Construction monitoring and observation

Measurement of strains with

electrical resistance strain gauges

Carlos Sousa
October 2017

Summary
• Working principle of electrical resistance strain gages
• Derivation of the Gauge Factor
• Advantages of foil strain gauges
• Dissipation of heat due to electric current
• Temperature effects
• Gris and base materials
• Installation

1
 Working principle of
electrical resistance strain gages
Proportionality between the relative variation of electrical resistance
R/R, experienced by a metallic conductor or a semi-conductor,
and its corresponding deformation (Lord Kelvin, 1856)

L, R
Metallic conductor:

Metallic conductor L+L R+R

after deformation:

Applications:
measurement of deformation, temperature, force, pressure, etc.

Working principle of
electrical resistance strain gages

Initial shape:

After tensile ∆
[eq. 1]
deformation:
Strain gauge, Wikipedia (2016)

Gauge Factor

After compressive
deformation:

2
 Derivation of the Gauge Factor

Consider an electric conductor (the gauge to measure the axial strain, ):

Length =
Cross-sectional area =
Material resistivity =
Coefficient of Poisson =
Electrical resistance =

The electrical resistance is:

[eq. 2]

Derivation of the Gauge Factor

By applying logarithms to both members of the previous equation and differentiating:

Δ Δ Δ Δ
[eq. 3]

The term Δ ⁄ is the axial strain:

Δ

The term Δ ⁄ can be quantified knowing that the transverse strain is :

Δ Δ
2 2

The term Δ ⁄ expresses the relative resistivity variation.

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 Derivation of the Gauge Factor

Therefore, eq. 3 can be rewritten as:

Δ Δ
1 2 [eq. 4]

Now, one can determine the sensitivity factor of the conductor, , which expresses the
relation between the relative resistance variation and the axial strain:

This term expresses the variation of resistivity

as a function of strain. For metallic conductors
it typically varies between 0.4 and 2.4

Δ ⁄ Δ ⁄
1 2 [eq. 5]

The coefficient of Poisson is 0.3

therefore this term is 1.6

Therefore, the sensitivity factor of metallic conductors varies between 2 and 4.

Derivation of the Gauge Factor

• First electrical strain gages
– Filament strain gages:
metallic filament (conductor) fixed in the extremities

• Electrical resistance strain gages at the present days

– Foil strain gages:
the metallic grid is printed
through a photo-printing process
Precision Strain Gages. Vishay MM (2006)

on a thin metallic membrane

These strain gages are sensitive, essentially,

to strains in the axial direction:

∆
[eq. 1]

4
 Derivation of the Gauge Factor
Foil strain gages are sensitive to strain in the transverse direction, too:

Sensitivity Sensitivity factor

factor to axial to transverse
strains strains

However, the sensitivity to axial strains is much higher, as desirable.

Typically, ⁄ 0.01
Therefore, for current applications, it is reasonably to relate directly ∆ ⁄ with :

∆
[eq. 1]

Derivation of the Gauge Factor

According to the equations in the previous slide:

in specimens
subjected to
uniaxial stress

The Gauge Factor is calibrated, by the manufacturer, in specimens with 0.285

subjected to uniaxial stress.

The most common strain gages (made with constantan or karma alloys) have 2

5
 Advantages of foil strain gauges
– Foil strain gauges are almost sensitive to axial strains only.

∆
[eq. 1]

In specimens with 0.285 subjected to axial stress, eq. 1 is accurate.

Even if not (e.g. biaxial stress states), eq. 1 is suitable for most practical
applications

Advantages of foil strain gauges

– Large variety of dimensions and grid geometries, manufactured with high
precision (minimum base length of 0,2mm)

– Terminals with convenient geometries, which enable an efficient fixing of the

lead wires
An introduction to stress analysis and transducer design
using strain gauges. Hoffmann (2002)

6
 Advantages of foil strain gauges
– Multiple grids can be applied on a single base…

… to form arrays, in order to

… to measure strains
measure the strain variation
in various directions
along the monitored specimen
Vishay MM (2006)

HBM (2014)

Advantages of foil strain gauges

– Gauges having a high nominal resistance (usually 120 or 350 ) can be
produced with high precision.

High  large
small

High nominal resistance is desirable because it provides:

• lower noise in the measurement system
• lower influence of lead wires resistance

7
 Advantages of foil strain gauges
– Very thin thickness ensures that the strain in the gauge is practically equal to
the strain in the monitored specimen.

– The planar shape of the grid allows an improved heat dissipation.

Dissipation of heat due to electric current

The planar shape of the grid allows an improved heat dissipation.

According to the Joule’s Law,

the heat generated ( ) in a conductor with resistance crossed by a current
long the interval of time Δ is:

∆ [eq. 6]

1 joule = (1 ampere)2  1 ohm  1 segundo

The electric power generated in the conductor is:

[eq. 7]
∆
1 watt = 1 joule / 1 second

It has to be lower than the power that the strain gauge is able to dissipate,
without a temperature increase due to self-heating, which would affect the
measurement results:

8
Dissipation of heat due to electric current
The power that the strain gauge is able to dissipate, , depends of:
– the shape of the grid (gauge);
– the characteristics of the monitored specimen.

The power density ( ) concept is very useful to estimate the value for each
application.

Surface area of the gauge

p (W/mm2) Type of specimen

0.008 to 0.016 Aluminum or copper (thick cross section)

0.003 to 0.008 Steel (thick cross section)

Dally et al. (1993)

0.0015 to 0.003 Steel (thin cross section)

0.00003 to 0.00008 Plastic

Dissipation of heat due to electric current

Example:

A strain gauge with nominal resistance 350Ω and surface area 5 mm is

to be applied on a thin steel specimen.
Determine the maximum intensity of electric current which can flow in the gauge,
so that self-heating is avoided.

Result: 4.6 mA

Low intensities of the electric current are usually applied to strain gages
( 2,5 mA)

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 Temperature effects
Temperature variations give rise to important variations of the gauge resistance.
The causes are:
a) the thermal elongation of the monitored specimen
∆
specimen ∆
∆
thermal dilation coefficient

b) the thermal elongation of the grid (strain gauge)

∆
grid ∆
∆

c) variation of the resistivity of the grid material

∆
β ∆
∆

resistivity temperature coefficient

Temperature effects
The total resistance variation due to ∆ is given by the sum of effects a) to c):
∆
specimen grid ∆ [eq. 8]
∆

This corresponds to an apparent strain (also named thermal output) which can be
quantified using the definition:
∆
GF
∆

Thus, the apparent strain is:

specimen grid ∆ [eq. 9]

10
 Temperature effects
This figure depicts the apparent strain, for strain gauges made with different alloys,
applied to a steel bar:

Calculated
with GF=2

Final temperature,
starting from an initial
temperature of 24ºC

Vishay MM (2010)

Temperature effects
The previous figure shows that the thermal output is very important.

To minimize the thermal output, the manufacturers produce

self-temperature-compensated (STC) strain gauges.

The production is made by modifying the grid alloy in order to minimize the value of

specimen grid (see eq. 9)

 different alloys are produced for

application in materials with
different thermal dilation coefficient

steel 12 10

bronze 16.5 10

aluminium 23 10

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 Temperature effects
The thermal output of STC strain gauges is not null. However, it is significantly
minimized.
Gauge manufacturers give the thermal output equation that can be used to
correct temperature effects.
The figure shows the thermal output for Vishay gauges for application in aluminium:

Vishay MM (2010)

Temperature effects

• Alternative procedure for compensation (elimination) of

temperature effects in strain measurements:
– dummy gage introduced in the measuring circuit
(to be seen ahead – Wheatstone Bridge Measurement Circuit)

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 Grid and base materials
• Metallic alloys used in the filaments

Vishay MM (2017) Strain gage selection: criteria, procedures, recommendations

– Constantan, also known as Advance (Cu, Ni)

Most widely used material;

Its resistivity is high enough to achieve suitable resistance values in

even very small grids;

Relatively high elongation capacity (important to achieve high

measurement ranges);

Constantan can be processed for self-temperature-compensation, for

application in different types of monitored materials;

Not suitable for extreme temperatures

To measure very large strains (> 5%), annealed constantan can be

used (not suitable for cyclic loading)

Grid and base materials

– Karma (Ni, Cr)

Vishay MM (2017) Strain gage selection: criteria, procedures, recommendations

Excellent stability along time;

Is the preferred material for measurements over long periods of time

(months or years) at room temperature, or lesser periods at elevated
temperature (up to 260ºC);

Encapsulated karma strain gauges can be used up to 400ºC;

Provides a flatter thermal output curve (compared to constantan), and

thus permits more accurate correction for thermal output;

Like constantan, Karma can be used in the production of self-

temperature compensated strain gauges

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 Grid and base materials

– Isoelastic alloys

Vishay MM (2017) Strain gage selection: criteria, procedures, recommendations

Suitable for applications where fatigue strength is important;

High gauge factor ( 3.2), which improves the signal-to-noise ratio in

dynamic measurements;

High thermal output (i.e. high sensitivity to temperature variations),

which implies that temperature compensating circuits have to be used
(see the Wheatstone Bridge Measurement Circuit).

Grid and base materials

The metallic grid is fragile.
It is applied on a flexible base, which permits the handling and installation
of the gauge.
Besides that, the base ensures the electric isolation between the grid and
the monitored specimen.

Materials used in the base (backing; grid carrier)

– Polyimide and encapsulated polyimide
Resistant to humidity and extreme temperatures (between -195º and +175º)
For general applications

– Glass fibre reinforced phenolitic epoxy resin

Used in very extreme temperatures, in fatigue tests and
in the manufacture of transducers

14
 Installation
The strains gage is bonded/fixed so that the grid is aligned with the direction
along which the strain is to be measured

• Surface preparation:
– Regularization and creation of an adequate roughness in the surface
– Application of a grease cleaner
– Application of a neutralizer

Installation

Installation with tape:

a) Position the gage and terminal patch

with transparent tape
b) Role back the gage and terminal patch
c) Apply adhesive over the bonding area
d) Reposition the gage and terminal patch
with tape, using finger pressure to force
out the excessive adhesive

Dally et al. (1993)

Adhesive: see the instructions provided by the gage manufacturer

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 Installation

• After installation/gluing:

– Connection of lead wires (metallic connectors welded to the gage

terminals)

– Strain gage protection:

• acrylic resins or silicone (for interior, short-term, applications);
• metallic sheet overlay and water-proofing coating
(in aggressive environments, for long-term measurements)

• special water-proofing adhesives are used in applications in water-

absorbing materials

Bibliographic references

• Introdução às Técnicas de medição para Observação de Estruturas de Engenharia Civil

(C. Sousa)
• Medição de deformação (Restivo et al.)
• Vishay MM (2006) Precision Strain Gages.
Available in http://www.vishaypg.com/micro-measurements/
• Vishay MM (2010) Strain gage thermal output and gage factor variation with temperature.
Available in http://www.vishaypg.com/micro-measurements/
• Vishay MM (2017) Strain gage selection: criteria, procedures, recommendations
Available in http://www.vishaypg.com/micro-measurements/
• Hoffmann K (2002) An introduction to stress analysis and transducer design using strain
gauges. Available in https://www.hbm.com
• HBM. Strain Gauges. Absolute precision from HBM. Webpage accessed on 10/10/2014.
https://www.hbm.com
• Dally JW, Riley WF, McConnell KG (1993) Instrumentation for engineering measurements,
2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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