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FIRE SAFETY

INTRODUCTION

Fire protection, prevention and control in industry are sometimes thought of activities
separate from each other and from accident prevention. There may be some justification for this if we
think of fire in terms only of damage to property. But in most accidental fires involving property
damage, the danger of personal injury also exists. Since this is the case, prevention and control of
hazards from fire should be a part of every plant’s safety program. The tremendous annual loss of
life and property from fire make fire protection, prevention and control an important part of any
industrial safety program.

CHEMISTRY AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

What is Fire?

FIRE is a chemical reaction between a flammable or combustible material and oxygen. It is


frequently referred to as “rapid oxidation with the evolution of light and heat”. To produce fire, three
things must be present at the same time: fuel, heat and oxygen.

Triangle of Fire

Supervisory expertise, in regard to fire prevention and control problems, begins with an
understanding of the basic fire chemistry. This important concept is best illustrated by the fire triangle
shown in Figure 1. If the three elements are present at the same time, a fire will surely start.
Consequently, if one of the three is missing a fire will not start and if anyone of the three is removed
once a fire has started, the fire will be extinguished.
OX
EL

YG
FU

EN

HEAT

Figure 1. Fire Triangle


Fuel

A fuel is any substance, which will combine in the presence of heat – that is, a fuel is
“something that will burn”. Most ordinary fuels are compounds of carbon and hydrogen in varying
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amounts; yet even metals, which are not normally considered fuels, can be burned in some forms in
an atmosphere of pure oxygen. It must be apparent that substances, which have already been
combined with oxygen to a normal or maximum extent, cannot serve as fuels.

Flammable and Combustible Material: Flammable materials have a flash point below lOO°F
or 38°C while combustible materials have a flash point at or higher than lOO°F. Flashpoint is the
lowest temperature at which a substance produce flammable vapor.

Some common flashpoints:

a. Flammable Substances Flashpoint


°F °C
Gasoline -45.0 -42.8
Ether -49.0 -45.0
Acetone 0.0 -17.8
Alcohol 55.0 12.8

b. Combustible Substances Flashpoint


°F °C
Fuel Oil 100.0 37.8
Kerosene 100.0 37.8
Quenching Oil 365.0 185.0
Mineral Oil 380.0 193.3

Other factors that may affect the chemical's ability to reach its flashp oint. For example, a
chemical with a high flashpoint may be heated to its flashpoint by other substances with lower
flashpoints burning in close proximity to the first substance. It is therefore essential that careful
consideration should be given to the safe storage of hazardous chemicals.

Oxygen

Oxygen is the second element of the fire. And fire normally draws its oxygen from the air,
which is a mixture composed roughly of 21% oxygen and 78 % nitrogen. When the oxygen content
of air drops below 16 %, the fire will normally go out for lack of oxygen. The nitrogen in the air serves
only to dilute the oxygen and does not ordinarily enter into the reaction. In an atmosphere of pure
oxygen, many substances not normally considered combustible would burn rapidly. Atmosphere of
pure oxygen or even oxygen-enriched air will produce fires of great intensity.

Heat

Most substances will bum only after the solid or liquid fuel (or parts thereof) has been
vaporized or decomposed by heat to produce a gas. The temperature at which the substance gives
off these vapors or gases in, sufficient quantity to be ignited is called the "flash point" of the
substance. The substance itself will continue to bum when the source of ignition is removed until it
has reached the "igniti on temperature," which is the minimum temperature required to initiate or cause
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self-sustained combustion. It should be noted that the ignition temperature is not reached unless the
fire is not self-sustaining. This applies to solids, liquids and gases. Since fire is an exothermic
reaction- that is, one, which gives off heat-, the heat is carried away faster than the fire produces it. In
order to have a fire, there must be enough heat to raise the temperature of the fuel to its ignition
temperature.

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Sources of Heat:

1. Electricity - The leading cause of industrial fires. Most start in wiring and motors. Most
prevented by proper maintenance. Special attention needed for equipment at
hazardous processes and in storage areas.
2. Smoking - A potential cause of ifre almost everywhere. A matter of control and
education. Smoking strictly prohibited in dangerous areas, such as those involving
flammable liquids, combustible dusts or fibers and combustible storage. Permitted in
clearly designated safe areas.
3. Friction - Hot bearings, misaligned or broken machine parts, choking or hamming of
material and poor adjustment of power drives and conveyors. Prevented by a
regular schedule of inspection, maintenance, and lubrication.
4. Cutting and Welding – Sparks, arcs, and hot metal from cutting and welding
operations. Prevented by the use of the hot work permit system and other
recognized precautions.
5. Spontaneous Ignition - In oily waste and rubbish, deposits in dryers, ducts and flues,
materials susceptible to heating and industrial wastes. Prevented by good
housekeeping and proper process operation. Remove waste daily. Frequently clean
ducts, flues, and isolated storages subject to spontaneous heating.
6. Static Electricity - Ignition of flammable vapors, dusts, and fibers by discharge of
accumulation of static electricity on equipment, materials or the human body.
Prevented by grounding, bonding, ionization and humidification.
7. Chemical Action - Chemical processes getting out of control, chemicals reacting with
over materials, and decomposition of unstable chemicals. Prevented by proper
operation, instrumentation, and controls, and by careful handling and storage,
particularly avoiding conditions of heat and shock.

EXTINGUISHMENTS OF FIRE

There are basically four ways a fire can be extinguished:

1. Removing Fuel

Fire will continue to burn until there is no more fuel to burn. Often, taking the fuel from
a fire is not only difficult but also dangerous. Fortunately, there are exceptions.

a. When flammable gasses catch fire as they are flowing from a pipe, the fire will go
out if the fuel supply can be cut off.
b. Flammable liquid storage tanks may be arranged so that their contents can be
pumped to an isolated empty tank in case of fire.

2. Excluding or Limiting Oxygen

Extinguishment by separation of oxygen from fire can be accomplished through


smothering the burning area with non-combustible material, such as covering with wet blanket
or throwing dust or sand on the fire.
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3. Cooling

A third way to put fires out is to remove heat from the fire. That is why water is
sprayed on fires. The water absorbs the heat from the burning materials and lowers their
temperature. Once the temperature drops below the kindling, the fuels stop burning.

4. By interrupting the Chain Reaction

For fire to continue to propagate, there must be an uninhibited chain reaction. If we


stop this reaction then the fire will die out. This is accomplished through the application of
extinguishing agents such as dry chemicals and halons, which work by interrupting the
chemical flame-chain reaction.

CLASSES OF FIRES

The classification of fires is based on the type of materials fire feeds on.

1. Class “A” Fires

They burn wood, paper, dried grass, charcoal, etc. Some call them the ordinary
combustibles. The " A "fires are technically known as carbonaceous fires. They leave ashes
and ember after the primary flame is out.

2. Class “B” Fires

Also called the surface fires. They burn oil, gasoline, kerosene, LPG, chemicals,
alcohol, paint, thinner, turpentine, etc. Th e basic characteristic is that they do not leave any
ashes or ember after the primary flame is out. Pour gasoline or oil on water and light it up and
it will surely bum.

3. Class “C” Fires

These fires are caused by electricity or they are fires that have electrical current in it.
As they spread they feed on the " AB" materials for sustenance. To be safe, one must
consider any fire with electrical current as "C" fire primarily all the time. The AB is second in
this particular case.

4. Class “D” Fires

Fire in combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, and sodium.


Normal extinguishing agents generally should not be used on fires of these materials
because of the danger of increasing the intensity of the fire. Special techniques,
extinguishing agents, and extinguishing equipment have been developed to control fires
involving these metals.

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In the absence of modem fire extinguishers, the following materials can be used to stop fire
in its initial stage.

- For "A " fire, water is the best extinguishant.


- For "B" fire, a metal cover, wet sack, towel, cloth, or blanket will do. Sand and soil are
very useful. Water is prescribed only in amount large enough to overwhelm the flame.
- For "C" fire, the main switch is the first consideration. Pull it down to cut off current then
what is useful on A and B can be useful here. Never, never, douse water on "C" fire.
Water is good conductor of electricity and it can kill the firefighter instantaneously.

PRINCIPLES OF FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Protection from, and prevention and control of, is extremely technical and complex. Still the
subject can be condensed or summarized into five objectives or statements:

1. Prevent the Outbreak of Fire

Ordinarily, oxygen is the most difficult of the three factors to control, since it is in the
air and is a necessity of life. But fuel and heat can be controlled, and therefore the simplest
control measures will have to do with duel and heat. Actually, control in this sense merely
means keeping them separated.

It is well to examine the hazards from which most fires originate. These are
sometimes described as "causes," but actually they are part cause and part source. While
there are many possible causes or sources, of fires, an analysis or reported data will reveal
that most fires are produced by a relatively small number of them.

The following summary of known causes is based on an analysis of more than 25,000
fires to the Factory Mutual Engineering Corporation from 1968 through 1977. The causes are
arranged in order of their frequency throughout industry, but this is not necessarily a measure
of their relative importance at any particular plant or property.

a. Electrical 22%
b. Incendiarism 10%
c. Smoking 9%
d. Hot Surfaces 9%
e. Friction 7%
f. Welding & Cutting 7%
g. Spontaneous Ignition 5%
h. Static Electricity 2%

2. Provide for Early Detection of Fire

Except for explosions, most fires start out as small ones. At the beginning, then,
extinguishing a fire seldom presents much of a problem; but once the fire begins to gain
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headway, it may develop into conflagration of disastrous proportions. The prompt detection
of fire and the signaling of an alarm are therefore of prime importance. The alarm, of course,
warns of the need to evacuate ht e building and also summons those charged with and
trained in firefighting. When personnel detect a fire, it is important that they have been trained
to act effectively. The first impulse of many individuals on discovering a fire is to try to
extinguish it; this has frequently led to long delays in sounding the alarm. All employees
should be trained to sound the alarm as soon as the fire is discovered and, if possible, then
take action to try to extinguish it.

3. Prevent the Spread of Fire

Once a fire is discovered, it is of prime importance to confine it to the smallest area


possible -that is, to prevent its spread. This can be accomplished by details of construction
and by safe practices, but neither is sufficient alone. An understanding of the means by which
heat is transmitted will be of value in taking the necessary steps to prevent the spread of fire.

Heat is transmitted by conduction, convection and radiation. In addition, it can spread


by contact of fuel with the fire itself. Heat is transmitted th rough solids by conduction.
Materials vary greatly in their ability to transmit heat. Metals are good conductors of heat.
However, many similar substances are poor conductors of heat; these are termed insulators.
It should be remembered, however, that there are no perfect insulators of heat. All materials
will conduct heat to a certain extent.

Convection currents occur in fluids-that is, liquids and gases. When water is heated, it
expands and is lighter than cold water. When mixed, cold water moves downward and
pushes the hot water up. Similarly, when a gas is heated, it expands; and is therefore lighter
per unit of volume, The cold gas, being heavier per unit volume, moves in and displaces
(pushes upward) the hot gas.

In radiation, heat rays travel from one body to another in the same manner that light is
carried through space by light rays; Heat rays travel in a straight line and are not absorbed to
any great extent by the air or by a transparent substance like glass; but they are absorbed by
an opaque object they encounter. Heat source emits radiant heat reaching the exposed
object. The amount of heat emanating from the source increases as the temperature goes up
and decreases as the square of the distance between the source and the object increases.
Thus, it is apparent that by increasing the distance between the source and the object will
decrease' the possibility of fire.

Moreover, it is not always possible to extinguish a fire promptly. Barriers are one
means of control that will limit the area of a fire or at least retard its spread. The following
covers only some of the bare essentials: 1) Fire walls; 2) Fire doors; 3) Shutters or louvers;
4) Fire stops; 5) Baffles; 6) Fire dampers; 7) Fire windows; 8) Parapets; 9) Dikes; and 10)
Enclosures of vertical openings.

4. Provide for Prompt Extinguishment of Fire

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Fires can be extinguished by eliminating the fuel, the oxygen, or the heat

Fire Fighting Facilities

Several factors have to be considered in fire fighting. Primarily is the water supply.
Water supply should be adequate enough and be capable of supplying all fire fighting
systems for eight hours. Supply system including tanks or reservoirs and pumps shall be
located and protected that a fire in the workplace will not impair their operation or use.
Moreover, hydrants must be of the same types and sizes as those used by the local public
fire department and located and protected that they will not be exposed to mechanical
damage from vehicles Similarly, hose couplings, outside hydrants or standing nipples shall
be of the same type and size as those used by the local public fire department Hose shall
be thoroughly drained and dried after each use and tested at frequent intervals or at least
every four (4) months.

Fire extinguishers fall into two categories:

Permanent or “built-in” extinguishers such as standpipe and hose, automatic sprinkler


systems, an automatic extinguishing systems, are used extensively to lessen the danger
from fire. The number and location of such devices are highly technical matters, and safety
personnel should get competent technical assistance if installation of a built-in system is
contemplated. After such a system is installed, its maintenance is equal in importance to
other aspects of the fire safety program. A system of regular inspection and maintenance is
suggested.

Portable fire extinguishers have been called 'first-aid" fire extinguishers. They contain
Iimited supply of an extinguishing medium. These appliances are designed for use on fires
of specific classes. Each type of fire extinguisher is of value, but no one type is of equal
value or effectiveness on all kinds of fires. Figure 2 shows the different types of portable fire
extinguishers.

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Figure 2. Types of Portable Fire Extinguishers

To be effective, portable fire extinguishers must be:

a. Reliable extinguishers, carrying the approval label of an internationally


recognized testing laboratory, should be used.
b. The right type of extinguisher should be provided for each class of fire that may
occur in the area.
c. There should be enough units to afford protection for the area.
d. Extinguishers should be located where they will be readily accessible for
immediate use.
e. Extinguishers should be maintained in perfect operating condition, inspected
frequently, checked against tampering, and recharged as required.
f. Personnel should know the location of extinguishers and be trained to use them
effectively and promptly.

Proper operation of portable fire extinguishers:

Pull
Aim
Squeeze
Sweep

5. Provide for the Immediate Evacuation of Personnel

Once a fire is discovered in a building, the first and foremost step is the prompt evacuation of
all personnel to a safe place. This matter takes precedence over every other consideration. People
should be trained in orderly evacuation through fire drills. Exits that will empty the ordinary structure in
ample time to prevent loss of life or injury should be also a primary concern.

Once the building is designed for safe evacuation, the occupants have to be educated to the
princ iples of escape behavior: a) know whether to escape and where to go (e.g. stay in place, go to
safe refuge, go outside); b) know two ways out; c) get out fast; d) practice escape; e) check paths for
safety behavior (e.g. feel door; and f) crawl low under smoke.

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