Effects of Fire

on Concrete
Evaluation and repair

BY NARENDRA GOSAIN

I t’s commonly understood in the building industry that

concrete is the most fire-resistant building material in
everyday use. Because of concrete’s high specific heat
capacity, a fire will generally not cause a rapid increase in
its temperature and may not cause significant damage. Even
so, it’s necessary to evaluate all structures after a fire event.
This article provides a discussion of the assessment,
testing, and repair techniques that can be used, in most
cases, to determine a cost-effective repair strategy.

DAMAGING EFFECTS OF FIRE

The effects of fire on concrete are greatly influenced by
the type of coarse aggregate used. As shown in Fig. 1,
concrete containing carbonate aggregates (including
limestone and dolomite) and lightweight aggregates (either
naturally occurring or manufactured by expanding shale,
clay, or slag) retain most of their compressive strength up
to 1200 °F (650 °C). However, concrete containing siliceous
aggregates, such as granite, quartzite, schists, and other Fig. 1: Effect of aggregate type on the compressive strength of
materials consisting largely of silica, retain only about 55% concrete stressed to 0.4fc′during heating for concrete with an
average compressive strength of 3900 psi (27 MPa)1
of their compressive strength at 1200 °F (650 °C).1,2 Also,
tests have shown that reinforcing bars heated to tempera-
tures beyond 932 °F (500 °C) undergo a significant reduction
in both yield strength (Fig. 2) and ultimate strength.3,4
The damage to concrete caused by fire can range from
minor cosmetic blemishes to more serious damage such
as external cracking, delamination and spalling, internal
microcracking, and chemical changes.

Minor cosmetic blemishes

During a short-lived or low-intensity fire, the temperature
of concrete elements will not reach levels sufficient to cause
direct material damage. When a fire is extinguished,
however, a rapid drop in surface temperature (thermal
shock) can occur as the cool water used to extinguish the
fire hits the concrete. Contraction of this rapidly cooled
material is constrained by the adjacent, heated concrete
causing tensile stresses that produce superficial hairline
cracks and possibly minor surface spalls. Fig. 2: Yield strength of steel reinforcement while hot4

Concrete international / APRIL 2006 67

External cracking every assessment, but the need for the third is dependent
Fire events with extended life and intensity will create on the findings of the first two stages.
high temperatures in the concrete mass, causing free
water inside the concrete to vaporize. Because the Initial on-site survey
concrete will generally have insufficient continuous pores The initial assessment stage comprises data collection,
to relieve the vapor pressures, the tensile stresses including fire duration, location, and temperature; interviews
created will result in cracks that extend to the surface.5 of eyewitnesses; measurement of the extent of visible damage;
and review of structural drawings (if available). An assess-
Delamination and spalling ment of the intensity and temperature of the fire can be made
High vapor pressures will also cause internal delami- by observing the damage to copper, glass, and plastic
nations that are normally associated with external materials (Table 2).8 On occasion, the fire marshal’s report
cracking, but can be present even when there are no may also have information on the temperature of the fire.
visible external cracks. Spalling will occur when the
surface layer at a delamination falls away and exposes Detailed on-site investigation
the internal concrete. Depending on the extent and depth Once the initial on-site assessment has been completed,
over which they occur, delaminated areas may be repaired directed nondestructive and destructive testing should
by rebonding, but a spall must be replaced by patching. take place. Some of the methods that can be used are
shown in Table 3.9,10
Internal microcracking
Severe fires may cause dehydration and chemical changes Testing laboratory investigation
in the concrete. These changes will result in microcracking The primary tool in assessing the internal condition of
(visible only under magnification), sometimes deep inside the concrete is petrographic examination, comprising
concrete elements. Extensive microcracks may reduce the macro-examination of concrete cores using either fluores-
load-bearing capacity of the structure. cence or dyed thin section techniques. The cost of this
testing can generally be justified by the savings resulting
Chemical changes from the choice of appropriate repairs. Petrographic
Severe fires may also create intense heat causing the analysis of concrete provides information on the location of
compounds in concrete to undergo chemical changes and cracks—within the aggregate particles, within the cement
often forming crystals or changes in color that can be paste, or around the aggregate particle boundaries. Polar-
used as indicators of the extent of damage.6,7 Changes in ized light microscopy on thin sections not exposed to fire
color, physical appearance, and condition of concrete shows that cement paste is normally isotropic. In concrete
exposed to various temperatures are given in Table 1. exposed to high temperatures, anisotropic properties of
cement paste nearest the heat source indicate temperatures
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT above 500 °C (930 °F) and probable fire damage.11
Damage assessment involves essentially three stages:
initial on-site survey, detailed on-site investigations, and REPAIR TECHNIQUES
laboratory testing. The first two must be performed on Based on the results of a thorough and well-planned
damage assessment of a fire-damaged concrete structure, an
appropriate repair technique can be selected from a range
TABLE 1: of techniques including manually applied patching,
PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON CONCRETE8
Temperature Color change Changes in physical appearance and benchmark temperatures Concrete condition
0 to 550 °F
None Unaffected Unaffected
(0 to 290 °C)
Surface crazing: 570 °F (300 °C);
550 to 1100 °F Sound but strength
Pink to red Deep cracking: 1020 °F (550 °C);
(290 to 590 °C) significantly reduced
Popouts over chert or quartz aggregate: 1070 °F (575 °C)
Spalling, exposing not more than 25% of reinforcing bar
1100 to 1740 °F
Whitish grey surface: 1470 °F (800 °C); Weak and friable
(590 to 950 °C)
Powdered, light colored, dehydrated paste: 1650 °F (900 °C)
1740+ °F
Buff Extensive spalling Weak and friable
(950+ °C)

68 APRIL 2006 / Concrete international

pneumatically-applied patching, and
composite strengthening. In cases TABLE 2:
where a fire has caused severe PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON VARIOUS MATERIALS8
distortion to the structure and Material Examples Condition Temperature
produced distress in both the concrete
Polystyrene Foam insulation; Softens 120 to 140 °F
and the reinforcing steel, demolition
light shades; handles (49 to 60 °C)
and reconstruction may be required.
Curtain hooks; radio Melts and flows 250 °F (121 °C)
Manually applied patching
cases
Manually applied patching is the
simplest, but is typically limited to small Polyethylene Bags; film Shrivels 120 °F (49 °C)
areas of repair where localized spall
damage has occurred. Repair products Bottles; buckets Softens and melts 150 °F (66 °C)
include polymer and silica fume Lead Plumbing lead; Sharp edges 550 to 650 °F
modified cementitious mortars and flashing; storage rounded or drops (300 to 350 °C)
epoxies. These products typically batteries formed
provide high compressive strength and Zinc Plumbing fixtures; Drops formed 750 °F (400 °C)
early strength gain for a fast repair flashing; galvanized
cycle and are formulated for horizontal, surfaces
vertical, and overhead applications.
This type of application typically does Aluminum Small machine parts; Drops formed 1200 °F (650 °C)
not generate much noise and can be brackets; toilet
performed during normal business fixtures; cooking
hours; however, surface preparation utensils
operations can be loud and will often Molded glass Glass block; jars and Softened or 1300 to 1400 °F
have to be limited to off-peak hours if bottles; tumblers; adherent (700 to 750 °C)
the structure remains occupied. solid ornaments
Rounded 1400 °F (750 °C)
Pneumatically applied
patching Thoroughly flowed 1450 °F (800 °C)
When larger spalled areas must be Sheet glass Window glass; plate Softened or 1300 to 1400 °F
repaired, pneumatic application of glass; reinforced glass adherent (700 to 750 °C)
repair mortar (shotcreting) may be
more cost effective because larger Rounded 1450 °F (800 °C)
areas can be covered in less time
than with manual applications. This Thoroughly flowed 1550 °F (850 °C)
process is loud and messy, and the
repair is preferably performed when Silver Jewelry; tableware; Sharp edges 1750 °F (950 °C)
the building is not occupied. coins rounded or drops
formed
Composite strengthening Brass Door knobs; furniture Sharp edges 1650 to 1850 °F
When time is a critical factor or knobs; locks; lamp rounded or drops (900 to 1000 °C)
when space is limited, composite fixtures; buckles formed
materials such as carbon fiber- Bronze Window frames; art Sharp edges 1850 °F (1000 °C)
reinforced polymer (CFRP) or glass objects rounded or drops
fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) may formed
be justified repair options. The
composite materials typically come Copper Electric wiring; coins Sharp edges 2000 °F (1100 °C)
in pliable sheets that can conform to rounded or drops
their substrate. They are also formed
available in prefabricated solid strips
that typically attach to the bottom of Cast iron Pipes; radiators; Drops formed 2000 to 2200 °F
beams and slabs depending on the machine pedestals (1100 to 1200 °C)
type of repair necessary and the and housings

Concrete international / APRIL 2006 69

STADIUM FIRE CASE STUDY

In 1996, a floor area measuring about 23 x 28 ft (7 x 8.5 m) on
the fourth level of a Houston, TX, stadium was subjected to an
arson fire. As shown in this photo, the fire caused severe
spalling of the concrete joists, separation of the slab from the
joist web, and widespread cracking
Tensile coupons taken from the reinforcing bars indicated that their
strength was compromised. A repair method was developed to
rebond the slab to the joist web by means of vertical dowels hooked
into slots cut in the existing slab. The load-carrying capacity of the
joists was restored by encasing new longitudinal reinforcing bars
and stirrups around the damaged webs with shotcrete applied after
abrasive blasting to roughen the surface and remove soot

Damage was also evident on the level above the fire. This photo The heat from the fire was very intense and hot enough to singe
shows typical delamination and spalling found on the upper level some stadium seating on the level above the fire

JAIL FIRE CASE STUDY

After sounding tests were conducted to

An accidental fire occurred while this jail
was being constructed in 2001. Although
the fire burned briefly, the intense heat
caused heavy spalling and cracking of the
concrete in the general area of the fire.
Spalling of the underside of the concrete
floor slab encompassed an area of about
24 x 35 ft (7 x 11 m) with spall depths up
to 1-1/2 in. (40 mm)
detect structural deficiencies, delamination
of the concrete was found in various
structural members including perimeter
beams (as shown in this photo) as well as
the top 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 1.0 m) of some
columns. Recommendations were made to
repair all spalled areas with a cementitious All columns had some surface cracking.
sprayable mortar after removing all However, sounding tests at these columns
loose concrete did not reveal any delamination problems

70 APRIL 2006 / Concrete international

TABLE 3:
TESTING OPTIONS
Material Nondestructive testing
Visual examination
Checking for delaminations using chain drag, hammer, or Checking compressive strength and
rotary percussion tool
Concrete
Checking steel location using cover meter
Checking soundness using Schmidt hammer
Checking for delaminations and cracks using
ultrasonic tests
Checking quality using metallurgical studies and
Reinforcing steel
hardness test
structural element to be repaired. Because epoxies are used
to provide adhesion to the substrate of these composite
materials, additional fireproofing materials must be installed
to protect the repair materials. This repair approach doesn’t
generate much noise after the surface has been prepared. In
spite of the cost, this option becomes viable when the facility
must remain open 24 hours a day and when noise is an issue.
QUALIFICATIONS
Concrete structures exposed to fire generally do
experience some form of distress. To ensure that the
structure is properly restored to its original sound condition,
the final step before any repairs can begin is the selection of
a qualified repair contractor specializing in the chosen
technique. During construction, the work should be closely
monitored by a qualified independent testing laboratory.
Acknowledgments
Jonathan Livingston, formerly with the Structural Diagnostics
Group of Walter P. Moore, assisted in researching the information and
putting this article together. His assistance is greatly appreciated.
References
1. Abrams, M.S., “Compressive Strength of Concrete at Temperatures
to 1600 F,” Temperature and Concrete, SP-25, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1971, pp. 33-58.
2. Neville, A.M., Properties of Concrete, 4th Edition, Pearson
Education Limited, 1995, 844 pp.
3. Edwards, W.T., and Gamble, W.L., “Strength of Grade 60
Reinforcing Bars After Exposure to Fire Temperatures,” Concrete
International, V. 8, No. 10, Oct. 1986, pp. 17-19.
4. National Codes and Standards Council of the Concrete and
Masonry Industries, “Assessing the Condition and Repair Alternatives
of Fire-Exposed Concrete and Masonry Members,” Fire Protection
Planning Report, Aug. 1994, 14 pp.
5. Chiang, C.-H., and Tsai, C.-L., “Time-Temperature Analysis of
Bond Strength of a Rebar after Fire Exposure,” Cement and Concrete
Research, V. 33, No. 10, Oct. 2003, pp. 1651-1654.
Destructive testing
Checking carbonation and discoloration using
drilled holes
discoloration using cored holes
—
—
—
Checking strength using tensile test
6. Yüzer, N.; Aköz, F.; and Öztürk, L.D., “Compressive Strength—
Color Change Relation in Mortars at High Temperature,” Cement and
Concrete Research, V. 34, No. 10, Oct. 2004, pp. 1803-1807.
7. Tovey, A.K., “Assessment and Repair of Fire-Damage Concrete
Structures—an Update,” Evaluation and Repair of Fire Damage to
Concrete, SP-92, T.Z. Harmathy, ed., American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1986, pp. 47-62.
8. Erlin, B.; Hime, W.G.; and Kuenning, W.H. “Fire Damage to Concrete
Structures,” Concrete Construction, V. 17, No. 4, Apr. 1972, 6 pp.
9. Muenow, R.A., and Abrams, M.S., “Nondestructive Testing Methods
for Evaluating Damage and Repair of Concrete Exposed to Fire,”
Evaluation and Repair of Fire Damage to Concrete, SP-92, T.Z. Harmathy,
ed., American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1986, pp. 63-86.
10. DiMaio, A.; Giaccio, G.; and Zerbino, R., “Non-Destructive Tests
for the Evaluation of Concrete Exposed to High Temperatures,”
Cement Concrete and Aggregates, V. 24, No. 2, Dec. 2002, 10 pp.
11. Lin, W.; Lin., T.D.; and Powers-Couche, L.J., “Microstructures of
Fire-Damaged Concrete,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 93, No. 3, May-June
1996, pp. 199-205.
Selected for reader interest by the editors.
ACI member Narendra Gosain is Senior
Principal and Executive Director of the
Structural Diagnostics Engineering
Services Group at Walter P. Moore. He
received a master’s degree in earthquake
engineering from the University of
Roorkee, India, and a PhD from Rice
University, Houston, TX. During his 33-year
career with Walter P. Moore, he has
designed many significant structures. For the past 10 years, his
focus has been on forensic engineering, failure analysis, and
restoration and rehabilitation work. He is a member of the
International Concrete Repair Institute.
Concrete international / APRIL 2006 71