Proceedings of ICE

Civil Engineering 162 May 2009

Pages 12–17 Paper 800040

doi: 10.1680/cien.2009.162.5.12
Keywords
brickwork & masonry; concrete
structures; materials technology

Jeremy Ingham
MSc, DipRMS, CEng, MInstNDT,
EurGeol, CGeol, CSci, FGS,
FRGS, FRMS, MIAQP
is senior materials engineer at
Halcrow in London
Forensic engineering
of fire-damaged
structures
There has never been a greater need for buildings, tunnels and
other infrastructure to be assessed for damage following fires.
Even after a severe fire, structures are often capable of being
repaired rather than demolished. This paper describes the role of
forensic engineers in the investigation of fire-damaged structures
constructed in concrete, steel and masonry. Forensic-engineering
procedures described include on-site inspection and testing
techniques, laboratory testing and structural fire analysis. The design
and implementation of repairs is also discussed.

Every day in the UK alone, insurers pay out in
excess of £2 million in commercial fire claims.
Consequently there is a persistent requirement
for structures to be forensically assessed for fire
damage to ensure safety and enable appropriate
repairs to be planned and executed. Building
structures most likely to be subjected to fire
include offices, warehouses and schools. In
recent years a number of notable fires have
occurred during construction of multi-storey
buildings, when formwork and falsework has
caught fire (Figure 1). Other common scenarios
involve non-building structures, for example
vehicle fires in car parks or tunnels.

Figure 1. Fire during construction of a multi-storey building (courtesy Imre Solt)

C I V I L ENG I NEER I NG
 Fires occur in structures with a wide range
of different construction systems, which use
different types or combinations of materials for
their structural members. Hence, the forensic
investigator must understand the effect that
heating has on a variety of different construc-
tion materials (Figure 2). This paper describes
forensic-engineering procedures suitable for fire-
damage assessments of structures constructed
from concrete, steel and masonry.
In the aftermath of a fire the focus is on
immediate measures for securing public safety.
In the UK, the fire brigade will usually secure
the building and may call in the local building-
control officer to make an assessment of the
stability of the structure. The building-control
officer may require parts of the structure to
be demolished or stabilised before anyone else
can enter. The responsible person, as defined
in the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order,1
is required to assess whether the building is
deemed safe.
The fire-and-rescue authority can request
that compliance with the requirements of the
fire-safety order is demonstrated. The author-
ity has the powers to take enforcement action
where requirements of the order are breached
or where a serious risk to life exists. Often the
authority will also be notified by the police,
which may investigate arson.
Once the immediate concerns have been dealt
with, the insurer or owner may commission an
investigation of the damage. These parties will
often have a major interest in finding the most Figure 2. Fire in a skyscraper where the fire affected various different types of construction material
cost-effective solution for repairing the struc-
ture. In the most concise terms, the assessment,
design and repair of fire-damaged structures
consists of the following stages

n preliminary inspection
n assessment of damage
n testing and detailed assessment
n design of repairs to structural elements
n implementation of structural repairs.

Assessment of fire-damaged
structures
The scene of apparent devastation that results
from a significant fire (Figure 3) can be mis-
leading. Methodical assessment is required to
determine correctly the degree of damage and
condition of the structure. Guidance for the
assessment of the effects of fire can be found in
The Institution of Structural Engineers publica-
tion Appraisal of Existing Structures.2
The aim of an assessment of a fire-damaged
structure is to propose appropriate repair meth-
ods or to decide whether demolition of elements
or the whole structure is more appropriate. The
assessment process should determine the degree
and extent of damage to structural elements. Figure 3. View of the interior of fire-damaged reinforced concrete structure showing a spalled slab soffit and
burnt formwork debris
The assessment would usually be used to direct-

issn 0965 089 X ProCeedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – CIVIL ENGINEERING, 2009, 162, No. CE5 13
 Ingham
ly assess the quality and condition of structural
members by a combination of
n visual inspection and hammer soundings
n non-destructive testing
n sampling of materials and subsequent labo-
ratory testing.
The result of the assessment will be a damage
classification, which may be used in the selec-
tion of appropriate repair techniques. Ideally
this should be provided on drawings showing
Figure 4. Removing concrete using a hammer the actual condition of the fire-damaged struc-
and chisel to determine the depth of damaged ture. The assessment needs to provide sufficient
concrete (courtesy Brian Cole) information to finally prepare detailed drawings
with instructions on how to repair the structure.
An assessment programme will consist of
on- and off-site work. Prior to undertaking on-
site inspection the investigator must be satisfied
that the structure is safe to enter. Temporary
falsework or props may be required to secure
individual members and stabilise the structure
as a whole. The primary on-site investigation
technique is visual inspection, which records
such features as collapse, distortion, deflections,
degree of damage to materials and smoke dam-
age. A small hammer may be used to conduct
a tapping survey of element surfaces that will
detect hollow sounding delaminated material.
Simple invasive investigation techniques such
as using a hammer and chisel may also be used
(Figure 4).
A site-specific classification scheme for the
damage would normally be devised. A number
of complimentary non-destructive testing
(NDT) techniques can be used to assess mate-
rial strength in situ. Also, samples of damaged
material and undamaged references may be
removed for laboratory investigation. Concrete
and masonry samples are typically obtained by
diamond drilling of cores or by careful extrac-
Figure 5. Taking core samples at a fire-damaged
tion of lump samples (Figure 5), while samples
brick building
Table 1. Test method options for assessment of fire-damaged structures
Test location Test type Test method Structural material
Concrete Steel (including Masonry
reinforcement)
On-site Non-destructive Visual inspection 3 3 3
Endoscope survey 3
Hammer soundings 3 3 3
Rebound hammer 3 3
Ultrasonic testing 3 3 3 strength of structural-quality concrete is not sig-
Magnetic particle imaging 3 nificantly reduced, while for temperatures greater
Partially destructive Breakout/ drilling 3 3
Load test 3 3 3 to only a small fraction of its original value. The
Laboratory Petrographic examination 3 3
Metallography 3
Hardness test 3
Compressive strength 3 3
Tensile strength 3 more types. Explosive spalling is erratic and
14 ProCeedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – CIVIL ENGINEERING, 2009, 162, No. CE5 issn 0965 089 X
of steel are cut out using an angle grinder or
saw. Table 1 lists a range of tests suitable for use
in fire-damage assessment programmes.
As an alternative or addition to inspection
and testing, predictive fire-engineering tools,
such as empirical equations or computer model-
ling used in design, can be used to assess the
fire severity in the structure. These predictions
are based on the fire load in the building, venti-
lation conditions, compartment size and shape
and properties of wall linings.
An estimate of the fire time–temperature
curve can be based on the heat-release, the char-
acteristic temperatures at flashover, the expected
gas temperatures during a fully developed phase
of the fire and the area of window openings
providing ventilation to the fire. An assessment
with a finite-element computer fluid-dynamics
program might then allow hot spots to be
determined. Once a credible time–temperature
distribution within the compartment has been
determined, an assessment of the temperatures
within the concrete is possible without relying
solely on site inspections and laboratory testing.
As a result of heat transfer analysis it may be
possible to reduce the amount of testing.
Based on the findings of the assessment, deci-
sions regarding any reduced load-bearing capac-
ity to the structure can be made. Instrumented
load tests can be used to confirm whether or not
load capacity has been impaired. Load tests can
also be used to investigate the efficacy of repairs
in structural terms.
Concrete structures
Guidance for the assessment of fire-damaged
concrete structures is given in Concrete Society
technical report 68.3 When considering the
effects of fire on structural concrete elements,
the deleterious reactions undergone by both
concrete and any reinforcement bars or pre-
stressing tendons must be considered. In this
section, concrete will be considered while rein-
forcement will be discusssed in the following
section. Heating of concrete in a fire causes a
progressive series of mineralogical and strength
changes that are summarised in Table 2.
The strength of concrete after cooling varies
depending on temperature attained, the heating
duration, mix proportions, aggregates present
and the applied loading during heating. For tem-
peratures up to 300°C, the residual compressive
than 500°C the residual strength may be reduced
temperature of 300ºC is normally taken to be
the critical temperature above which concrete is
deemed to have been significantly damaged.
Spalling of the surface layers is a common
effect of fires and may be grouped into two or
 Forensic engineering of
fire-damaged structures

generally occurs in the first 30 minutes of the

fire. A slower spalling, referred to as ‘sloughing For temperatures up to 300°C, the residual
off’, occurs as cracks form parallel to the fire-
affected surfaces leading to a gradual separation compressive strength of structural-quality
of concrete layers and detachment of a section
of concrete along some plane of weakness, such concrete is not significantly reduced
as a layer of reinforcement. Also, the thermal
incompatibility of aggregates and cement paste
causes stresses which frequently lead to cracks,
particularly in the form of surface crazing. Ther-
mal shock caused by rapid cooling from fire-
fighting water may also cause cracking.
The colour of concrete can change as a result
of heating, which is apparent upon visual inspec-
tion. In many cases a pink/red discolouration
occurs above 300°C, which is important since it
coincides approximately with the onset of signifi-
300 mm
cant loss of strength due to heating (Figure 6).
Any pink/red discoloured concrete should be Figure 7. Fire-damaged concrete as seen through
regarded as being suspect and potentially weak- the microscope during petrographic examination
ened.4 The colour change is a function of oxidis- Figure 6. View of a fire-damaged concrete slab – showing a crack running parallel to the outer
able iron content and it should be noted that as soffit showing pink/red discolouration of flint surface and red discolouration of a flint fine
iron content varies, not all aggregates undergo aggregate particles aggregate particle, indicating heating to 300–600ºC5
colour changes on heating. In general, colour
changes are most pronounced for siliceous Table 2. Summary of mineralogical and strength changes to concrete caused by heating5
aggregate and less so for limestone and granite.
Heating Changes caused by heating
On-site investigation of fire-damaged concrete temperature: °C
Mineralogical changes Strength changes
structures typically starts with visual inspection
and hammer tapping, which identifies collapse, 70–80 Dissociation of ettringite Minor loss of
strength possible
deflections, spalling, cracking, surface crazing 105 Loss of physically bound water in aggregate and cement matrix commences, (<10%)
increasing capillary porosity
and smoke damage. An example of a damage
classsification scheme suitable for fire-damaged 120–163 Decomposition of gypsum
concrete structures is shown in Table 3. A 250–350 Oxidation of iron compounds causing pink/red discolouration of aggregate. Loss Significant loss
of bound water in cement matrix and associated degradation becomes more of strength
number of complementary NDTs can be used to prominent commences at
assess concrete strength in-situ. These include 450–500 Dehydroxylation of portlandite. Aggregate calcines and will eventually change
300ºC
Schmidt (rebound) hammer, ultrasonic pulse colour to white/grey
velocity, penetration resistance test (Windsor 573 5% increase in volume of quartz (-to-quartz transition) causing radial crackingConcrete not
probe) and drilling-resistance tests. around the quartz grains in the aggregate structurally useful
after heating in
A number of laboratory tests are available to 600–800 Release of carbon dioxide from carbonates may cause a considerable contraction temperatures in
of the concrete (with severe micro-cracking of the cement matrix)
aid the investigator in determining concrete con- excess of 500–
800–1200 Dissociation and extreme thermal stress cause complete disintegration of 600ºC
dition. Petrographic examination and compres- calcareous constituents, resulting in whitish-grey concrete colour and severe
sive strength testing of core samples are those micro-cracking
most commonly used in fire-damage investiga- 1200 Concrete starts to melt
tions. Petrographic examination is the definitive 1300–1400 Concrete melted
technique for determining the depth of fire dam-
age in concrete.5 It is performed in the laborato-
Table 3. Simplified visual concrete fire damage classification3
ry by experienced concrete petrographers, using
optical microscopes in accordance with ASTM Class of Features observed
damage
C856.6 The technique involves visual and low- Finishes Colour Crazing Spalling Reinforcement Cracks/
power optical microscopical examination of the deflection
as-received sample, followed by a more detailed 0 (Decoration Unaffected Normal None None None exposed None
required)
high-power optical microscopical examination
of prepared thin-section specimens (Figure 7). 1 (Superficial Some peeling Normal Slight Minor None exposed None
repair required)
It is advisable to assess the strength of the *
2 (General Substantial loss Pink/red Moderate Localised Up to 25% None
unaffected concrete to confirm the design repair required) exposed
assumptions. The most direct method of esti- 3 (Principal Total loss Pink/red * Extensive Considerable Up to 50% Minor/ None
mating the compressive strength of concrete is repair required) Whitish grey ** exposed
by testing core samples cut from the structure. 4 (Major repair Destroyed Whitish grey **
Surface lost Almost total Up to 50% Major/
The test procedure is given in part 3 of BS EN required) exposed Distorted
12390.7 The main value of core testing is to Notes
* Pink/red discolouration is due to oxidation of ferric salts in aggregates and is not always present and seldom in
determine the original strength of the concrete calcareous aggregate.
and hence should be carried out in areas that ** White-grey discolouration due to calcination of calcareous components of cement matrix and (where present)
have not been affected by the fire. calcareous or flint aggregate.

issn 0965 089 X ProCeedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – CIVIL ENGINEERING, 2009, 162, No. CE5 15
 Ingham

Figure 8. Fire-damaged brickwork exhibiting red
discolouration of the brickwork mortar5
Steelwork and steel reinforcement
Significant loss of strength of steel may occur
while the steel is at high temperature. However,
recovery of yield strength after cooling is gener-
ally complete for temperatures up to 450°C
for cold-worked steel and 600°C for hot-rolled
steel. Above these temperatures, there will be a
loss in yield strength after cooling.
For structural steelwork the adequacy of fire
protection will play an important part in the out-
come of a fire. The effects of heating may include
reduction in physical properties, distortion, axial
shortening of columns, over-stressing of bolts,
connections and welds.8 Heating of reinforcing
steel in concrete eventually causes buckling and
residual defections of the structural element.
The effect of high temperature is more critical
on prestressing steel than on reinforcing steel.
At temperatures of 200–400ºC, steel prestress-
ing tendons show considerable loss of strength
(>50% loss at about 400°C). In terms of re-use,
a more important factor is the effect of heat
upon the tension of the steel. Loss of tension
may be contributed to by loss of elastic modu-
lus in the concrete, increased relaxation due to
creep and non-recoverable extension of tendons.
The first stage of assessing fire damage of
steelwork is on-site visual inspection looking for
defects such as buckling, bowing, twisting and
distortion of elements. Close on-site examination
may be undertaken for evidence of overheating
such as changes in metallographic grain struc-
ture. Samples may be cut from steel members
and bolts removed for more accurate laboratory
metallographic examination and hardness test-
ing. Loads due to heating may weaken bolts and
welds, so that in-situ weld testing by ultrasonic
or magnetic particle imaging is often required.
To assess fire damage of steel reinforcement
in concrete, the visual assessment is usually
backed up by taking samples laboratory testing.
This typically comprises testing for yield, elonga-
tion and tensile strength with the results being
compared with the relevant standard for the
grade of steel concerned.

Stone and brick masonry

Stone and brick masonry can be seriously
50 mm affected by building fires. The damage tends to be
concentrated around window openings and door-
Figure 9. Fire-damaged limestone masonry as seen through the microscope during petrographic ways but may also affect structural masonry.9 A
examination, showing extensive heat-induced microcracking in near surface zone5 load bearing wall exposed to fire will suffer a pro-
gressive reduction in strength due to deterioration
of the mortar in the same manner as concrete.
Table 4. Changes caused by heating of various types of natural stone that may be observed visually or Severe damage is more likely to be caused
microscopically 4 by expansion or collapse of other structural
Heating Stone type members. At high temperatures of 600–800ºC,
temperature: ºC
Limestone Sandstone Marble Granite the strength of most natural stones and masonry
250 Pink or reddish-brown Red discolouration Heating marble non- At <573ºC, if heating mortars is seriously affected and if thermal
discolouration starts at starts at 250–300ºC but reversible expansion rate is <1ºC per minute shock occurs the stone can disintegrate. Crack-
300 250–300ºC may not become visible known as thermal the thermal expansion is
until 400ºC hysteresis fully reversible. If heating ing can also be caused by quenching masonry
400 Discolouration becomes rate >5ºC per minute
more reddish at 400ºC heated by fire with fire-fighting water.
the expansion is not
totally reversible Clay bricks can withstand temperatures in
600 Calcination of calcium >573ºC causes internal >600ºC complete Develops cracks or
the region of 1000ºC or more without damage,
carbonate at >600ºC rupturing of quartz disruption due to shatter at 573ºC due to but under very severe and prolonged heating
grains with associated differential expansion, quartz expansion the surface of the brick may fuse. Spalling may
weakening and friability. becomes friable and
Clay minerals in the reduces to powder occur with some types of brick, particularly
cement disintegrate of the perforated type. At lower temperatures
(kaolinite up to 600°C,
chlorite above 600°C) of 250–300ºC, damage is usually restricted
800 Calcium carbonate Red discolouration may Differential thermal
to colour changes, such as reddening of iron-
calcines to a grey-white persist until 1000ºC. expansions at higher bearing stones and mortars (Figure 8).
powder at 800–1000ºC Any calcium carbonate temperatures (900ºC) Although not structurally significant, as
with associated loss of cement calcines to gives rise to tensile and
strength powder at 800-1000 ºC compressive stresses the colour change is non-reversible, it may be
causing disintegration causing permanent strain significant for aesthetic reasons, especially in
in the stone
the case of historic buildings. In some cases,
1000 + Melting starts masonry that is well away from the fire can

16 ProCeedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – CIVIL ENGINEERING, 2009, 162, No. CE5 issn 0965 089 X

suffer from smoke staining or blackening.
Water used to fight the fire or water that has
ingressed due to compromised weatherproofing,
may cause salt effluorescence on surfaces and
leaching of mortars.
The changes caused by heating of various types
of natural stone are shown in Table 4. The most
important are the red discolouration caused by
oxidation of iron compounds which commences
at around 300ºC. The red discolouration
corresponds with the onset of significant strength
loss and it can be used to detect the 300ºC
thermal contour in a similar manner to concrete.
Other important heat-induced changes in stone
include cracking or shattering of quartz resulting
from the α- to β- quartz phase transition at 573ºC
and the calcination of limestone and marble at
800–1000ºC.
On-site investigation of fire-damaged
masonry largely consists of visual survey
and hammer tapping. For cavity brick walls,
endoscope surveys prove useful for investigating
the condition of wall ties and insulation. Stone/
brick and mortar samples taken on-site can
successfully be petrographically examined to
determine the depth of fire-damage (Figure 9).
Design and implementation of repairs
Repairs to fire-damaged structures should
provide the strength, fire resistance, durability
and appearance appropriate to the proposed use
and projected design life of the building. The
intended use for the structure and the objec-
tives for the repair should be agreed with the
building owner before commencing the design
of the repair work. In addition, the local author-
ity should be consulted regarding the need for
approval under the Building Regulations for the
Figure 10. Application of sprayed concrete to repair a fire-damaged reinforced concrete floor slab4
issn 0965 089 X ProCeedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – CIVIL ENGINEERING, 2009, 162, No. CE5
proposed reinstatement and repair works.
In general the design of the repaired sec-
tions of the building should comply with cur-
rent codes of practice. However, the damaged
structure may have been designed to out of date
codes of practice. Consequently, it may be nec-
essary to formulate a strategy for the structural
design of the repaired section of the building,
which is compatible with the original design.
Also, limitations may be imposed on the restora-
tion of listed buildings.
The designer should prepare key plans of
each area showing the location of the repair
work. In addition to the design drawings and
details, the designer should prepare detailed
material and workmanship specifications for the
repair work. These should include full informa-
tion on the repair materials and the means for
ensuring quality control.
Regarding repair, at best members may need
no structural repair as they have sufficient
residual strength, and at worst demolition will
be required. Concrete element repair will usu-
ally include three main processes, the first being
removal of damaged concrete by using either
power breakers or water jetting. After a severe
fire it is likely that the second process will com-
prise removal of weakened reinforcement and
connection of new reinforcement. The final part
of the repair stage will comprise reinstatement
of concrete (Figure 10) to provide adequate
structural capacity, the necessary durability and
fire resistance, and an acceptable appearance.
Structural steelwork may be strengthened
by welded stiffeners or replaced completely
or in part. In addition steelwork may require
replacement of fire protection and corrosion
protection systems.
Repair techniques for fire-damaged masonry
Forensic engineering of
fire-damaged structures
structures start with the removal of loose mate-
rials for safety reasons. With historic structures,
efforts are usually made to retain as much of
the original material as possible by using vari-
ous consolidation techniques. It is desirable
– and an essential requirement when dealing
with historic buildings – to match the original
materials to ensure compatibility.
Severely damaged masonry units and mortars
are replaced in order to maintain structural
integrity. Damage to any embedded metal
cramps or fixings must also be considered in the
repair scheme.
Conclusions
Fire-damaged structures are often capable of
being repaired rather than replaced. Engineers
can successfully assess fire-damaged structures
using a range of forensic-engineering techniques
and specify well-informed repair solutions.
As an alternative to demolition this can provide
substantial savings in capital expenditure and also
savings in consequential losses, by permitting ear-
lier reuse and reoccupation of structures.
References
1. The Stationery Office. The Regulatory Reform
(Fire Safety) Order. Stationery Office, London,
2005, Statutory Instrument 2005 No. 1541.
2. Institution of Structural Engineers. Appraisal
of existing structures, 2nd edn. ISE, London, 1996.
3. Concrete Society. Assessment, Design and
Repair of Fire-Damaged Concrete Structures. The
Concrete Society, Camberley, 2008, technical
report 68.
4. Ingham J. P. and Tarada F. Turning up the heat
- full service fire safety engineering for concrete
structures. Concrete, 2007, October, 27-30.
5. Ingham J. P. Assessment of fire-damaged con-
crete and masonry structures: the application of
petrography. Proceedings of the 11th Euroseminar
on Microscopy Applied to Building Materials, Porto,
5-9 June 2007.
6. ASTM International. Standard Practice for the
Petrographic Examination of Hardened Concrete.
American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, USA, 2004, ASTM C856-04.
7. British Standards Institution. Testing Hardened
Concrete, Part 3: Compressive Strength of Test
Specimens. BSI, London, 2002, BS EN 12504.
8. Robery P. After the fire: testing to minimise
refurbishment costs. Construction Maintenance and
Repair, 1991, May/June, 17–21.
9. Chakrabarti B., Yates T. and Lewry A. Effect
of fire damage on natural stonework in build-
ings. Construction and Building Materials, 1996,
10, No. 7, 539–544.
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17
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