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Anchors in

Concrete and
Masonry
by Brian C. Gerber,
Principal Structural Engineer,
ICBO Evaluation Service, Inc.

nchors are the primary method of fastening other lations in Section 2107.1.5; and Section 2108 contains
A elements to concrete or masonry, such as structural
systems of wood or metal; other concrete and masonry
strength design, using calculations in accordance with
Section 2108.1.5.
systems; nonstructural systems such as partitions, wall
cladding and roof coverings; and non-building compo- Post-Installed Anchors
nents such as equipment. Generally, anchors fall into one Post-installed anchors are installed into a predrilled hole
of two categories: cast-in-place and post-installed or by self-drilling in hardened concrete or masonry.
anchors. Examples include expansion anchors, which transfer loads
by bearing or friction from an expanded portion, set by
Cast-in-Place Anchors torque or displacement; adhesive (bonded) anchors, which
Cast-in-place anchors are those installed before concrete develop strength by bonding to a chemical adhesive
or masonry grout is placed and typically have enlarged placed between the hole and the embedded portion of the
heads or hooks to develop resistance to withdrawal from anchor; undercut anchors, which develop strength by a
the concrete or masonry member. Cast-in-place anchors bearing type interlock with an undercut portion of con-
were the first types to be described by the building codes, crete at the base of the anchor; and predrilled (screw)
with anchorage using headed cast-in-place bolts first
anchors, which develop strength by threads cut into an
appearing in the 1943 edition of the Uniform Building
undersized hole during anchor installation.
CodeTM (UBC). The resulting service load table, Table No.
While the codes describe methods for determining cast-
24-G, reported shear values only and applied to both
in-place anchor load capacities using tables and calcula-
masonry and concrete installations. A separate table for
tions for service loads or calculations only for strength
concrete, with higher shear values, appeared in the 1946
UBC. In the 1970 edition, the concrete provisions were design, no such provisions exist for post-installed anchors.
expanded to include allowable tension values and provide Actually, the only portions of the current codes where
different load values based on compressive strength. post-installed anchors are directly mentioned are Section
Similar provisions for masonry first appeared in the 1988 1632.2 and Table 16-O of the 1997 UBC and Sections
UBC. As strength design developed into the preferred 1621.1.7 and 1621.3.12.2 of the 2000 International
method for concrete design, a corresponding method for Building Code® (IBC®), which describe limitations and
anchorage design was also needed, and was added to the adjustments for determining the seismic loads applied to
1991 UBC. anchors supporting components.
The most current (1997 edition) UBC provisions for Since post-installed anchors usually consist of specific
cast-in-place, headed anchors are as follows: for concrete, designs developed by their manufacturers, no general
Section 1923 contains service load design in Section guidelines for structural design were available until
1923.1, using values in Table 19-D, and strength design in recently. Manufacturers supplied users with data address-
Section 1923.2, using calculations in Section 1923.3; for ing performance, but items such as test methods and
masonry, Section 2107 contains working stress design, installation procedures were not always provided.
using values in Tables 21-E-1, 21-E-2, and 21-F, or calcu- Consequently, code officials found it difficult to determine

32 • buildingstandards March-April 2002


whether post-installed anchors would comply with the • testing of all diameters,
codes as alternatives to cast-in-place anchors. • minimum sample size (increased from three to five),
• diameter dependent displacement limitations, and
Expansion Anchors
• establishment of a quality control program
In response to these concerns, ICBO began issuing
including inspections by an independent quality
research reports on expansion anchors in the late 1950s; a
control agency.
system maintained by ICBO Evaluation Service, Inc.
Many of these changes paralleled the 1986 European
(ICBO ES) through evaluation reports. While supporting
Union of Agreement Directives for Assessment of Anchor
data is largely supplied by the manufacturers, ICBO ES
Bolts.
provides an independent evaluation of the data and issues
It should be noted that although ASTM E488 alluded to
reports detailing information consistent with the codes
test procedures for fatigue and seismic load test methods,
regarding identification, installation, strength and other
the scope of AC01 was limited to static load testing
performance characteristics.
because it was felt that the E488 procedures were too
ICBO ES insists that any tests done must either be con-
vague. Fatigue resistance issues had a long history, being
ducted or witnessed by a test laboratory having no affilia-
a restriction in the original AC01, but seismic perform-
tion with the manufacturer in order to provide greater
ance concerns were relatively recent. In November 1994,
assurance of the validity of the test results. This require-
ICBO ES issued a letter clarifying the intent of AC01,
ment was first documented in the August 1975 AC01,
stating that the use of anchors in resisting earthquake or
“ICBO ES Acceptance Criteria for Expansion Anchors in
wind loads was beyond the scope of the evaluation reports
Concrete,” which also addressed a number of other issues
regarding the evaluation of expansion anchors placed in issued on expansion anchors. In doing so, ICBO ES was
concrete, including anchor description, anchor identifica- trying to convey the notion that, because the criteria did
tion, preparation of concrete test members, anchor instal- not contain seismic test procedures, anchor performance
lation in test members, equipment used in testing, test pro- in seismic and wind conditions was unknown and could
cedures, test reports, test schedule, number of specimens not be commented on. This situation was rectified in
and sizes to be tested, determination of allowable load, September 1997 when the ICBO ES Evaluation
factors of safety and inspection limits, and restrictions on Committee approved the addition of two seismic test
use. methods, one of which was patterned after a procedure
In 1976, the American Society for Testing and previously developed for adhesive anchors. AC01 consid-
Materials (now ASTM International) published ASTM ers both methods equivalent.
E488, “Standard Test Methods for Strength of Anchors in Adhesive Anchors
Concrete and Masonry Elements.” ASTM E488 provided ICBO ES began evaluating adhesive anchors in the early
more detail than AC01 with regard to test procedures, but 1980s. Initial adhesive anchor strength determinations
had different requirements for equipment placement and essentially followed AC01, but some issues necessitated
load rates and was not adopted by ICBO ES until 1991. additional consideration. Initially, for example, the effect
In the late 1980s, ICBO ES began a program to update of high temperatures was a concern, and as the number of
AC01 to reflect advances made in the evaluation of evaluation reports grew, so did the diverging opinions on
anchors. Renamed the “ICBO ES Acceptance Criteria for how to evaluate the temperature effects. Adhesive anchors
Expansion Anchors in Concrete and Masonry Elements,” are packaged in a variety of methods, and the packages
the document was adopted in July 1991 and contains addi- must be stored under controlled conditions and have expi-
tional requirements addressing: ration dates. Additionally, the adhesives have a tendency
• evaluation in masonry, to creep, which is deflecting under long-term loads.
• preparation of masonry test members, Environmental exposures such as damp or water-filled
• detail of anchor material properties, holes and freezing and thawing also may detract from per-
• length identification directly on anchors, formance. These issues were considered in ASTM E1512,
• reference to ASTM E 488 for test procedures, “Standard Test Methods for Testing Bond Performance of
• proper functioning tests for drill bit size and torque Adhesive-Bonded Anchors,” which was released in May
ratings, 1993.
• tests to establish minimum and critical edge Once ASTM E1512 was published, ICBO ES began
distances and spacings, working with the industry to create a new acceptance cri-
• tests to establish combined tension and shear teria for adhesive anchors. In January 1995, it achieved
capacity, this goal with the issuance of AC58, “ICBO ES

buildingstandards March-April 2002 • 33


Acceptance Criteria for Adhesive Anchors in Concrete mortar strength tests, proof loading 5 percent of anchor
and Masonry Elements,” which addresses the following: installations and torque testing 25 percent of installations.
• anchor description (adhesive and steel rod);
• adhesive packaging; Undercut Anchors
ICBO ES began evaluating undercut anchors in the early
• anchor identification;
1980s around the same time as adhesive anchors. Again,
• preparation of concrete and masonry test members;
the August 1975 AC01 served as the guide for issuing
• anchor installation in test members;
evaluation reports. In 1998, the industry proposed a new
• equipment used in testing; criteria for undercut anchors: AC140, “ICBO ES
• test procedures; Acceptance Criteria for Undercut Anchors in Concrete
• test reports; Elements.” Still under development, AC140 corresponds
• test schedule (number of specimens and sizes to be closely with AC01 and portions of European Technical
tested); Approval Guideline No. 001, “Guideline for European
• determination of allowable load (factor of safety Technical Approval of Metal Anchors in Concrete,”
and inspection limits); issued in 1997 by the European Organization for
• restrictions on use (exterior exposure, seismic Technical Approvals. To update the affected evaluation
conditions, fatigue loads); reports on current philosophy regarding seismic perform-
• reference to ASTM E488 for load test procedures; ance, the ICBO ES Evaluation Committee invoked seis-
• reference to ASTM E1512 for adhesive specific mic test requirements on undercut anchors in June 1998.
procedures;
• tests to establish minimum and critical edge Predrilled (Screw) Anchors
distances and spacings; ICBO ES began evaluating predrilled or “screw” anchors
• tests to establish combined tension and shear in the 1970s. As with other anchoring systems, ICBO ES
capacity; initially applied the August 1975 AC01 as the guide for
• tests to identify adhesive compounds (infrared evaluation. After AC01 was revised in 1991, ICBO ES
absorption spectroscopy, bond strength, specific determined that these anchors were beyond the criteria’s
gravity and gel time); scope. Accordingly, ICBO ES issued a letter in February
• test procedures for fire resistance, creep, in-service 1995 outlining the basis for evaluating such anchors. The
temperature, dampness, freezing and thawing, and letter stated that the original AC01 would remain the basis
seismic loads; and for recognition, with the exceptions that the sample size
• establishment of a quality control program was to be increased from three to five and all diameters
including inspections by an independent quality and embedment lengths were to be tested. In addition, the
control agency. anchors would not be recognized for seismic or wind load
The Uniform Code for Building ConservationTM resistance.
includes an Appendix to Chapter 1 concerning rehabilita- As the number of manufacturers pursuing ICBO ES
tion of unreinforced masonry walls for seismic hazards evaluation reports grew, so did the demand for expansion
that references UBC Standard 21-7, “Tests of Anchors in of the scope of recognition. The industry showed interest
Unreinforced Masonry Walls.” Several manufacturers in testing for specific edge distances and spacings, seismic
developed adhesive anchoring systems specifically for and wind load resistance, and combined load perform-
these conditions, and ICBO ES began receiving applica- ance, which had not previously been considered. In 2000,
tions for evaluation reports in the early 1990s. The AC106, “ICBO ES Acceptance Criteria for Predrilled
anchors are used only to resist short-term seismic and Fasteners (Screw Anchors) in Concrete or Masonry,” was
wind loads. The typical installation methods converged on proposed, and the criteria was approved in November
bent bar (angled) installations for tension or shear, straight 2001. While similar to AC01, AC106 contains a number
bar installations for shear, and straight through-bolts of differences, including the requirement of proper func-
anchored by steel plate installations for tension or shear. tioning tests only for maximum drill bit sizes, maximum
Due to the uniqueness of these systems, ICBO ES deter- 6,500 psi concrete compressive strength permitted based
mined that they needed to be evaluated under a separate on tests at lower strengths, combined loads permitted
acceptance criteria. AC60, “ICBO ES Acceptance Criteria without testing (tests are required to validate the equation
for Unreinforced Masonry Anchors,” first issued in July in UBC Section 1923.1/IBC Section 1912.2), and spacing
1994, responds to these concerns. AC60 also stipulates and edge distances of 16 times the anchor diameter per-
procedures for verifying actual installations with in-place mitted without testing.

34 • buildingstandards March-April 2002


Cracked Concrete Conclusion
There is much research indicating that certain anchors By partnering with code officials, manufacturers, engi-
may perform less effectively in a cracked concrete or neers, builders, testing laboratories, inspection agencies,
masonry member than in an uncracked member. Both the industry associations and standards writing organizations,
UBC and IBC recognize this to be the case for cast-in- ICBO ES has maintained its role in providing validated
place anchors: UBC Section 1923.2 requires load factor information to parties interested in concrete anchors. The
multipliers for anchors located in tension zones of con- following acceptance criteria are available at the ICBO ES
crete members, and IBC Section 1913 requires that modi- website (www.icboes.org):
fication factors ψ4 (tension) and ψ7 (shear) be applied to • AC01, “ICBO ES Acceptance Criteria for
the nominal pullout and shear strengths. The design meth- Expansion Anchors in Concrete and Masonry
ods in the UBC and IBC are derived from the American Elements,” November 2001;
Concrete Institute (ACI) ACI 318, “Building Code • AC58, “ICBO ES Acceptance Criteria for Adhesive
Requirements for Structural Concrete,” which assumes Anchors in Concrete and Masonry Elements,”
reinforced concrete will crack in the tension zone during November 2001;
service. For post-installed anchors, one also can expect
• AC60, “ICBO ES Acceptance Criteria for
some decrease in load capacity. The amount varies with
Unreinforced Masonry Anchors,” July 1995; and
the type of device, but neither code addresses post-
installed anchors. • AC106, “ICBO ES Acceptance Criteria for
Predrilled Fasteners (Screw Anchors) in Concrete
or Masonry,” November 2001. ◆
The 2000 IBC and ACI 318-02
Section 1913 of the 2000 IBC is based on the Concrete
Capacity Design (CCD) method, which is considered to be References
ACI 318, “Building Code Requirements for Structural
a more accurate model than those used in previous codes. Concrete,” American Concrete Institute (ACI).
Appendix D of ACI 318-02 is also based on the CCD
ACI 355.2, “Evaluating the Performance of Post-installed
method and is similar to IBC Section 1913 but has been Mechanical Anchors in Concrete,” ACI.
expanded to recognize designs with expansion and under- ACI 530, Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,
cut anchors (but not adhesive or predrilled anchors). ACI.
Strength design determinations with post-installed ASTM E488, “Standard Test Methods for Strength of Anchors
anchors are also addressed for the first time. in Concrete and Masonry Elements,” ASTM International.
Since post-installed anchors vary in performance, cer- ASTM E1512, “Standard Test Methods for Testing Bond
tain tests will be needed to permit design under ACI 318- Performance of Adhesive-Bonded Anchors,” ASTM
02 Appendix D and are contained in ACI 355.2-00. ACI International.
318-02, including Appendix D, has been proposed for Cagley, J. R., “Changing from ACI 318-99 to ACI 318-02—
adoption into the 2003 IBC. What’s New?”, Concrete International, June 2001.
Cook, Ronald A., Strength Design of Anchorage to Concrete,
IBC Masonry Portland Cement Association.
IBC Section 2107 refers to ACI 530-99/American Society ETAG No. 001, “Guideline for European Technical Approval of
Metal Anchors in Concrete,” European Organization for
of Civil Engineers 5-99/The Masonry Society 402-99,
Technical Approvals.
“Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,”
International Building Code®, 2000, International Code
for working stress design requirements for masonry. ACI Council®.
530-99 Section 2.1.2.2 permits the design of cast-in place
Klingner, Richard E., “AC 355.2—What’s It All About?”,
anchors, headed anchor bolts and bent-bar anchor bolts Structure, October 2001.
(the design equations are the same as those appearing in Pierepiekarz, Mark A., “Uniform Building Code Provisions for
UBC Section 2107). For other anchors, ACI 530-99 Anchorage to Concrete,” Building StandardsTM, July-August
Section 2.1.2.1 requires that tests be conducted in accor- 1993.
dance with ASTM E488 and that the resulting allowable “UEAtc Directives for Assessment of Anchor Bolts,” European
design load must not exceed 20 percent of the average Union of Agreement.
tested strength. Strength design provisions for headed and Uniform Building CodeTM, 1943–1997, International Conference
bent-bar anchor bolts are set forth in IBC Section 2108.6, of Building Officials® (ICBO®).
which permit higher values than the UBC. Uniform Code for Building ConservationTM, 1985–1997, ICBO.

buildingstandards March-April 2002 • 35

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