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General Information (Ca-Cm)

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C.I.D.

The C.I.D. (Criminal Investigation Department) is the detective section of the British
police force. It was established in 1878 by E Howard Vincent. A ' Special Branch' was
founded in 1883 to deal with the Fenian troubles, it now deals with the protection of
high-ranking individuals and protection of the state, such as harassing members of the
Communist Party.

CAB

See "Cabriolet"
CABALA

See "Qabbala"

CABALLA

See "Qabbala"

CABARET

A cabaret is a type of theatre that emphasises skits, songs, magic and comedy acts, often
performed in a somewhat intimate setting.

CABBALA

See "Qabbala"

CABRIOLET

A cabriolet (cab) was a vehicle similar to a hackney-carriage with two or four wheels,
originally drawn by a single horse but later by a motor. The original cabriolets were for a
single passenger beside the driver and were a kind of hooded chaise. In the beginning of
the 19th century an effort was made to introduce cabriolets into Britain, to supersede
hackney carriages. It was not until 1823, however, that licences were obtained for
cabriolets. At first their number was limited to twelve. These were of an improved
pattern, with a folding hood, and seated two passengers, the driver being separated from
them by a partition. In 1832 all restrictions were removed, and cabriolets came into
popular favour. In 1836 a cabriolet on four wheels, the precursor of the brougham, was
introduced, and from this the clarence evolved. In 1834 a patent was taken out for an
improved, two-wheeled safety cab by Hansom, the architect of Birmingham town hall.
The safety consisted in an arrangement of the framework which prevented the cab tilting
backwards or forwards in case of accident. These cabriolets had a small body, hung
between wheels of over seven feet diameter. Two years later a fresh patent was obtained
for an improved Hansom. Motor cabs were first introduced in 1897, but failed to pay and
were phased out, only to start to reappear in London around 1905.

CADE

A cade was a British measurement for herrings equal to 500 fish.

CADILLAC ELDORADO BROUGHAM

The Cadillac Eldorado Brougham was an American two-door sedan car produced from
1957 to 1958 and developed from the earlier 1954 Cadillac Park Avenue. The Cadillac
Eldorado Brougham was powered by a 6384 cc V-eight engine rated at 325 bhp which
provided a top speed of 190 kmh.

CADUCEUS

A caduceus was originally an enchanters wand, and later a herald's staff. It is most
familiar in the hands of Hermes. Its first form was three shoots, of which two were
intertwined, while the third formed the handle. The fully- developed form has, besides the
rod itself, a pair of wings either at the top or in the middle, and two serpents intertwined.

CAFETERIA

The term cafeteria originates in Spanish where it refers to a coffee-shop, its English
meaning as a self-service or small restaurant originates from New York in the 1880s and
became popular in England (often abbreviated to cafe) since 1923.
CAIRN

In Scottish archaeology, a cairn is a mound of stones raised over a prehistoric grave, like
an English barrow. Ancient cairns are of two types - chambered from the stone age and
unchambered from the bronze age. Chambered cairns are again found in two forms; long
cairns and horned cairns.

CALASH

A calash was a light pleasure or travelling carriage, with low wheels, a removable top or
hood and driven by the traveller himself, rather than a separate driver.

CALDECOTT MEDAL

The Caldecott Medal, named after Randolph Caldecott, is an annual award given since
1938 to the best US artist-illustrator of children's books.

CALENDS

Calends was the first day of the Roman calendar month.

CALICO-PRINTING

Calico-Printing is the art of applying colours to woven fabric, usually calico. It was first
introduced to Britain from India in 1676, and was originally accomplished with hand-
blocks made of wood.

CALISTHENICS

Calisthenics are physical exercises designed and practised to give grace and strength to
the body.

CALUMET
A calumet is a kind of pipe used by the American Indians for smoking tobacco. Its bowl
is usually of soft red soapstone, and the tube a long reed ornamented with feathers. The
calumet was used in the ratification of all solemn engagements, both of war and peace. To
accept the calumet was to accept the proposed agreement, and to reject it was to reject the
agreement.

CAMAIEU

A camaieu is a monochrome drawing or painting with a single colour, varied only by

graduation of the single colour in terms of light and dark.

CAMELOT

Camelot was the castle of Arthur.

CAMEO

A cameo is a small relief carving.

CAMPOS

The campos are the open grassy plains of South America.

CANASTER

A canaster (canister) was a rush basket in which South American tobacco was packed.

CANDELABRUM
A candelabrum is a large candlestick.

CANDY

The candy is an eastern measurement of weight varying from 560 lbs upwards.

CANG

A cang was a Chinese instrument for the punishment of trifling offences. It was a kind of
wooden cage fitting closely around the neck, with the weight proportioned to the nature
of the offence, but so constructed that the culprit couldn't lie down nor feed himself. The
cang was not removed during the period of punishment which lasted two or three months.
Inscribed on the cang was the nature of the offence and the name of the criminal who was
generally left exposed at the city gates.

CANISTER

See "Canaster"

CANON

In geography, a canon is a deep ravine or valley with precipitous sides made by the rapid
flow of a river and the action of denudation.

CANT HOOK
A cant hook is a wooden lever with a movable iron hook near the end used for canting or
turning over heavy logs, etc, particularly in the USA.

CANTARO

The cantaro is a measure of weight and capacity used in the past in the Mediterranean
countries. In Turkey it was 125 lb, in Egypt 99 lb, in Malta 175 lb and in Spain to
measure wine it was about 3.5 gallons.

CANTICOY

A canticoy is a social gathering; usually, one for dancing.

CANTILEVER

In engineering, a cantilever is a projecting beam, truss, or bridge unsupported at the outer

end; one which overhangs.

CANYON

In geography a canyon is a narrow, deep gorge, with steep sides, cut by a river through
soft rock in a dry region. The biggest and best known is the Grand Canyon of the
Colorado River, USA.

CANZONE

Canzone is an Italian and Provencal form of poetry, used chiefly for love themes, though
religious and other subjects were not entirely excluded. the earliest Provencal specimens
date from the 12th century, those in Italian from the 13th. The number of stanzas varies,
five or six being the most common, and the last stanza was invariably shorter than the
others.

CAPE
In geography a cape is a headland or piece of land jutting out into the sea.

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT

Capital punishment is punishment by death. Capital punishment is retained in 92

countries and territories, including the 37 states of the USA, China, and Islamic countries.
It was abolished in the UK in 1965 for all crimes except treason. Methods of execution
include electrocution, lethal gas, hanging, shooting, lethal injection, garrotting, and
decapitation. In Britain, the number of capital offences was reduced from over 200 at the
end of the 18th century, until capital punishment was abolished in 1866 for all crimes
except murder, treason, piracy, and certain arson attacks. Its use was subject to the royal
prerogative of mercy. The punishment was carried out by hanging (in public until 1866).
Capital punishment for murder was abolished 1965 but still exists for treason. In 1990,
Ireland abolished the death penalty for all offences. In Saudi Arabia execution is by
beheading in public. Countries that have abolished the death penalty fall into three
categories: those that have abolished it for all crimes (44 countries); those that retain it
only for exceptional crimes such as war crimes (17 countries); and those that retain the
death penalty for ordinary crimes but have not executed anyone since 1980 (25 countries
and territories). The first country in Europe to abolish the death penalty was Portugal in
1867. In the USA, the Supreme Court declared capital punishment unconstitutional in
1972, as a cruel and unusual punishment, but decided in 1976 that this was not so in all
circumstances. It was therefore reintroduced in some states. Many countries use capital
punishment for crimes other than murder, such as drug offences (in Malaysia and
elsewhere). In 1977 the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ruled out
imposition of the death penalty on those under the age of 18. The covenant was signed by
President Carter on behalf of the USA, but in 1989 the US Supreme Court decided that it
could be imposed from the age of 16 for murder, and that the retarded could also face the
death penalty.

CAPNOLAGNIA

Capnolagnia is sexual arousal from watching others smoke.

CAPNOMANCY
Capnomancy is divination by observation of smoke from incense or a sacrifice.

CAPRICORN

Capricorn is a sign of the zodiac symbolised by a goat.

CARACOLE

A caracole is the term used to describe the half turn which a horseman makes, either to
the right or the left.

CARAT

Carat is the unit of measurement of gold purity - the proportion of gold to other metals in
the alloy, expressed in 24ths. Coinage contains 22 parts of gold and is therefore described
as 22 carat. The carat is also a unit of weight used in the weighing of precious stones.

CARBONADO

Carbonado is a powdered form of diamond.

CARDBOARD

Cardboard is a kind of stiff paper or pasteboard made by sticking together several sheets
of paper.

CARET

A caret (from the Latin meaning something is missing) is a writer's mark indicating that
something should be inserted at this point, usually an omitted word or phrase.

CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY

The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) is an organisation made up of former British

colonies in the Caribbean whose aim is to promote cooperation in economic, culutural
and technological matters, as well as coordinating a common foreign policy. The
Caribbean Community was founded in 1973.

CARICOM

See "Caribbean Community"

CARIOLE

A cariole was a small and light open carriage, somewhat resembling a calash, but having
only one seat and drawn by one horse.

CARLTON CLUB

The Carlton Club was a famous political club in Pall Mall, London. It was the recognised
headquarters of the Conservative Party, and was founded in 1832 by the Duke of
Wellington.

CARPET

Carpet is a thick fabric, often made of wool, used for covering a floor. It is made by
knotting short lengths of yarn to the warp threads during weaving.

CARPOLITE

Carpolite is a term applied to fossils of fruits.

CARSE

Carse is the name given in Scotland to a wide fertile valley.

CART

A cart is a strong two or four wheeled vehicle used in farming and for carrying heavy
goods.
CARTE-BLANCHE

A Carte-Blanche is a blank piece of white paper, signed and sealed and given to a person
to fill-up as he pleases, thus giving unlimited power to decide.

CARTEL

A cartel is a written agreement for the exchange or ransom of prisoners.

CARTON

A carton is a light box or case for holding goods.

CARTRIDGE-PAPER

Cartridge-paper is a thick paper. It is so named because it was originally used to make

soldiers' cartridges.

CARUCATE

A carucate was formerly as much land as one team could plough in one year. The size
varied according to the nature of the soil and the practice of husbandry in different
districts.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Cassier's Magazine was a magazine founded in 1891 by Louis Cassier, and published in
New York as the first monthly publication devoted to purely engineering and scientific
subjects. It was particularly noted for its illustrations.

CASSINA

Cassina are an Italian furniture-making company. They were established in 1923 in

Meda, Italy. Cassina moved from craft to mass production after 1945 and successfully
sold modern design to a sophisticated international niche market, using designers such as
Franco Albini, Gio Ponti and Vico Magistretti. Ponti's 'Superleggera' chair of 1957 was
among the most successful of Cassina's products.

CASSIOPEIA

Cassiopeia is a constellation in the northern hemisphere situated next to Cephus. It

contains fifty-five stars.
CASTE

Caste is an Indian hereditary class system with members socially equal, united in religion
and usually following the same trade. A member of one caste has no social intercourse
with a member of any other caste except their own. There are four main groups:
Brahmans (priests), Kshatriyas (nobles and warriors), Vaisyas (traders and farmers) , and
Sudras (servants); plus a fifth group, Harijan (untouchables). No upward or downward
mobility exists, as in classed societies. The system dates from ancient times, and there are
more than 3,000 subdivisions. In Hindu tradition, the four main castes are said to have
originated from the head, arms, thighs, and feet respectively of Brahma, the creator; the
members of the fifth were probably the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, known
variously as Scheduled Castes, Depressed Classes, Untouchables, or Harijan (a name
coined by Gandhi meaning 'children of God'). This lowest caste handled animal products,
garbage, and human wastes and so was considered to be polluting by touch, or even by
sight, to others. Discrimination against them was made illegal 1947 when India became
independent, but persists.

CASTILIAN

Castilian is a member of the Romance branch of the Indo-European language family,

originating in north-west Spain, in the provinces of Old and New Castile. It is the basis of
present-day standard Spanish and is often seen as the same language, the terms castellano
and espanol being used interchangeably in both Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries
of the Americas.

CASTOR

Castor is a star (Alpha Geminorum) of magnitude 1.6, the fainter star of the zodiacal
constellation Gemini, or the Twins. In 1719 it was discovered to be a visual binary star,
with components of magnitudes 2.8 and 2.0 separated by 6 seconds of arc and revolving
around each other in about 350 years. Each of these components has been found to be a
spectroscopic binary. In addition, a faint companion, separated from the other two by 72
sec of arc, has been discovered. This star is also a spectroscopic binary, the two
components of which revolve around each other in about one day. Hence, the entire
system of the star Castor contains at least six stars. Its distance is about 45 light- years
from the earth.

CASUISTRY

Casuistry is the science which deals with difficult cases of conscience - ie which
undertakes to apply acknowledged principles of conduct to doubtful cases, or cases where
there seems to be a conflict of duties. The science was developed systematically by the
medieval church in the 14th and 15th centuries.
CAT BURGLAR

A cat burglar is a burglar characterised by climbing buildings so as to enter through the

upper levels, as distinct from a common burglar who breaks in through any convenient
point.

CATACOMB

Catacombs are subterranean cemeteries.

CATAFALQUE

A catafalque is a temporary and ornamental structure, representing a tomb, placed over

the coffin of a distinguished person or over a grave.

CATALAN

Catalan is a group of Romance languages largely spoken in the Spanish provinces of

Gerona, Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida, Valencia, Alicante and Castellon de la Plana, as
well as in the French department of Pyrenees Orientales and the Balaeric Islands. The
language dates from the 13th century and became a literary language between the 14th
and 16th centuries.

CATARACT

In geography a cataract is a large waterfall, or series of waterfalls.

CATECHISM

A catechism is an elementary book containing a number of principles in any science or

art, but originally particularly in religion, reduced to the form of questions and answers.
Catechisms were quite rare, until the format was adopted by the computer industry in the
form of the FAQ (frequently asked questions).

CATO STREET CONSPIRACY

The Cato Street Conspiracy was a plot to murder British ministers in 1820. Arthur
Thistlewood, who had already been mixed up with revolutionary projects, conceived a
plan for assassinating Lord Castlereagh and his ministerial colleagues at a dinner in
Grosvenor Square, London on February 23rd. Arms were collected in a hired rendezvous
in the neighbouring Cato Street. The plot was discovered, and Thistlewood and his
colleagues arrested, and he and four others were executed.

CATOPTROMANCY

Catoptromancy is divination by means of mirrors.

CATTY

The catty was a Chinese unit of weight equivalent to 1.5 lbs.

CAULDRON

A cauldron is a large boiling vessel, usually of a deep basin shape with a hoop handle and
a removable lid.

CAUSEWAY

A causeway is a raised road across a low or wet piece of land.

CAVALCADE

A cavalcade is a procession of riders on horse-back.

CAVE

A cave is a deep hollow place under ground.

CAVENDISH
Cavendish is softened tobacco which has been sweetened with molasses and then pressed
into cakes.

CAVO-RILIEVO

Cavo-Rilievo is a form of sculpture in which the highest surface of the relief is only level
with that of the original stone.

CEDILLA

A cedilla is a mark made under the letter c, especially in French, to indicate that it is to be
pronounced like the English s.

CEILIDH

A ceilidh is a Gaelic festival of singing and dancing held in Scotland and Ireland.

CELLARET

A cellaret is a receptacle, usually in a dining room, for a few bottles of wine or liquor,
made in the form of a chest or coffer, or a deep drawer in a sideboard, and usually lined
with metal.

CEMENT

Cement is a mixture of chalk and clay used for building.

CENOTAPH

A cenotaph is a monument erected in honour of a deceased person, but not containing his
body. The Greeks erected cenotaphs, and a number were built in England after the Great
War, the most famous is in Whitehall, London which was designed by Sir E Luytens and
unveiled by the King on Armistice Day (11th November 1920).

CENSUS

The census is a questionnaire issued every ten years in Britain which gathers detailed
figures concerning the population, classified according to sex, age, occupation, size of
families and geographical distribution.

CENTAL
The cental was a weight of 100 pounds legal in Britain since 1879 and used primarily for
corn. The term was invented by Danson, a barrister, in order to meet the need for a
uniform measure in the Liverpool corn trade. It was first introduced in February 1859,
and legalised twenty years later.

CENTAURUS

Centaurus (the Centaur) is a southern constellation, which is visible chiefly south of the
equator. The brightest star in this constellation, Alpha Centauri, is also the third brightest
star in the sky. It is about 4.3 light-years from the earth and is the closest visible star to
the earth's solar system. The star is actually a double star, with a third star, Proxima
Centauri, revolving around the others.

CENTIARE

A centiare is a French measurement, the hundredth part of an are.

CENTNER

A centner is a European name for a hundred-weight.

CENTO

A cento is a poem formed out of verses taken from one or more poets, so arranged as to
form a distinct poem. CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) was a defensive union of the
1950s to 1970s comprising the member states of the USA, UK, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan and
Turkey with the aim of meeting a Communist attack on one of the member states. Iraq
withdrew in 1958 and Pakistan in 1972 before the organisation was dissolved.

CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT

The Central Criminal Court was set up in 1834 in the Old Bailey, which stands on the site
of old Newgate Prison. Here serious criminal cases from London and the surrounding
areas are heard.

CERAMICS

Ceramics are brittle materials made from the strong heating of clay, such as pottery and
china.

CERES
Ceres is a planet with a diameter of 256 km which was discovered on the 1st of January
1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo. It was named Ceres after the goddess Ceres who
was so highly esteemed by the ancient Sicilians.

CETI

See "Menkar"

CHAFING-DISH

A chafing-dish was a portable grate for coals, used for heating objects.

CHAIN

The chain is a unit of the imperial scale of measurement of length equivalent to 22 yards
or 20.168 metres. A chain is comprised of 100 links, each 7.92 inches long. 10 chains
equal one furlong, and 10 square chains equal one acre.

CHAIN RULE

In arithmetic, a chain rule is a theorem for solving numerical problems by the

composition of ratios, or compound proportion, by which, when several ratios of equality
are given, the consequent of each being the same as the antecedent of the next, the
relation between the first antecedent and the last consequent is discovered.

CHALDEE

Chaldee is an ancient Semetic language.

CHALDER

The chalder was a Scottish dry measure containing 16 bolls, equivalent to 12 imperial
quarters. It was originally used in weighing grain.
CHALDRON

The chaldron is an old English unit of capacity measurement equivalent to 36 bushels. It

was used as a measure of coal in England, equal to 6,800 lbs.

CHALICE

A chalice is a ceremonial cup.

CHAMBERLAIN'S MEN

The Chamberlain's Men were an Elizabethan stage troupe. It's most famous member was
the young William Shakespeare.

CHAMBERS

In legal talk, chambers are the rooms where barristers do their work before appearing in
court.

CHANCE-MEDLEY

Chance-Medley is a now obsolete legal term which has been replaced by the term
'manslaughter'. It described a homicide which occurred either in self- defence, on a
sudden quarrel, or in the commission of an unlawful act without any deliberate intention
of doing mischief.

CHANGELING

A changeling is a child substituted for another, usually at birth. There was formerly a
belief that week or peevish children were changelings, perhaps swapped by fairies or
other evil spirits.

CHAP-BOOK

Chap-Books were a type of cheap literature sold cheaply by chapmen and peddlers who
hawked them from district to district. They contained stories and biographies of a
generally popular nature and were the fore runners of modern periodicals.

CHAPADMALAL

Chapadmalal is a world famous stud-horse farm in Argentina.

CHAPERON

A chaperon was a device placed on the foreheads of horses drawing a hearse.

CHAPLET

A chaplet is a string of beads used by Roman Catholics to count the number of their
prayers. A chaplet is a third of a rosary, and usually consists of fifty-five beads.

CHARIOT

A chariot was a two wheeled vehicle used in ancient warfare.

CHARTERHOUSE

Charterhouse is a celebrated school and charitable foundation in the city of London. It

was built in 1371 as a priory for Carthusian monks by Sir Walter Manny. After the
dissolution of the monasteries it passed through several hands until it came to Thomas
Sutton who converted it into a hospital and school. In 1872 it was moved to Godalming
and the premises in London sold to the Merchant Taylors' School. New buildings were
erected at the original site in 1875.

CHASE

In Norman times, a chase (or chace) was a hunting ground stocked with beasts and under
private, rather than royal ownership which was called a forest.

CHASING

Chasing is the art of working decorative forms in low-relief in gold, silver or other
metals.

CHATHAM CHEST
The Chatham Chest (later Greenwich Chest) was a fund established in 1590 on the
recommendation of Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins for the relief of sick and
wounded seamen. The deduction of money from seamen's pay to the fund ceased in 1829
by which time the fund was practically merged in the general relief funds of the
Greenwich Hospital.

CHAUVINISM

Chauvinism is fanatical devotion to a cause, especially patriotism. The term comes from
Nicholas Chauvin who was a soldier so enthusiastically devoted to Napoleon that his
comrades ridiculed him.

CHEST

A chest was a British measurement of tea ranging from 80 to 84 lbs.

CHEVROLET CORVAIR

The Chevrolet Corvair was an American low-priced economy car produced from 1959 to
1969 in response to imports of European economy cars. The Chevrolet Corvair was
produced in various models, including a four-door saloon and a convertible. They were
powered by either a 2377 or 2684 cc air-cooled flat six engine rated at between 80 and
180 bhp providing a top speed of between 140 and 170 kmh.

CHEVROLET CORVETTE STINGRAY

The Chevrolet Corvette Stingray was an American sportscar produced between 1963 and
1967. The Chevrolet Corvette Stingray was powered by a V-eight engine, varying in
capacity between 5365 and 7000 cc and providing between 250 and 560 bhp, and a top
speed of between 190 and 235 kmh depending upon engine.

CHIBOUK

A chibouk or chibouque is a long Turkish smoking-pipe used for smoking tobacco.

Similar pipes are used in North Africa for smoking hashish.

CHINA LEAGUE
The China League was founded in Britain in 1900 by members of parliament and others
to promote intercourse with China and neighbouring countries, and bring these together
in the interests of commerce and national development.

CHINAWARE

Chinaware is a name given to porcelain, so called from China being the first country to
supply it to Europeans. It is thought that the Chinese produced porcelain from ancient
times, but it wasn't until around 500 AD that they perfected the art. Chinaware first came
to Europe in the beginning of the 16th century and won immediate popularity for its
beauty and novelty. The Euopean consumers thought it impossible to match the
whiteness of Chinaware, until John Frederick of Saxony, an alchemist, discovered a
means of producing a porcelain equal in whiteness to the Chinaware. This led to the
establishment by the Government of a factory at Meissen which started to produce
porcelain rivalling the Chinaware in beauty and quality. Chinaware, when broken,
presents a granular surface with a compact, dense, firm, hard, vitreous and durable
texture. It is semi-transparent, with a covering of white glaze, clear, smooth, unaffected
by all acids except hydroflouric acid, and able to withstand sudden changes of
temperature.

CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT

The Chinese Excusion Acts were several acts of the US government forbidding the
immigration of Chinese labourers into the United States. The original act of 1882 forbade
the immigration from 1882 to 1892. In 1892 another act was passed extending the ban
until 1902, and again in1902 another act was passed further forbidding the immigration
of Chinese labourers.

CHINESE WHITE

Chinese white is a pigment comprising white zinc oxide, introduced into the arts as a
non-toxic substitute for white lead.

CHINOOK

The chinook is the warm dry wind at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, and
presents the same features as the fohn winds of Switzerland. The chinook winds descend
from the Rockies, and while they are chiefly found in Montana and Wyoming, they also
extend from the southern part of Colorado up into Canada as far as the Arctic circle. The
high temperatures are confined to the valleys, and occur in streaks or pockets so that a
traveller frequently passes suddenly from a very warm to a very cold atmosphere.

CHIROMANCY
Chiromancy is divination by inspection of the hands (palmistry).

CHISHOLM CASE

The Chisholm Case was a legal proceeding in the USA that eventually led, through the
enactment of the 11th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, to a limitation on the
jurisdiction of the federal courts. Decided in 1793 by the U.S. Supreme Court, the case of
Chisholm v. Georgia (2 Dallas 419) was brought against the state of Georgia by
Alexander Chisholm, a citizen of South Carolina, regarding an inheritance of which he
was the legatee. The Supreme Court took jurisdiction under Article III, Section 2, of the
Constitution, which confers jurisdiction on the federal courts in cases between a state and
citizens of another state. Georgia challenged both the right of citizens to sue state
governments and the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in such cases. The Supreme Court
ruling affirmed the jurisdiction of the courts. On March the 5th, 1794, Congress passed
the 11th Amendment, which was ratified on February the 7th, 1795. It removed from the
jurisdiction of the federal courts cases in which a citizen of one state is the plaintiff and
the government of another state is the defendant; it limited the jurisdiction of the federal
courts to cases in which the government of a state is the plaintiff and the citizen of
another state is the defendant.

CHOIR

A choir is a band or organised company of singers, especially in church service. The term
is also used to describe that part of a church appropriated to the singers.

CHONDRITE

A chondrite is a stony meteorite that contains tiny, more or less spherical inclusions,
called chondrules, formed by rapid cooling of molten materials. The chondrules consist
of minerals such as pyroxene as well as various iron minerals. Such meteorites are of
scientific importance because many are thought to represent a record of conditions in the
earliest days of the solar system.

CHORD

In geometry, a chord is a line joining the extremities of an arc.

CHRISTIE'S

Christie's is a famous fine art auction house in London founded in 1766.

CHRISTMAS
Christmas is the christian celebration of the birth of their saviour, Jesus Christ. The
festival was adopted from earlier pagan winter solstice celebrations celebrating the sun,
including the Roman festival of Saturnalia celebrated from December the 17th to the
24th; Celtic Yuletide which was a twelve-day long festival of feasting around
November/December; the Roman New Year celebrated on January the first when lights
and greenery were used to decorate houses in celebration of the birth of the undying sun,
and presents were given to children and the poor. Other elements of modern christmas
celebrations are also adopted from earlier pagan celebrations: the christmas tree as a fir
tree originates with the Oak tree that was sacred to Odin in Norse and Germanic tradition,
and which was replaced by the fir tree declared to be sacred to Jesus by St Boniface in
Germany in the 8th century. Mistletoe and holly were sacred to the Druids who used them
as decorations in their winter solstice celebrations to the sun around mid-December.
Christmas was first celebrated around the 2nd century on two dates depending upon
church; the Roman catholic church adopting December the 25th and some other churches
adopting January the 6th which around the 5th century became Epiphany. The Puritans
supressed christmas celebrations in Britain and America on the justifiable grounds of
their pagan origins, however since the 18th century when the first christmas cards were
produced by the company of Goodall of London in 1862, peoples of many cultures,
including Jews have celebrated christmas in a variety of religious, pagan and other ways,
with today the Jehova's Witnesses being the only major christian objectors to the
celebration.

CHUBUT

The Chubut was a government of the Argentine Republic with Rawson as its capital
founded in 1865 by Welsh settlers. It was a chiefly cattle raising community comprised of
Argentines, Italians, Welsh and native Indians.

CHURCH ALE

Church ales were important social and money-raising functions in the Tudor and Stuart
periods in England. The churchwardens at this time sold, or distributed free of charge, ale
and food, sometimes in the church house or in a barn or in the church itself, with the
purpose of attracting local residents where they might then be induced to pay the parish
rates.

CIBORIUM
In the Roman Catholic church ciborium is the name given to the coffer or case in which
the host is kept; the pyx.

CINCH

A cinch is a strong saddle girth, usually of canvas, formerly popular in the western USA.

CINEMATOGRAPH FILMS ACT

The Cinematograph Films Act of 1927 was a British act of Parliament which came into
force on April 1st 1928 for a ten year period until March 31st 1938. The act required that
British renters of films included in their output a certain proportion of films made in the
British Empire. Exhibitors of films were also required to show a proportion of British
films. The proportions were on a sliding scale, gradually increasing over the ten year
period.

CITY AND GUILDS

The City and Guilds of London Institute is an association established by the Corporation
and Livery Companies of the City of London for the promotion of technical education in
all its branches. It was founded in 1878, and incorporated by royal charter.

CLAIM OF RIGHT

The Claim of Right was a document agreed to by the Scottish Convention parliament at
Edinburgh asserting the constitutional liberties of the kingdom, accepted by King William
III and Queen Mary II at Whitehall on May the 11th 1689.

CLAQUE

A claque was a body of men hired to applaud, laugh and weep as appropriate in theatres
with the intention of making the show a success. It originated in France around 1760 and
ceased around 1878.
CLARENDON PRESS

The Clarendon Press was the name formerly given to the press at the University of
Oxford. It was founded in 1672 and the printing house erected in 1711 to 1713 with
profits from the sale of Lord Clarendon's 'History of the Rebellion', the copyright of
which was given to the university by his son. Since 1830 the press has been known as the
Oxford University Press.

CLAUSE

In linguistics, a clause is a sentence or sentence-like construction included within another

sentence. For example, within the sentence 'I did it because I wanted to.' The sub-part
'because I wanted to' is a clause.

CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY

The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was a treaty drawn up between the USA and Great Britain in
1850, and named after the negotiators, John M Clayton and Sir H Lytton Bulwer, under
the treaty neither power was to obtain exclusive control over any canal across the Central
American Isthmus, but all such communications by canal or railway were to be neutral.
The treaty was superseded by the 1901 Hay-Pauncefote Treaty.

CLEROMANCY

Cleromancy is divination by means of lots, or by dice.

CLICK
Click is a peculiar variety of speech which occurs in the Bushman and Hottentot
languages. The sounds are produced by pressing the tongue against some portion of the
teeth-ridge or palate, and then quickly withdrawing it so as to produce an implosive click.

CLIMACTERIC YEARS

It was once believed that 7 and 9, with their multiples, were critical points in life; and 63,
produced by multiplying 7 and 9 together, was termed the grand climacteric, which few
people succeeded in outliving. Climacteric years are the seventh and ninth, with their
multiples by the odd numbers 3, 5, 7 and 9 - that is 7, 9, 21, 27, 35, 45, 49, 63 and 81 -
over which astrologers declare that the planet Saturn presides.

CLITORILINGUS

Clitorilingus is sex involving contact between the mouth and the clitoris.

CLOCK

A clock is a timepiece that chimes, though the term is frequently, and incorrectly, applied
to the non-chiming instruments for measuring time, a timepiece.

CLOG ALMANAC

The clog almanac was a square piece of wood, brass or bone about eight inches long
which could be hung up in a room or fixed into a walking stick. It was a perpetual
almanac showing the Sundays and other fixed festivals. Clog almanacs were introduced
into England by the Danes.

CLOISONNE

Cloisonne is a form of decorative enamel.

CLOISTER

The term cloister is applied to a monastic establishment; a place for retirement from the
world for religious duties. Cloister is a generic term, and denotes a place of seclusion
from the world for persons who devote their lives to religious purposes. It differs from a
convent in that the distinctive idea of a cloister is that of seclusion from the world, while
that of a convent is a community of living. Both terms denote houses for recluses of
either sex. A cloister or convent for monks is called a monastery; for nuns, a nunnery. An
abbey is a convent or monastic institution governed by an abbot or an abbess; a priory is
one governed by a prior or a prioress, and is usually affiliated to an abbey.
CLOVE HITCH

The clove hitch is a knot.

CLUBMEN

Clubmen were associations founded in the southern and western counties of England, to
restrain the excesses of the armies during the civil wars of 1642 - 1649. They professed
neutrality, but inclined towards the king, and were considered enemies by his opponents.

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Updated: 06/03/2004