Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. GENERAL:
To know what question to ask and what to look for, you must have some fundamental
bearing on accidents and their causes. When you speak of traffic accident, everybody knows what
you mean – SOMETHING WENT WRONG on the highway, either a wrecked car, somebody
injured or possibly killed.
In this relation, as traffic law enforcers, you should have knowledge of traffic accidents and
their investigations.
4. DEFINITIONS:
a. TRAFFIC – refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by
combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose of travel.
b. ACCIDENT – is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces
unintended injury, death, or property damage.
c. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT – an accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
d. MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT – is any event that results in unintended injury or property
damage attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads.
Included are:
1. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;
2. Fires;
3. Explosion;
4. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
5. Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car on stationary rails or
tracks;
6. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.
Excluded are:
1. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in motion;
2. Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change of the earth
surface);
3. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power is being loaded on or
unloaded from another conveyance.
e. MOTOR VEHICLE – is every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is
propelled by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon
rails.
f. TRAFFIC WAY – is the entire width between boundary lines of every way or place of which
any part is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic as a matter of right
or custom.
g. ROADWAY – the portion of a traffic way which is improved, designed or ordinarily used for
vehicular travel, exclusive of the shoulder.
h. KEY EVENT – an event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a
motor vehicle traffic accident.
i. DEBRIS – is the accumulation of broken parts of vehicles rubbish, dust and other materials
left at the scene of the accident by a collision.
j. SKID MARKS – are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to rotate, usually
because brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked.
k. SCUFF MARKS – are signs left on the road by tires that are sliding or scrubbing while the
wheel is still turning.
a. Property Damage Accident – is any motor vehicle accident where three is no fatal or injury
to any person but only damage to the motor vehicle or to other property including injury to
animals.
b. Slight – accident causing slight damages to properties.
c. Non-Fatal Injury Accident – any motor vehicle accident that results in injuries other than
fatal to one or more persons.
c.1 Less Serious – accidents causing less serious injuries to persons.
c.2 Serious – causing serious injuries to persons.
d. Fatal – any motor vehicle accidents that results in death to one or more persons.
8. TRAFFIC UNIT – is any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other purposes as a
pedestrian or driver, including any vehicle, or animal, which he is using. It applies not only to motor
vehicle but also to:
a. Pedestrians;
b. Cyclists;
c. Street cars;
d. Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
e. Farm tractors; and
f. Other road users in almost any combination.
a. SIMULTANEOUS FACTORS:
1. Road conditions.
2. Drivers’ attitude or behavior
3. Weather condition.
b. SEQUENTIAL FACTORS:
1. Speed is greater or less than safe.
2. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction)
c. OPERATING FACTORS:
1. Road hazards
2. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.
d. PERCEPTION FACTORS:
1. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a situation.
2. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision course.
HAZARDS – A hazard is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between a traffic unit and
another object develops due to the movement of either or both. Example: A curve in the path is a hazard.
Another traffic unit in the path is also a hazard.
SAFE SPEED – The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road and traffic situation
ahead. Safe speed on the road is determined by the road rather than the particular driver of a vehicle.
Example: A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it can be taken comfortably.
PERCEPTION OF HAZARD – Seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the unusual or unexpected
movement or condition that could be taken as a sight of an accident about to happen.
POINT OF NO ESCAPE – is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be prevented
by the traffic unit under consideration.
FINAL POSITION – is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally come to rest without
application of power.
11. STEPS TO BE TAKEN BY THE POLICE AS A TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCER DURING TRAFFIC
ACCIDENTS:
STEP ONE
STEP TWO
A. UPON ARRIVAL AT THE SCENE OF ACCIDENT:
1. Select parking place carefully.
2. Is it safe?
3. Will it block traffic?
4. Can headlight illuminate scene?
5. Look over bystanders and others.
6. Look for drivers.
7. Look for possible witnesses.
8. For volunteers who will help you.
9. Get them under control
10. Have spilled gasoline guarded.
11. Look for fire and electrical hazards.
12. Look for traffic hazards.
13. Put out flares.
14. Ask helper to direct traffic
15. Keep bystanders off roadway.
16. Request help from headquarter if needed.
B. ARRANGE FOR ANY HELP:
START FOR THE SCENE: With two way radio, you can do two things while on the
way.
Step 1
Step 2
1. Look for congestion or potential congestions.
2. Direct traffic or have it directed.
3. CARE FOR INJURED:
a. Stop arterial bleeding
b. Call for help if necessary
c. Help injured from cars safely
d. Ask for emergency assistance from bystanders from any where.
4. LOCATE DRIVERS:
1. Consider possibility of hit and run accident and need to alert
headquarters.
Step 3
WHEN EMERGENCY IS UNDER CONTROL
a. PRELIMINARY QUESTIONING OF DRIVERS:
1. Who was driving each vehicle?
2. Note unpremeditated statement.
3. Look for signs of nervousness, confusion and intoxication.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars.
1. Question other witnesses especially bystanders in hurry to go.
2. It needed, get signed statement at once from why who may be hard to find later.
c. Examine drivers conditions
1. Get specimen for chemical test.
2. Question about trip plan for possible fatigue.
d. Question drivers carefully
1. Check license and record data from it.
2. Verify and identify address.
3. Check registration and record data.
4. Verify ownership and correct address.
5. Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.
e. Position and condition of vehicles.
1. Note lights and light switches
2. Note gear position and tires.
3. Mark position of vehicles if it must be removed.
4. Look for unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f. From preliminary opinion as to how accident occur:
g. Photography:
1. Photograph skidmark and location of vehicles.
2. Mark skidmark location for later measurement.
h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be taken.
Step 4
AFTER GETTING SHORT-LIVED EVIDENCES:
Step 6
Determine if Hit-and-run
1. Quickly located drivers
2. Observed condition of drivers
3. “Listened” to drivers’ story :
4. Took notes on drivers’ story
5.”Questioned” drivers about the
accident :
IV. Seek and Interview Witnesses
1. Aid in determining the speed of the car prior to the accident or collision.
2. It will show if the vehicle was travelling in the wrong distance or on the wrong side of the road.
3. It will indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way.
4. It will also show if the driver did not obey a traffic signal.
In many accident of course, other is evidence of terrific speed is the WRECKAGE (EXTENT OF
DAMAGE), but there are no skid marks at all because brakes were not put on hard enough to lock the
wheels.
In an accident in which brakes are put on just before contact of vehicles, the skid marks maybe
only two or three feet long and therefore, show a speed of only five or six miles per hour. Whereas, the
wreckage tells us that the total speed may have been ten times as great.
In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed calculated from skid marks
may come close to showing how fast he car was actually going. Accidents involving pedestrians are the
most common ones of this kind.
In any accident in which great damage was done will skid marks show more than small part of the
speed, often a very minor part of it; but if the skid marks have been rightly identified and measured, it can
be said that the car was going faster than the speed calculated from the skid marks, much faster if there
was considerable damage.
3. TIRE TREAD
On the most ordinary surfaces, a smooth tire and one with a deep tread pattern will
stop the car in about the same distance. On some other surfaces, particularly on ice, a smooth
tread is better because it distributes the weight over greater area.
4. AIR PRESSURE
Makes a very slight difference in stopping distance. On ice, for example, soft tire will
distribute the weight a little more and give somewhat better traction.
5. TIRE MATERIAL
There is a slight difference between tires made of synthetic and those made of natural
rubber.
6. ROAD SURFACE
Of surfaces such as mud, snow, and on ice, tires equipped with chains have a better
road-gripping capacity. On some hard pavements, however, chains may decrease road
gripping capacity.
7. DIRECTION OF SLIDES
Makes a slight but unimportant difference. A tire will lengthwise except in materials so
soft that it ploughs or sinks.
8. TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR AND ROAD SURFACE
SPEED ESTIMATES
Because the minor factors are neglected, we can not calculate speeds precisely. We only estimate
them. Some of the minor factors would tend to give a higher speed and others a lower speed, and they
would partly balance or cancel out.
Sometimes all of the factors tend to give a high estimated speed. Remember, in this connection,
that skid marks do not show all of the speed and therefore, the probable actual speed is still greater than
your estimate.
FACTS NEEDED
To make a reasonably good estimate of speed, certain facts are needed. There must come from
observations and measurements at the scene of the accidents. The accuracy of ht estimate or calculation
depends upon the accuracy of these observations and measurements.
LENGTH OF SKIDMARKS
Consider the following:
Be sure they are skid marks – not just tire marks.
1. Did all wheels slide or just some of them? It makes little difference if tire is sliding forward or
sidewise.
2. Are there any gaps in the skid marks? Be sure there are gaps caused by a release of brake pedal
pressured and not skids caused by bounced.
3. What is the length of each skid marks around any curves; it may not make straight from beginning
to the end in the shortest line. You may want to consider two separate lengths for each skid
marks. One of these is based on the part of the skid mark you can positively identify. It gives you
speed which will be minimum beyond reasonable doubt. The others is a possible skid mark which
will give you a more likely speed. The first is all you can use in court, the second is often much
useful in figuring out just what did happen in the accident.
4. Use the length that the wheel skid, not the tire slid. Dual tires which leave two marks are
considered as one wheel, and the skid mark length is counted if either tire on the wheel leaves this
mark.
There are two ways of figuring the length of a slide if all on the same kind of pavement. These are:
1. STRAIGHT LINE
A slide is considered straight if both rear-wheel skid marks do not go off to one side of the
front wheel skid marks.
Use the length of the longest skid mark left by any wheel minus gaps in it. This method is possible
because all wheels slide about the same distance. We know that the brakes definitely have been applied
throughout the entire distance of the longest skid mark.
If one wheel does not slide as far as the others, still it was about to slide when the others began. The drag
on the pavement by this wheel is about the same just before it begins to slide as when it is actually sliding.
It may even be greater.
Therefore, we are usually safe in saying that all wheels are dragging as mush as if there were sliding wheel
skid applies to motorcycles, trucks, truck and trailer combinations, and buses as well as ordinary motor
vehicles.
2. SPIN
A slide is considering a spin if both rear wheel skid marks do get off to one side of the front wheel
skid marks. Take the length of each skid marks minus gaps. Add the skid mark length for all wheels and
divide the numbers of wheels. This method is necessary in the case of the spins, because some of ht
wheels slid much farther than other; that is, one end of the car may practically stand still while the other
sweeps around it.
Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front and rear wheels; that is usually for
ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light trucks with trailers or heavily loaded trucks having duel tires on the
rear wheels. Uneven weight with a spin is a situation, which requires special calculations. This method
gives you a figure for the sliding distance of the vehicle. It is not necessary to compute it more accurately
than to the nearest foot. For this length you may have two figures, one a positive distance and one a
possible distance. Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For example, investigators
may:
EXAMPLE:
The drag of the pavement on the sliding tires of an automobile is 3, 000 lbs.. The automobile weights 4,
000 lbs.. The number representing the slipperiness of the pavement, or its friction drag, is then 3, 000
divided by 4, 000 or 0.75. This friction drag factor or slipperiness number is called technically the
“COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION”. You can measure the drag factor of a pavement by making a test skid
which tells how far a car slides on that pavement while stopping from a known speed. The drag factor or
coefficient of friction can be determined by use of a formula. If we let “S” stand for the speed in miles per
hour from which the test skid is made and “D” the distance in feet that car slides in coming to stop, then the
drag factor, which we call “F” will be:
F = S2 / 30 (D)
The “30” is the formula because speed is given in miles per hour and the distance in feet
(transformation of feet per second to miles per hour). It is called a constant because it stayed the same in
all problems for which the formula is used.
Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and then divided by 30 times the
stopping distance. You do not need to carry the division out more than two places to the right of the
decimal point.
EXAMPLE:
On a test to measure pavement slipperiness, a car was stopped in 40 ft. from 30 miles per hour.
Substituting these numbers for the letters representing them in the formula, and doing the arithmetic
involved, we have:
Using a chart, which was especially designed to represent this formula, is much easier than doing the
arithmetic for it. To use it:
1. Locate the test stopping distance on the D scale at the left.
2. Locate the test speed on the S scale in the middle.
3. Draw a straight line through these two points and extend to the right until it crossed the F
scale at the right.
4. Read the friction drag on the F scale.
It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement slipperiness be correctly made. You
are unlikely to do it right without special instruction or experience.
At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness separately for each. Unless there are
within 0.05 each other friction calculated from any of several test skids made on the same paving. This is
necessary if you want to be sure beyond reasonable doubt of calculated speeds. Test skids made the same
car that was in the accident are the best. They thus take care of some o the minor factors such as the
weight of the car, the tire material, the tread pattern, tire pressure and therefore , make the estimate more
reliable.
1. GRADE FOR SLOPE (GRADIENT)
So far, we have been talking only about level roads. You can stop more quickly if you are going
uphill than on a level road. But it will take to longer to stop when going downhill. Hence, the slope or grad
of the road should also be considered.
Grade is measured by a number that is also usually less than 1.00. The measure of the grade is
the number of the feet that the road rises or falls for each feet of the horizontal distance.
To find it, divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal distance. It is not necessary to carry this divisions
more than two places to the right of the decimal.
USE THIS FORMULA:
f = horizontal distance / vertical rise or fall
Possible ranges of pavement Drag Factors for rubber tires. The drag factor or coefficient of friction
of a pavement of a given description may vary considerably because quite a variety of road surfaces
maybe described in the same way.
Some of these variations are due to the weight of the vehicles, air pressure in the tire, treated design, air
temperature, speed and some other factors
REACTION TIME
This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes:
a. Divide seconds in an hour (3, 600) into feet in a mile (5, 280) = 1, 467.
b. To determine distance you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467 (1.47 or 1.50) times
the speed which you are traveling.
c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is ¾ of a second on the
average. The age of the driver should be considered.
d. 1.5 x speed = length in feet covered before brake works for you.
MEASUREMENT OF SKIDMARKS
a. Should meet legal standards. Officers measuring the skid marks and the distances to
embankment of other fixed constructions should verify each other’s measurements so that they
can corroborate each other’s testimony in court.
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skid marks were made by the suspect car.
c. Witnesses should testify in court.
BASIC PRINCIPLES IN CALCULATING SPEEDS FROM SKIMARKS:
Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any speed possesses energy. As the speed
of the vehicle increases, the resulting energy developed is said to increase as the square of the ration of
the increase in speed.
EXAMPLES
20 kph = 40
30 kph = 90
40 kph = 160
TEST RUNS
In making calculations for speeds from skid marks, it is often necessary to conduct one or more
test runs, using the vehicle involved in the accident or, if it cannot be driven, another vehicle of similar
characteristics may be used.
a. Conditions should be the same as those existing when the accident occurred. The character of the
road, whether wet or dry, should be the same.
b. Conduct tests on the same road surface and in the same direction.
c. The vehicle’s speedometer should be checked, and any difference from accurate calibrations
should be noted.
d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per hour, should be selected for the test
run.
e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible when the car is moving at the selected
test speed.
f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.
g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance should be accurately determined using
such equipment, either mechanically or electrically operated.
h. Generally, it is advisable to conduct two or three tests at the selected speed. The test producing
the longest braking distance, that which favors the defendant most, is generally used in the
calculation.
i. To avoid possible differences in the application of brakes by the driver, it may be advisable to have
the driver of the accidents vehicle drive the car in the test runs.
SPEED CALCULATION
a. When a vehicle is stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to calculate the speed of the vehicle at
the beginning of the skid by using the formula based on the principle that the skidding or braking
distance vary as the square of the speed.
WHERE:
S = speed (mph)
F = coefficient of friction (drag factor)
f = grade (1, 2, 4) or super elevation
D = distance (feet)
However, the mere recovery of the vehicle does not always immediately establish the identity of
the driver.
PRELIMINARY STEPS
a. Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.
b. Obtain the best possible description of the car and driver.
1. A good description may be obtained from partial descriptions given by witnesses.
2. Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
3. Concentrate on the car’s description first
4. Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the Headquarters and
to police agencies that may assist in spotting and stopping the suspect vehicle.
5. Broadcast descriptions of the suspected car and river to all police units and
offices.
6. Try to determine the damage to the feeling car.
c. Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc.
d. Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence.
1. These may include broken glasses and fragments, hubcaps, paint scrapping from
hit-and-run car, other evidence such as dirt from subject car, radiator ornament,
etc.