regulation are:

System Location and Arrangement

Some advantages of placing compressed air systems in an indoor, centralized lo-

Some disadvantages of placing compressed air systems in an indoor, centralized

Some advantages of placing compressed air systems in an indoor, decentralized

Some disadvantages of placing compressed air systems in an indoor, decentral-