Diversification in aquaculture:

A tool for sustainability

GOBIERNO MINISTERIO
DE ESPAÑA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE,
Y MEDIO RURAL Y MARINO
Diversification in aquaculture:
A tool for sustainability

GOBIERNO MINISTERIO
DE ESPAÑA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE,
Y MEDIO RURAL Y MARINO
 Table of contents
GOBIERNO MINISTERIO Authors..................................................................................................................................................... 7
DE ESPAÑA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE,
Y MEDIO RURAL Y MARINO 1. Introduction: the need for diversification in achieving sustainable aquaculture............................ 9
1.1. Aquaculture and diversification.................................................................................................................................... 10
1.2. Justification for writing this guide................................................................................................................................ 12
MARM. General Marine Secretariat. 1.3. Purpose of the guide....................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.4. Organisation of the document..................................................................................................................................... 13
Establishment of directive guidelines promoting the sustainable development of aquaculture in the Mediterranean 2. Diversification of sites........................................................................................................................ 15
related to land-based aquaculture and diversification in sea and land-based aquaculture activities.
2.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2. Justification for selecting the site................................................................................................................................. 15
Published by: 2.3. Choice of sites. Geographical Information Systems................................................................................................ 16
©
Spanish Ministry of Environmental, Rural and Marine Affairs 2.4. Case study: selection of the site for a marine farm for producing Sparus aurata (gilthead sea bream),
General Technical Secretariat Dicentrarchus labrax (sea bass) and Argyrosomus regius (meagre).................................................................. 19
Publications Centre 2.5. Recommendation............................................................................................................................................................ 22
3. Diversification of the farmed species............................................................................................... 25
Technical Assistance:
Tecnoma, S.A. and Asoc. RIIA-CV 3.1. Background and justification......................................................................................................................................... 25
August 2011 3.2. Diversification of the farmed species.......................................................................................................................... 25
3.3. Diversification process................................................................................................................................................... 26
Design and Layout: 3.4. New species...................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Acero Estudio Valencia, S.L. 3.5. Integrated sole (Solea senegalensis) culture.............................................................................................................. 29
3.5.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Printing and Binding:
textos&imágenes 3.5.2. Reproduction................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
3.5.3. Larval culture................................................................................................................................................................................ 31
Available in:
Spanish Ministry of Environmental, Rural and Marine Affairs. 3.5.4. Fattening......................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
General Marine Secretariat. 3.6. Octopus (Octopus vulgaris) culture........................................................................................................................... 31
C/ Velázquez, 166. 3.7. Recommendations........................................................................................................................................................... 33
Madrid, Spain. 4. Diversification of culture density...................................................................................................... 35
Tel.: 91 347 60 71 4.1. Background....................................................................................................................................................................... 35
http://marm.es/es/pesca/publicaciones/ 4.2. Justification........................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Official Publication Identification Number: 770-11-238-7 4.3. Development.................................................................................................................................................................... 37
ISBN: 978-84-491-1122-8 4.4. Conclusion........................................................................................................................................................................ 39
Legal Deposit 2010 4.5. Case study. Production densities during the fattening phase in the ecological production of
General Official Publications Catalogue: gilthead sea bream and sea bass in Mediterranean aquaculture facilities......................................................... 39
http://publicacionesoficiales.boe.es/ (servicios en línea/oficina virtual/Publicaciones) 4.6. Recommendations........................................................................................................................................................... 43
Recycled, chlorine-free paper was used to print this publication, in accordance with the environmental 5. Diversification of the production systems....................................................................................... 45
criteria applicable to public contracts. 5.1. Background....................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Technical data: Format: 21.0 x 29.7 cm. Text body: 7,2 x 21,9 cm. Layout: two columns. Typeface: Gill Sans 5.2. Production system types based on the saline tolerance of the species.............................................................. 45
Light 12. Binding: rustic and sewn with vegetable thread. Paper: Interior, semi-matte with “stucco” finish 5.3. Production system types based on the organism farmed...................................................................................... 45
(couché), 125 g. Cover: 300 g poster board. Printed in four colours, plus machine varnish. Ink colours: 5.4. Production system types based on the development phases of the species..................................................... 46
5.5. Production system types based on culture density................................................................................................. 46
 5.6. Production systems based on culture location......................................................................................................... 47 8.5. Recommendations........................................................................................................................................................... 79
5.7. Types of facilities, based on the use of the water: open and closed circuits...................................................... 48
9. Diversification of products................................................................................................................ 81
5.7.1. Open circuit................................................................................................................................................................................... 48 9.1. Background: diversification with respect to previous planning............................................................................. 81
5.7.2. Closed circuit................................................................................................................................................................................. 50 9.2. Lengthening the life of the product............................................................................................................................. 81
9.3. Processed and elaborated products............................................................................................................................ 84
5.7.3. Relationship between production system and type of circuit........................................................................................... 51 9.4. Brands (collective brands, guaranteed brands)......................................................................................................... 86
5.8. Case study: Closed circuit............................................................................................................................................. 51 9.5. Case study: the collective brand “Crianza del Mar”............................................................................................... 87
5.8.1. Operation of the facility............................................................................................................................................................. 52 9.6. Recommendations........................................................................................................................................................... 88
5.8.2. Equipment and installations..................................................................................................................................................... 53 10. Diversification of markets............................................................................................................... 91
5.9. Recommendations........................................................................................................................................................... 53 10.1. Introduction and background..................................................................................................................................... 91
10.2. Orientation to production as opposed to market orientation.......................................................................... 91
6. Diversification in the size of the facilities........................................................................................ 55
10.3. Differentiation of products......................................................................................................................................... 92
6.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 55 10.4. Market segmentation.................................................................................................................................................... 92
6.2. Justification........................................................................................................................................................................ 55 10.5. Diversification of geographical markets................................................................................................................... 93
6.3. Land-based facilities........................................................................................................................................................ 56 10.6. Diversification based on types of market................................................................................................................ 94
6.4. Tideland facilities.............................................................................................................................................................. 56 10.7. Identification of targets................................................................................................................................................ 94
6.5. Marine facilities................................................................................................................................................................ 57 10.8. Trust in products for opening up new markets...................................................................................................... 95
6.6. Case study: Aquaculture facility in Burriana (Castellón)......................................................................................... 59 10.9. Case study: Norway in action in the markets......................................................................................................... 95
6.7. Recommendations........................................................................................................................................................... 60 10.10. Recommendations...................................................................................................................................................... 96
7. Diversification of the production cycle............................................................................................ 63 11. Appendixes........................................................................................................................................ 99
7.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 63 11.1. Abbreviations.................................................................................................................................................................. 99
7.2. Hatcheries and nurseries............................................................................................................................................... 64 11.2. Bibliography.................................................................................................................................................................. 100
7.2.1.Technical development................................................................................................................................................................ 65 11.3. Information about the authors................................................................................................................................. 107
7.3. Fattening units.................................................................................................................................................................. 67
7.3.1. Land facilities................................................................................................................................................................................ 67
7.3.2. Farming in tidelands.................................................................................................................................................................... 68
7.3.3. Marine facilities............................................................................................................................................................................ 68
7.4. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA)............................................................................................................ 70
7.4.1. IMTA systems............................................................................................................................................................................... 70
7.5. Recommendations........................................................................................................................................................... 71
8. Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition............................................................ 73
8.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................... 73
8.2. Current problem with raw materials.......................................................................................................................... 73
8.3. Nutritional requirements of fish farmed in aquaculture......................................................................................... 75
8.3.1. Protein............................................................................................................................................................................................. 76
8.3.2. Lipids............................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
8.3.3. Carbohydrates.............................................................................................................................................................................. 76
8.3.4. Energy............................................................................................................................................................................................. 77
8.3.5.Vitamins and minerals................................................................................................................................................................. 77
8.4. Case study: Nutritional and environmental evaluation of a fall in protein levels in fattening
feed for the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) in a marine farm located in the
Mediterranean Sea........................................................................................................................................................ 78
 Authors
This Guide has been written by the Spanish Ministry of Environmental, Rural and Marine
Affairs, with technical assistance provided by a Joint Venture formed by Tecnología y Medio Am-
biente, S.A. (Tecnoma, S.A.) and Asociación Red de Innovación en Industrias Acuícolas (RIIA - CV).

The present Guide is a joint effort and was coordinated by Guido Schmidt and Francisco J.
Espinós Gutiérrez, with the participation of the following experts:

Chapter Expert(s Institution

Introduction Francisco J. Espinós Universidad Politécnica de Valencia –Asociación RIIA - CV

Francisco Ruiz Universidad de Valencia / Valencia International University

Diversification of sites Manuel Segarra Universidad Politécnica de Valencia

Evaristo Mañanos CSIC – Torre la Sal

José Luis Muñoz IFAPA – El Toruño (Junta de Andalucía)
Diversification of the farmed species Eduardo Soler Andromeda Group
Jerónimo Chirivella Universidad Católica de Valencia

Diversification of cultivation density Clive Dove Fundación INNOVAMAR

Rodolfo Barrera AVEMPI–Valenciana de Acuicultura s.a

Diversification of production systems Manuel Segarra Universidad Politécnica de Valencia

Tahiche Lacomba Andromeda Group

Diversification in the size of the facilities Sebastian Balasch Universidad Politécnica de Valencia
Evaristo Mañanós CSIC – Torre la Sal
Diversification of the production cycle Jerónimo Chirivella Universidad Católica de Valencia
Francisco J. Espinós Universidad Politécnica de Valencia –Asociación RIIA - CV
Diversification and sustainability in aquacul- José Luis Tejedor DIBAQ – DIPROTEG
ture nutrition
Jordi López ADS ACUIVAL
Diversification of products José María Santiago Consultor
Luis Ambrosio PROBITEC S.L
Diversification of markets Javier Ojeda APROMAR

We are also grateful for the cooperation of Fundación Observatorio Español de Acuicultura
– Fundación OESA (Spanish Aquaculture Observatory Foundation) for taking part in the mee-
tings with the experts, through its Managing Director Javier Remiro Perlado.

Summarised information about the authors is set out in Appendix 3.

 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

1. Introduction: the need for diversification in achieving sustainable

aquaculture

Sustainability, sustainable development and sustainability is applied to socio-economic deve-

lopment and is founded on three main pillars:
• Ecological considerations
• Economic considerations
• Social considerations

Ecological
considerations

Supportable Feasible

Sustainable

Social Fair Economic

considerations considerations

Figure1: Diagram of the three basic pillars of sustainable development. (Source: Own
Elaboration)

As shown in figure 1, the mid-point of the three basic pillars is sustainability, although it is not
always the mean, given that, to avoid compromising future generations, what is feasible may not be
equal in scope as what is fair or supportable. The ultimate objective of sustainable development
is none other than to define projects that are feasible in economic terms, which, in turn, can be
supported by the environment and have a fair social component (jobs, providers, acceptable sala-
ries,…). In short, sustainable development can be defined in the terms set out in the 3rd Principle
of the Río Declaration of 19921:

“To meet the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs”

1.
Summit of Río de Janeiro 1992 organised by the UN World Commission on Environment and Development.

9
 1 Introduction:
The need for diversification in achieving sustainable aquaculture
Diversification is presented as an option for achieving that sustainable development. Diver-
sification leads to a feasible economy, for not only would it depend on only a few sectors (or in
the case of aquaculture, a few products or production systems), but would lead to the creation of
jobs in different sectors and the demand for different professions and a feasible ecological system,
thereby preventing the excessive use of natural resources. Due to the foregoing, diversification has
an essential part to play in achieving aquaculture based on sustainable development.
1.1. Aquaculture and diversification
Aquaculture is defined as the breeding of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, crus-
taceans and aquatic plants. The breeding process involves some kind of intervention during the
process to increase production, such as regular sowing, feeding, protection against predators, etc.
In addition, breeding implies the individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated.
The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has established the following definition
of sustainability in relation to agriculture and fisheries: “Sustainable development is the management
and conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of technological and institutional
change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for
present and future generations. Such development (in the agricultural, forestry and fishing sectors) con-
serves land, water, plant genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technologically appropriate,
economically viable and socially acceptable” (FAO, 1997).
The Mediterranean region has a large quantity of resources to facilitate the diversification
of its aquaculture, including not only the species cultivated but also diversification in cultivation
processes, types of company, markets, etc.
The undertaking of diversification processes is essential to maintain high aquaculture pro-
duction growth rates in the Mediterranean and consolidate that region which is one of the most
important in the world.
A production diversification process must be properly organised and planned in technical
terms to enable it to contribute to guaranteeing the sustainability of production systems.
The most important technical aspects are the correct selection of species to be cultivated,
based on local environmental characteristics, the market and the main risk factors. Producing in
accordance with market demands can assure adequate marketing prices and reduce the risks in
this link of the production chain.
10
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
From the social standpoint, the adaptation of the cultivated species to the environment and
market facilitates the production and marketing process, requires less investment and effort in
selling the products and reduces risks for farmers.
With respect to environmental behaviour, the adaptation of the cultivated species to the
environmental characteristics will tend to increase efficiency in using the available resources and
reduce the risks of deterioration stemming from over-exploitation and contamination generated
through the application of inputs.
Diversification in aquaculture production must be developed through cultivating hydro-bio-
logical resources which, in technical terms, are easy to implement and handle, creating new inves-
tment alternatives in both the industrial and traditional fishing sectors.
Funds dedicated to R+D+i must be effectively focused on aquaculture diversification, to
obtain the best possible results from such efforts.
To optimise the resources allocated to aquaculture, it will be necessary to develop and
consolidate scientific and technological, management, logistical and other capacities related to
aquaculture.
It is essential to improve the supply of raw materials for the processing industry, thereby also
permitting the consolidation of existing external markets and the opening of new markets, based
on a continuous supply in terms of volumes and product quality with high international demand.
The aquaculture activity in Spain has largely been developed by concentrating cultivation in
only a few species. For this reason, it now becomes necessary to develop lines of work that will
contribute to a diversification of species. To ensure that the efforts focused on this objective are
as effective as possible, species must be found that meet a series of production requirements, and
above all, for which there is a high market demand. This aspect is precisely the one in which most
research and development efforts are made by companies.
The diversification of aquaculture will serve to strengthen and consolidate the growth of
Mediterranean industry, through the incorporation of technologies that will permit the cultivation
of resources of great importance in the international market. In particular, for the aquaculture
sector, the results obtained will allow specific possibilities for growth to be generated, through the
creation of new companies and through the expansion of those that already exist.
11
 1 Introduction: Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
The need for diversification in achieving sustainable aquaculture

The drafting of this guide on diversification in aquaculture has the mission of establishing the 1.3. Purpose of the guide
ties that exist between the level of diversification in aquaculture and its sustainability, and of facili-
tating the diversification processes undertaken by different players in the aquaculture sector, with This guide is intended as a tool for providing decision-takers and fish farmers with practical
a view to analysing the following aspects: suggestions for achieving sustainable aquaculture development process adapted to the reality of
the Mediterranean, based on current technical and scientific knowledge.
• Diversification of sites
• Diversification of the cultivated species 1.4. Organisation of the document
• Diversification of cultivation density
• Diversification of production systems The Guide is divided into ten chapters that cover diversification in different aspects of aqua-
• Diversification in the size of the facilities
culture activity and their interaction with the environment in land-based and marine aquaculture
• Diversification of the production cycle
in the Mediterranean. Its content is based on the contributions made by the different co-authors
• Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition
• Diversification of products of the Guide, on the collective thoughts and the complementary thoughts of the coordination
• Diversification of markets team, with a view to homogenising the different texts and eliminating repetitions.

Each chapter is devoted to a different aspect of diversification (cycle, species, size of facilities,
1.2. Justification for writing this guide
etc.), contributing experience, challenges and key recommendations for the sustainability of Me-
The drafting of this guide on diversification in aquaculture shows that sustainability in aqua- diterranean aquaculture, based on its diversification. The Guide also contains images, case studies
culture is linked to its level of diversification. and bibliography that enable the different topics dealt with in the Guide to be analysed in depth.

The Mediterranean has a large number of resources that will facilitate diversification in its
aquaculture activities, in terms of not only the species cultivated but the diversification of cultiva-
tion densities, types of companies and markets.

Diversification seeks to:

• Distribute the risks
• Access new market opportunities
• Occupy wider geographic areas or their hydrological resources
• Complement the existing supply
• Contribute to allowing aquaculture to expand through cultivating new species with the po-
tential to be converted into activities that are economically sustainable
• Diversify aquaculture production through cultivating hydro-biological resources that are easy
to implement and handle in technical terms, creating new investment alternatives for both the
industrial and the traditional fishing sectors
• Effectively concentrating funds for R+D on aquaculture diversification
• Developing and strengthening the scientific and technological, management, logistics and
other capacities related to aquaculture
Through the diversification of aquaculture, improvements can be made in the supply of raw
materials for the processing industry, and in addition, lead to the consolidation of existing external
markets and the opening of new markets, based on a continuous supply in terms of volumes and
product quality with a high international demand.

12 13
 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

2. Diversification of sites

2.1. Introduction

Aquaculture is practised in all types of existing aquatic environments ranging from mars-
hlands and estuaries to rivers, lakes and above all, the sea. Aquaculture is able to restore value to
areas with low agronomic capacity through the construction of ponds and create wealth in poor
areas, either through secondary activities (as a complement to others) or as a main activity.

One of the most important characteristics of aquaculture is the enormously varied wealth of
the environment in which it is carried out. In land-based environments, the waters are enriched
with nutrients through surface waters or other means and the natural habitat of the area is of
supreme importance.The land-based contributions are concentrated in particular in coastal areas,
on the border between the continent and the ocean, and give rise to high primary production
levels.

As a result of all these contributions the waters from the coastal regions are, comparatively
speaking, the richest of all the oceans. Their proximity to emerging land gives rise to the following,
among others:
• A great diversity of environment and biotopes, with different sectors of the coastal region ac-
ting as areas that allow the reproduction, breeding and shelter of many molluscs, crustaceans
and fish of enormous commercial value
• The considerable influence of adjoining areas of land, which provide many nutrients and sus-
pended matter through surface waters or rivers
• Their capacity to promote turbulent mixes and diffusion which eliminates the clarity of the
water
• Their wealth of nutrients, which gives rise to an elevated primary production of phytoplankton
and zooplankton. In many coastal areas, primary production is often higher than in ocean re-
gions. Coastal waters account for one-quarter of the total primary production of oceans
Due to these peculiarities and the intense pressure exerted on them by man, coastal areas
must be the object of careful planning and conservation to guarantee the rational use of their
resources, based on a deep knowledge of the complex interweaving of the coastal ecosystem
structure and functions.

2.2. Justification for selecting the site

The increase in aquaculture production has given rise to the need to find new sites. The
breeding of aquatic organisms in the different ecosystems in which this activity is carried out has
become a technological and biological task of major importance. The key to developing sustaina-
ble aquaculture lies in selecting the most appropriate site.

The quality of the water is an essential parameter in determining the suitability of a site and
is defined by factors which have the greatest influence on the development of the aquatic species.
These are basically the following:
• The water temperature: this is perhaps the most restrictive factor and affects several of the
water’s properties, such as its density, viscosity, gas solubility (especially oxygen), etc.

15
 2 Diversification of sites
• Suspended solids: faeces have a certain tolerance in temporary concentrations (flooding), but
their conduct varies if the suspended matter is comprised of active substances
• pH and alkalinity parameters: the most appropriate waters are those which are neutral or
slightly alkaline (with a pH of between 7 and 8). Their fluctuations need to be controlled. In
general, the quality of water in lakes and rivers is directly affected by its pH and this, in turn,
by the characteristics of the soil and rocks in the area
• Ammonia: only the non-ionised portion produces negative effects, and these are increased
when the temperature and pH values increase
• Dissolved oxygen: the source that brings the oxygen to the water varies depending on
whether it is moving or static, and in marine environments with constant renovation pro-
cesses, their content will be higher than in the lower courses of rivers, in which renovation is
practically non-existent
In addition to the characteristics of the aquatic environment, the location of the production
facilities is also determined by the biological characteristics of the species to be farmed, the clima-
tic and geographical factors and the sociological and economic factors of the activity.
Knowledge of the marine ecosystem has basically been limited to those areas of the sea with
better accessibility due to their proximity to the anthropic environment. Marine aquaculture first
started to develop in coastal areas with physical protections that dissipated the energy of the
oceans, and during these early stages the lack of knowledge about the reactions of the marine
environment to the different species cultivated and the new activities of this incipient aquaculture
were more than evident. Over time, it has been observed that these ecosystems have a series of
natural conditions which are so specific that it would be difficult to transfer the initial experiences
carried out in them to other types of aquaculture facilities. For that reason we should consider
that aquaculture can be carried out in a wide variety of ecosystems with different conditions.
As occurs with the marine environment, it is necessary to have a thorough knowledge of the
ecosystems in land-based or transition environments in which the aquaculture production process
is to be developed. It is essential to know the social, economic and ecological characteristics of the
environment in order to promote a responsible activity.
Depending on the environment in which the activities are carried, the main sites are as fo-
llows:
• Land culture: these facilities (hatchery and/or nursery facilities) are comprised of ponds crea-
ted in the terrain, or elevated tanks. These structures are usually accompanied by pumping
systems, WWTE and evacuation systems
• Mariculture: these facilities are set up in tidelands, marshes, floating cages, cages below the
sea, long-lines, etc.
2.3. Choice of sites. Geographical Information Systems
The basis for the sustainable development of aquaculture lies in the system used to select
16
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
the most appropriate site. The selecting of that site must be done as part of Integrated Coastal
Zone Management (hereinafter, ICZM). The biophysical and socioeconomic differences between
the diverse areas of a region mean that aquaculture planning is inextricably linked to the region.
(Nath et al., 2000).
Aquaculture must be based on the premise that not all the areas of a region are able to
support the breeding activity in question. The capacity of a region to house any type of human
activity is conditioned by the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the environment,
which must be evaluated and considered as part of the process of selecting the site for the activity.
I.e., a series of capacities of use are defined for the region, depending on the activity to be carried
out and the environmental characteristics. Based on those capacities, the competent authorities
reserve a specific use for each portion of the region.The planning implemented by the competent
authorities determines the type of activity that can be developed in the different areas. When
establishing the aquaculture activity, this planning and the regulations to which the activity are
subjected must be taken into consideration.
The priority of regional, state and European administrations with authority in this field is
to establish suitable zones for developing aquaculture as means of organising that activity within
ICZM. The enormous number of environmental factors that must be analysed to assure the ful-
filment of regulatory and biophysical parameters makes it necessary to have powerful territorial
management tools that will bring about the optimisation of production sites. Geographic Informa-
tion Systems (GIS) offer a magnificent opportunity to tackle this enormous task.
The usefulness of Geographic Information Systems lies in their ability to model the envi-
ronment, i.e., elaborate real-life models using digital databases predetermined by any national or
international administration or by the observer and use those models to simulate the effects of
a specific process for a particular time and place. The models allow the environmental condi-
tions and factors that can influence it to be analysed, and enable explanations to be found for
the potential consequences of decisions or planning projects that have an impact on the use and
organisation of resources.
Many human activities are carried out on the shores of the Mediterranean (uncontrolled
property development, industrial expansion, etc.) which oblige the competent authorities to find
zones more appropriate for developing those activities (zoning plan). Starting with the premise
that there must be a balance between the environment and productive activity, the areas which
are likely to have facilities of this type must be characterised by being:
• Zones in which the growth of the farmed species can be developed as much as possible
• Zones with the lowest operating costs
• Zones where impact is minimal
• Zones where conflicts between the different uses of the coast are avoided to reduced to a
minimum
17
 2 Diversification of sites Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

For the correct application of the GIS methodology, a large amount of information is required There is a wide range of software available for application in GIS. The most important of
on the basic physical-chemical and biological principles of the ecosystems, apart from those that these are ArcGis, Autodesk Map, ArcView, Carta Linx, Geoserver, GRASS and GvSig.
characterise the social and economic environment of the place or region under study.
Those programmes distribute the information into two basic groups, firstly, the basic mapping
A GIS study is divided into seven phases (Nath et al., 2000): of the zone and secondly, thematic mapping (waste, biodiversity, natural beauty spots, land uses
• Identifying the project requirements etc.).
• Formulating the specifications
• Developing an analysis structure The most important parameters to be considered in analysing a specific region with GIS are:
• Locating the data sources • Territorial ordinance plans, ownership of the occupied area, zones of military interest, zones
• Organising and handling the data in which ships anchor, already-existing aquaculture facilities and artificial reefs.
• Analysing the data and verifying the products • Zones of tourist interest
• Evaluating the products • Zones of archaeological interest
• Zones where underground cables/underwater pipes emerge
• Coastal waste tipping points
INSTALLATION SITE AND PROTECTED ZONES (SCI) • Bathymetry
• Port and industrial infrastructures
• Zones where dry components are extracted
• Protected spaces and habitats
• Zones owned by and used by ports
A series of physical, chemical and biological parameters exists for determining whether an
environment is suitable or not for installing an aquaculture facility. To determine these zones, the
following must be carried out:
• Analysis of external climatic data: mean temperatures, prevailing winds, etc.
• Study of the marine depths: bathymetry, biological and geological characterisation, etc.
• Study of the water quality: physical, chemical and biological parameters of the cultivation
medium
• Study of the oceanographic conditions: currents, waves and coastal dynamics
Based on all the studies conducted and after analysing the information obtained, the zoning
is carried out in the site under study for the purpose of determining the most suitable zones, zo-
nes with limitations and excluded zones. This classification is made in keeping with the degree of
compatibility and suitability of the zones for housing the cultivated species.

2.4. Case study: selection of the site for a marine farm for producing Sparus
aurata (gilthead sea bream), Dicentrarchus labrax (sea bass) and Argyrosomus regius
(meagre)

Figure 2: Location of protected zones and a marine facility on the Mediterranean coast.
(Source: Own elaboration based on Mapping by the Instituto Cartográfico de Valencia
- ICV (Cartographic Institute of Valencia) and Department of the Environment, Water,
Urban Planning and Housing of Generalitat Valenciana (Region of Valencia Government))
The example chosen to describe the process for selecting a site for a marine farm is a loca-
tion in the municipality of Burriana (Castellón, Spain). The facility for fattening sea bream, sea bass
and meagre consists of 48 cages, 60 long-lines, 8 floating octopus cages, 1 floating turbot cage

18 19
 2 Diversification of sites
and 1 floating sole cage, located in a site at a distance of 4 miles from the coast of Burriana. The
estimated production of the facility is 2,400 Mt per year.
Vectors: Average swell direction Average wind sea direction
Figure 3: Example of the estimated direction of prevailing winds and currents near the
Gulf of Valencia and surrounding areas. (Source: Spanish Meteorological Agency (Spanish
Ministry of Environmental, Rural and Marine Affairs))
The coastal environment opposite the municipal boundary of Burriana has a series of ele-
ments (artificial reefs, protected natural areas, algae communities of special interest such as mea-
dows of Posidonia oceanica, substrata formed by different sediments, etc.) which make it possible
to determine how to select the site for an aquaculture production facility. Official mapping in-
formation is available about most of the elements considered (Bathymetry, bionomy of the sea
depths, artificial reefs, etc.). The mapping information was obtained from the following sources:
bionomic mapping of sea depths, sedimentology, artificial reefs and the location of other aqua-
culture facilities (Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Generalitat Valenciana), Bathymetry
and elements from the sea bed (Instituto Hidrográfico de la Marina- Spanish Naval Hydrographic
Institute), Mapping of Natural Spaces (Department of the Environment, Generalitat Valenciana),
Coastal-Municipal Boundaries (Cartographic Institute of Valencia).
20
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
In selecting the site for an aquaculture facility, a GIS was constructed in which different layers
of information were implemented on a digitalised cartographic base of the Spanish Naval Hy-
drographic Institute. The bionomic mapping of the sea bed near the coast of Burriana, together
with the type of sediment and bathymetry were the basic layers upon which the GIS was built.
This initial information was completed by, among others, mapping of the protected natural marine
spaces (Sites of Community Interest - SCI) and the artificial reefs. Up to three artificial reefs were
found in the area in question (Almenara, Moncofa and Burriana I) and one important SCI (Alguers
de Borriana).
Figure 4: Bionomic mapping, sedimentology and elements from the sea bed opposite
the coast of Burriana (Castellón), with the most suitable location for the planned aqua-
culture facility (Source: Own elaboration, based on Bionomic Mapping of the Department
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Generalitat Valenciana))
The thematic mapping generated made it possible to establish several areas suitable for
installing the planned facility. These potential locations were studied, taking several factors into ac-
count: distance from the port of Burriana, distance from the reef zones or protected zones (SCI),
distance from bionomic communities of interest or protected communities, type of substratum,
depth, etc. In addition to this information, the current flow maps furnished by the Spanish Ports
measuring and prediction systems were analysed. Using this information, it was possible to pre-
dict the dilution plume of waste products generated by the facility. This information is extremely
important to verify the potential effect of the culture activity on the natural elements of the zone
closest to the aquaculture facility.
21
 2 Diversification of sites

The spatial evaluation of all these parameters allowed us to establish the best location for
the facility in which the natural resources of the area could be preserved whilst guaranteeing the
economic performance of the facility.

2.5. Recommendation
• Continental coasts and terrains must be carefully conserved and planned in order to ensure
a rational use of their resources
• The basis for sustainable development of aquaculture in the marine environment lies in the
system for selecting the most suitable site based on Integrated Coastal Zone Management
(ICZM). With respect to the land environment, it is essential to know the social, economic
and environmental characteristics of the area where the activity is to be carried out, to ensure
that the activity can be performed in a way that is compatible with the environment
• The use of Geographic Information Systems makes it possible to model the environment and
establish the zoning thereof, to prevent negative short, mid and long-term effects on the land
or marine environment

22
 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

3. Diversification of the farmed species

3.1. Background and justification

Over the past two decades, international aquaculture and in particular Mediterranean aqua-
culture, has undergone extraordinary development as an alternative to extractive fishing.

The marine environment has a large variety of species and a great diversity of captures.
However, not all marine resources are developed to the same extent for which reason their ex-
ploitation in terms of fishing is uneven. The land environment is much more limited in terms of
variety of species and this is also observed in the socio-cultural predisposition towards consuming
marine species to the detriment of freshwater species.

Diversification in breeding aquaculture species is targeted at completing the offer of fish

products, through the production of well-known, appreciated species that are hard to obtain in
seasonal or non-predictable captures.

Based on these premises, Mediterranean aquaculture has capable of developing several spe-
cies of fish, molluscs and crustaceans, using scientific, technical, productive and sales channels,
with greater or lesser success, depending on technical and production requirements and market
dynamics.

3.2. Diversification of the farmed species

The species of marine fish which have been developed and consolidated as commercial spe-
cies include: gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and during recent
years, meagre (Argirosomus regius).

In Spain, studies on other marine fish species are under way, thanks to the support of the
National Mariculture Advisory Board (JACUMAR), among others, and through National Maricul-
ture Plans. Some of the species studied are the red-banded sea bream (Sparus auriga), red porgy
(Pagrus pagrus), red sea bream (Pagellus bogaraveo), sharpsnout sea bream (Diplodus puntazzo),
common dentex (Dentex dentex), greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili) and the dusky grouper
(Epinephelus marginatus). For technical and commercial reasons, farmers have not yet taken the
decision to farm these species for marketing.

The species of molluscs habitually produced are mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), oyster (Os-
trea edulis, Crassostrea gigas) and clam (Ruditapes decussatus, Ruditapes philipinarum, Venerupis
pullastra). In the case of cephalopods, for several years, exhaustive research has being conducted
into the commercial breeding of octopus (Octopus vulgaris) by research teams through initiatives
such as the National Mariculture Plans, with the aim of closing the production cycle and not having
to use juveniles captured at sea and fattening them for commercial purposes.

25
 3 Diversification of the farmed species Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

At present, the production of marine crustaceans in Spain is fast declining, but a few years Consequently the first step is to increase the variety of farmed fish species, which would
back, the integrated culture of Kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) was carried out on a major sca- allow the facilities to reduce the risks of monoculture practices. But the solution is not to produce
le on the Atlantic coast in Andalus¡a. Imports from other countries, together with high production species to replace the existing ones, for instance, in the case of the gilthead sea bream, sparidae
costs led to a fall in profits for producers. The shrimp (Palaemon sp. and Palaemonetes sp.) is sold would be replacement species, and therefore competitive, given that their appearance, size, pre-
in the southern part of Andalusia, produced through natural fishing and subsequent fattening in sentation and the way in which they are cooked are similar.
ponds created in tidelands.
In this respect, Mediterranean mariculture products, mainly turbot and gilthead sea bream,
In relation to freshwater species, the relative lack of freshwater courses and rivers means it is can be produced in large quantities and are positioned in the whole fish consumer segment.There
a limited resource for aquaculture development.The trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss and Salmo trutta), are others, such as the fish fillets segment, which require fish of a larger size or new species to
eel (Anguilla anguilla) and sturgeon (Acipenser nacarii) are the main species produced at the pre- satisfy these consumer segments.
sent time. The farming of freshwater fish is based on the perspective of assuring the sustainability
of existing water resources using technologies with minimum water requirements. The farming of There is an extremely wide range of strategies with respect to diversification in farmed spe-
carp (Cyprinus carpio) and tench (Tinca tinca) in integrated irrigation systems or tilapia (Oreochro- cies. Two different strategies are described below:
mis spp.) in closed circuits is seen as an option for increasing freshwater fish production to satisfy • The development of species that are optimum in terms of animal husbandry technology for
specific consumer segments. producing a large biomass of fish in short spaces of time. They must be species with rapid
growth that individually reach large sizes (4 - 6 kg) or very large sizes (20 - 50 kg), and their
GROUP SPECIES PRODUCTIONTM anatomy must allow for their industrialisation and processing. Examples: meagre, dentex and
Common mussel (Mytilus edulis) 368.631 amberjack
Japanese oyster (Crassostrea gigas) 115.649
MOLLUSCS Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) 115.505 • The development of well-known species which are appreciated by consumers but scarce due
Japanese clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) 34.002 to excessive exploitation and have demanding production systems in terms of animal husban-
Rainbow trout (Onchorynchus mykiss) 195.545 dry technology, such that they do not allow for large-scale production in floating cages. The
CONTINENTAL FISH Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 146.424 ideal candidates are demersal species with sedentary habits or which are highly dependent
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 70.049
on the sea bed, such as flatfish, red mullet and plaice
Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) 96.419
Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) 57.004
MARINE FISH Eel (Anguilla anguilla) 6.370 3.4. New species
Turbot (Psetta maxima) 9.246
Meagre (Argyrosomus regius) 3.855
With respect to the farming of new fish species, a series of requirements or premises must
Table 1. Production figures (year 2009) for the main fish species cultivated in Europe (Source. FAO)
exist to guarantee the feasibility of the production process, namely:
3.3. Diversification process • Good adaptation to captivity
• Rapid growth in intensive culture
Competition between companies should bring about an improvement in production tech- • A knowledge of the biological and animal husbandry technology requirements for developing
niques and in the quality and diversity of the products offered to consumers: in sum, constant their culture
investments in R+D+i. • Having a high market price and great commercial demand

However, consumer habits should be taken into account; the first decision taken by consu- The following tables show the new species being studied for incorporation into production,
mers is whether they want to eat fish or not, as opposed to other foods such as meat. The diver- and their current status in terms of knowledge about them.
sity in the offering of fish products means that eating fish allows for multiple cooking options, but
consumers need to know about the diversity of farmed fish products on offer in order to be able
to select fish which has been cultivated on farms.

26 27
 3 Diversification of the farmed species Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

GROUP SPECIES FAMILY SPECIES LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE

Ulva fascinata
Ulva lactuca
MACROALGAE Ulva rigida
Gracia correa
Hypnea correa
Saccharina lattísima
White clam (Spisula solida)
Slug clam (Venerupis pullastra)
Fine clam (Ruditapes decussatus)
Razor clam (Ensis siliqua)
MOLLUSCS Razor clam (Solen marginatus)
Razor clam (Ensis arcuatus)
Sea snail (Haliotis tuberculata)
Octopus (Octopus vulgaris)
Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis)
C R U S T A - Mediterranean spider crac (Maja squinado)
CEANS Atlantic spider crab (Maja brachydactyla)
Echinodermata
OTHERS
Sea cucumber (Paracentrotus lividus)
Table 2. New species under study I: macroalgae, molluscs, crustaceans and others. (Source Own elaboration)
Sea bream (Pagellus bogaraveo)
Striped sea bream (Lithognathus mormyrus)
Incipient
Sea bream (Diplodus sargus and Diplodus vulgaris)
ESPARIDAE Sharpsnout sea bream (Puntazzo puntazzo)
ncipient. Biology and production Dentex (Dentex dentex)
Red porgy (Pagrus pagrus)
Average2 Red-banded sea bream (Pagrus aurita)
Sole (Solea senegalensis)
Incipient3 SOLEAE
Wedge sole (Dicologoglossa cuneata)
Average. Biology and production in captivity4 PLEURONECTIDAE Flounder (Scophthalmus rhombus)
SCIAENIDAE Shi drum (Umbrina cirrosa)
Incipient. Biology and production in captivity
TUNIDAE Red tuna (Thunnus thynnus)
Incipient. Study of biology and production in captivity SERRANIDAE Dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus)
Greater amberjack (Seriola dumerilli)
CARANGIDAE
Longfin yellowtail (Seriola rivoliana)
GADIDAE Hake (Merluccius merluccius)
ACIPENSERIDAE Sturgeon (Acipenser nacarii)
CICHLIDAE Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
CYPRINIDAE Tench (Tinca tinca)
Advanced
Incipient. Captivity
Average. Biology and Captivity
Average. Biology and Captivity
Average. Biology and Captivity
Average. Biology and Captivity
Average. Biology and Captivity
Advanced. Biology and Captivity
Incipient. Biology and Captivity
Incipient. Biology and Captivity
Average. Biology and Captivity
Advanced. Biology and Captivity
Incipent. Biology and Captivity
Incipient. Biology and Captivity
Incipient. Biology and Captivity
Incipient. Biology and Captivity
Advanced
Advanced
Advanced

Table 3. New species under study II: fish. (Source. Own elaboration)

3.5. Integrated sole (Solea senegalensis) culture

3.5.1. Introduction

The species most widely cultivated in the Atlantic region and northern Europe is the com-
mon sole (Solea solea), whereas in southern Europe, particularly in Spain and Portugal, the species
with the greatest aquaculture potential is the Senegal sole (Solea senegalensis) (Dinis et al., 1999).
The first studies conducted on the reproduction of this species were in the southern Atlantic
Photograph 1: Detail of octopus (Octopus vulgaris) bred in tanks region of Portugal (Dinis, 1986; 1992) and Spain (Rodríguez, 1984), where it has traditionally
© Francisco J. Espinós been farmed using the extensive method (Drake et al., 1984). This species is currently considered
suitable for use in aquaculture diversification in Mediterranean countries, as shown by the many
projects financed by public institutions (EU, JACUMAR, CICYT, Regional Authorities) and private
2.
JACUMAR Project: Farming and management of Bivalve Molluscs. Reproduction and pathology in captivity. Natural enterprise.
resources and treatment criteria.
3
JACUMAR Project: Farming and management of the sea snail Haliotis tuberculta.
4
At present the octopus and cuttlefish are the species with the largest number of projects in progress.

28 29
 3 Diversification of the farmed species
Despite the efforts made in R+D and industrial testing, some critical problems in farming
have not yet been solved, mainly related to pathologies and reproduction. Such issues limit the
development of a sustainable and economically profitable aquaculture for this species.
Recent advances in R+D have given rise to solutions in preventing and treating pathologies
and in controlling reproduction in captivity, for which reason the imminent development of aqua-
culture for this species is now envisaged as a realistic possibility.
3.5.2. Reproduction
Sole cultivation is based on the stabling of “wild” fish (obtained from the sea) for forming
batches of fish that reproduce, generating spontaneous fertilised spawning and F1 generation lar-
vae. However, these cultivated fish (F1 generation) have reproductive problems when they reach
adulthood, and this leads to the absence of fertilised eggs. The origin of these problems is in the
incipient domestication of the species and in particular, the lack of basic knowledge about their
reproductive physiology. This problem is having a negative effect on the feasibility and economic
profitability of their culture on an industrial scale, as it prevents the controlled production of eggs
and larvae, thereby meaning the end of the life cycle of this species in captivity.
Recent research has provided a description of the reproductive physiology in captivity and
environmental handling protocols have been implemented (photoperiod and temperature) and
hormone treatments, with promising results in stimulating ovulation in the females, spermiation in
males and an increase in the production of eggs. However, in all cases, the eggs are not viable and
to date, no F2 larvae have been obtained, i.e. larvae from reproducing farmed fish (Agulleiro et al.,
2006; Garcia-López et al., 2006, 2007; Guzmán et al., 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011).
Photograph 2: Adult soles (Solea senegalensis) in reproduction tanks (left) and female in a state of
gonadal maturation (right), seen externally through her swollen abdomen
© Evaristo Mañanós
30
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
Other studies on reproductive behaviour have shown the great influence of sexual mating
patterns and the action of pheromones on the fertilising process in the tank. In addition, it has
also been observed that food exerts an influence, with better egg laying results being obtained
in reproducing fish fed with natural food (fish, mussel, polychaete worms) than in fish fed with
commercial feed.
Information is available about the spawning characteristics of wild reproductive fish. Under
normal conditions of light and temperature, and with a gender ratio of 1:1 or 2:1 (male: female),
two spawning periods are described, the main one in the spring (February-June), at temperatures
of between 13 - 23 °C and a less important one in the autumn (October-November). Average
fertility is around 28,000 during each spawning session and for each kg of female body weight,
with a total annual production of 1,500,000 eggs per kg of female body weight (Anguis and Caña-
vate, 2005). Through the correct handling of the photoperiod and temperature a prolonged and
abundant production of natural spawning can be obtained (Anguis and Cañavate, 2005; Cañavate
et al., 2006).
3.5.3. Larval culture
The techniques for larval culture of this species are well known, thanks to the results of
diverse research studies (Cañavate and Fernández-Díaz, 1999; Cañavate et al., 2006; Dinis et al.,
1999). The tanks used have a variable capacity (0.2 – 0.5 – 1 - 2 cu. m.) and the larval densities
are between 30 - 100 larvae/litre. For larval feeding, rotifers and microalgae are used (days 3 - 9
after hatching), continuing with Artemia until they are 40 - 60 days old. The survival rate during
this phase is very high, around 70 - 80%.
The launch of hydrolysed fish flour feed was a great step forward in weaning this species.
Under optimum handling conditions, the population of newly-hatched Senegal soles reaches an
average weight of 1.5g after 90 days of farming, with survival rates of 80%.
3.5.4. Fattening
Fattening the newly-hatched Senegal soles was done in tanks with medium and large ca-
pacities (10 - 50 cu. m) and in ponds (1,000 sq. m.) and coastal lagoons. The initial population
density was between 2,000 – 5,000 specimens /cu. m. There were fed with commercial feed with
a growth rate of approximately 45g during the first year and up to 450g during the second year
of farming.
3.6. Octopus (Octopus vulgaris) culture
The common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) is a cephalopod with enormous potential in marine
aquaculture, characterised in that it has high commercial demand and a high market price.
31
 3 Diversification of the farmed species
During the past 10 years different Spanish research centres have undertaken studies into
aquaculture for this species through different regional and national lines of public finance. These
include National Mariculture Plans in which research teams from different Regions have taken part
in a coordinated fashion.
Although this species adapts well to captivity and shows rapid growth in certain conditions, its
industrial development is limited by the lack of mass commercial production in juvenile breeding
sites, and the absence of a specific commercial feed to cover the nutritional needs of this species.
Other aspects such as reproduction pose no problem, since high quality, viable spawning is
achieved using wild octopuses reared in captivity.
Photograph 3: Octopus eggs (Octopus vulgaris) about to hatch, in which the paralar-
vae can be seen © José Luis Muñoz
However, despite all the efforts applied, the production of juveniles was impossible due to
none of the paralavae surviving after 40-60 days of farming, at which time they tend to be bento-
nic and feed off natural prey (enriched Artemia, crustacean zoeas, etc.). Biochemical and physiolo-
gical studies of the paralarlvae and potential prey are in progress, to solve this problem.
32
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
Obtaining a commercial feed for fattening is another obstacle in the commercial develo-
pment of this species. Aspects such as stability, texture, acceptability and formulation, based on
studies of the composition of nutrients in the tissues and in the digestive physiology of octopuses
are being investigated through experimental diets.
Fattening tests have been conducted under different conditions in tanks and cages, taking
biological, economic and environmental aspects into account. Batches of homogeneous indivi-
duals at initial loads of 10 k/cu.m., fattened under optimum environmental conditions (from 15 to
24º C and salinity of 30 to 35 ppm) fed with fresh prey (lobster and crab) can reach loads of up
to 60 k/cu.m. over a period that depends, above all, on the initial size of the specimens and the
temperature.
Factors such as the number of production cycles per year, investment in equipment, initial
cost of the juveniles, type and quantity of the feed, initial size dispersion, gonadal maturation, design
of the fattening structures, temperature and salinity condition survival and economic profitability.
3.7. Recommendations
• The selection of new species that can be produced in large quantities by aquaculture with
which to complete the varied offer of fish for consumption must be focused on searching for
species that respond to consumer requirements in terms of what consumers expect “fish-
based” food to be: healthy, safe, with a stable supply, appropriate, constant price and easy and
economical to produce in terms of animal husbandry technology
• The public and private sectors must cooperate in developing aquaculture for new species
through putting up finance and executing basic and applied research R+D projects in which
private companies from the aquaculture sector taken an active part
• The farming of sole in land facilities is a good alternative for Mediterranean aquaculture in
coastal zones where it is not possible to install floating cages (mainly sea bass and gilthead sea
bream), providing that the availability of land makes this possible
• The farming of octopus and sole should be carried out in areas where there is sea water at a
temperature within the optimum range. If the quality of the water is appropriate, zones with
coastal wells supplied with sea water are usually suitable, since they have previously been
“filtered” naturally and tempered with respect to coastal waters, which in the case of the
Mediterranean, may reach excessively high temperatures during the summer months
33
 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

4. Diversification of culture density

4.1. Background

Production density is defined as the quantity of biomass (expressed in weight or number of

fish / eggs) per surface unit or production volume. It is common for the units used to express it
to vary, depending on the production phase and the species in question. The following are some
of the most widely used:
• Eggs/l
• Fish/l
• g/l
• Fish/cu. m
• Kg/cu. m
• Kg/sq. m
By definition, density is a very dynamic parameter, since the biomass varies, depending on the
growth of the fish and mortality, classifications, etc. Fluctuations may also take place in volume, due
to deformations in the tops of the cages etc. In addition, the fish do not occupy the whole space
available in the production unit (tank, cage, pond, etc.) (Juell and Fosseidengen, 2004;Turnbull et al.,
2004). For this reason in commercial facilities, density is usually expressed as the initial or final den-
sity, in other words, the particle density on stabling the fish in the production unit or the density
obtained after they have reached a size that enables them to pass on to the next production pha-
se. Instantaneous density is estimated using mathematical models that calculate the daily growth
of the fish and take their mortality into account. To correct potential deviations, fish samples are
taken at certain times during the production cycle and their mean size is calculated.Then the total
biomass and density are calculated, through extrapolation.

Density is often used as an indicator of production intensity and is an important parameter

as regards the operation of the facility (internal aspect) and because it can contribute to recor-
ding problems in the surrounding environment, such as excess load on the receiving medium, the
resulting eutrophication or the eventual propagation of pathological episodes.

Hence, density must be taken into account as a key factor when considering the production
of a species, in view of its profound effect on the growth, survival and behaviour of the fish (Van
de Nieuwegiessen et al., 2006), and with respect to its status as a factor with the potential to
trigger harmful environmental and/or health-related effects which are usually serious and difficult
to control, once initiated.

For this reason, based on the current state of knowledge and particularly following recent
viral episodes in highly saturated grouped culture systems, the density factor is now not just an
internal organisational factor but a matter of great concern for Administrations as an indicator of
epizootic and environmental risk, above and beyond public interest in animal welfare.

35
 4 Diversification of culture density
4.2. Justification
Fish develop in a three-dimensional environment, and so determining the minimum space
required by them to grow and express their entire behaviour spectrum is a much more complex
task than with land animals. Although it is true that considerable differences exist between species
in terms of space requirements and tolerance to high production densities, generally speaking, in-
dustry tends to produce the maximum density that is permitted by the circumstances (production
systems, ability to maintain the water quality, environmental conditions, production cycle phases,
restrictions imposed by legislation, insurance policies, certifications, etc.) in order to maximise pro-
ductivity. Consequently, it should be considered that tolerance to an increase in density depends
on the species and also on the production phase and environmental conditions.
The effects associated with high production densities (reduced growth, deficient nutritional
status, increase in the conversion rate, fin erosion, mortality, alterations in swimming patterns, etc.)
have their origin in alterations in the behaviour of the fish (increase in competition, aggression,
cannibalism, etc.) and the deterioration in water quality (Ellis et al., 2001).
Apart from epizootic and environmental risks, in general, high density can be considered a
potential source of stress, with negative effects on the growth rate and survival and feeding rates
(Sammouth et al., 2009). Nonetheless, it is sometimes possible to reduce these effects by offsetting
the increase in density with an adjustment of other production variables (dissolved oxygen con-
centration, suspended solids level, concentration of ammonium and other dissolved substances,
feeding, bio-incrustations in nets, predators, etc.). This strategy is based on the cumulative effect of
stress, i.e., an increase in stress levels that leads to a high density is counteracted by a reduction in
stress, which has its origin in other production variables. In this way, production densities can be
increased to achieve production outputs that would otherwise not be possible.
Due to the fact that the Mediterranean species farmed usually show gregarious conducts, it
is important to consider that production density may also have minimum limits. In fact, conditions
of health, wellbeing and productivity are negatively affected below certain density levels (Turnbull,
2010).
This chapter deals with the main factors that should be considered by producers when
establishing the production densities with which they operate, with the objective of proposing
recommendations that will permit the future development and diversification of the industry.
36
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
4.3. Development
The Mediterranean marine aquaculture industry produces a wide range of species in facili-
ties designed for operating with different densities, depending on the production cycle phase and
culture intensity.
As a general rule, culture density must be established based on the biological and conduct-
related needs of the fish, considering the prevailing environmental conditions and the potential
implications that a determined density could have on the health and wellbeing of the animals.
Therefore, the production system used must be considered, since the ability of the producer to
feed the fish correctly and maintain optimum water quality is dependent on that system.
Although there is no European legislative framework that regulates maximum densities in
conventional production, the EU has recently published a series of provisions on ecological aqua-
culture (European Council regulations EC 834/2007, EC 889/2008 and EC 710/2009), which
include the EU criteria for the certification of ecological products through the EU seal. In addition,
it establishes the limits for other variables and processes involved in aquaculture production, such
as discharging nutrients into the environment, origin of raw materials used in diets, handling of
the fish (water quality, etc.), origin of the reproductive fish, selection of sites, implantation of bio-
sanitary management systems, restriction of pharmaceutical treatments, etc. (IFOAM EU Group,
2010). This new legislation is added to the legislation implemented by the national and regional
authorities of certain member states (Denmark, France, Spain, etc.).
However, the internal legislation of the main producing states tend to include more and
more often the adequate control of density among the parameters to be evaluated, in zoning
studies and with respect to the specific conditions of the particular authorisations to carry out
the activity. Thus, the Norwegian Food Safety Act of establishes “Before granting an authorisation,
an evaluation must be made of the risk of spreading disease in the aquaculture facility and in the
environment. To make this evaluation, the following relevant aspects must be taken into account:
distance from water bodies and other aquaculture facilities, species farmed, production system
and production volume”. As a result, the Norwegian legislation of 2004 governing the granting of
licences establishes a maximum quantity of biomass per licence or authorisation of the activity
(e.g.: “Marine aquaculture of species for human consumption: maximum 780 t., except in the nor-
thern areas of Troms and Finnmmark, where the maximum limit is 900 t.
37
 4 Diversification of culture density
On the other hand, there are also ecological or sustainable production guidelines implemen-
ted by the EU, NGOs and other organisations such as ecological producer associations, etc. which
can be applied by companies from the sector through certification processes.
During recent years, the study and safeguarding of the welfare of the fish farmed in aqua-
culture facilities has become an issue of great significance for the aquaculture industry, not only
because it has to do with the perception of consumers, the marketing strategy and acceptance
of the products, but also due to its effect on efficiency, quality and production size (Broom, 1998;
Southgate and Wall, 2001; FSBI, 2002; Ashley, 2007). Of all the factors that affect the wellbeing of
the fish, density is one of the most important, especially in intensive production facilities in which
high densities are used to maximise productivity. Organisations such as the British Farm Animal
Welfare Council have implemented recommendations for guaranteeing the welfare of fish. FAWC
defines five needs or basic “liberties” for the animals (FAWC http://www.fawc.org.uk/freedoms.
htm), which include the liberty to express a normal conduct, for which purpose the fish must have
sufficient space in the production facilities. Furthermore, in its report of recommendations for the
welfare of fish issued in 1996, FAWC affirms that fish need sufficient space to express the greater
part of their normal conduct with the least possible level of discomfort, stress and fear (FAWC,
1996).
The gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), species which are
mostly farmed by the Mediterranean marine aquaculture industry, show symptoms of a deterio-
ration in their wellbeing at high densities (Montero et al., 1999; Vazzana et al., 2002; Turnbull et al.
2004). However, there are other variables which have a significant effect on the wellbeing of the
fish, for which reason studies on the relationship between density and wellbeing become more
complicated, on considering other factors such as the availability of food (Robel and Fisher, 1999;
Turnbull et al., 2004), water quality (Ellis et al., 2002; Turnbull et al., 2004) and the environmental
conditions defining the load capacity of the geographical area where the aquaculture activity is
carried out (climate, hydrodynamics, bathymetry, etc.). Consequently, production density alone
cannot be used as an indicator for measuring or controlling animal welfare (Turnbull et al., 2004).
Insurance policies are another element which places restrictions on production density. The
following are some of the variables used by insurance companies to calculate the maximum ad-
missible densities applied by the insured facility:
• Species
• Size of the fish (depending on the production phase)
• Type of facility
The FAO argues in its technical publication Aquaculture Insurance Industry Risk Analysis
Processes (Secretan 2008) that density is a vital factor for insurance companies over which strict
control must be maintained, given that an increase in production density involves an increase in
the risk to which the facility is exposed. According to the FAO, when the density is increased, there
is an increase in the following risks:
38
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
• Development of pathologies and increase in their scope and speed of transmission
• Inability of the fish to withstand situations of stress. The origin of the stress may be due to
a wide variety of factors, from extreme temperatures to exposure to contaminants, phyto-
planktonic blooms or the effects of a storm
The magnitudes of the losses arising from episodes of this type are usually related directly
with the density of production at the time of the incident, for which reason the maximum density
admitted is of vital importance for insurance companies and they may reserve the right to change
the specific conditions of the policies in the event that significant increases take place in produc-
tion densities within a facility.
4.4. Conclusion
Production density may have effects on the health and development of the fish, due to the
consequences they have on their social interaction and water quality. However, there are many
more parameters affecting the state of health and development of the fish and these vary depen-
ding on each species: biotic and abiotic factors, behaviour-related interactions, diets and feeding
strategies, handling, genetic selection, impact of pathologies and measures for controlling patholo-
gies etc. (Panel on Animal Health and Welfare 2008). All these elements combine in different ways,
depending on the location of the production facilities and in addition, vary over time, such that
the maximum densities recommended for one specific site may not be valid for other production
zones.
On one hand, the effects of aquaculture activities on the environment in which they are
carried out depend largely on the degree of production intensity, and the capacity of the en-
vironment to absorb these effects differs considerably, depending on the geographical zone in
question. Therefore, it appears logical for optimum production densities to be established for
each site, based on local studies on the load capacity, applying an ecosystemic approach defined
by the FAO (FAO, 2006-2011). Safeguarding the wellbeing of the fish also requires production
densities to guarantee the normal development of the physiological and behaviour needs of the
fish. Production density therefore emphasises the importance of the differences between species
and the existence of a complex mesh of interrelated factors that affect the welfare of the fish
(Ashley, 2007).
4.5. Case study. Production densities during the fattening phase in the ecolo-
gical production of gilthead sea bream and sea bass in Mediterranean aquaculture
facilities
During the past decade, European aquaculture has made important efforts with respect to
developing a philosophy which highlights aspects such as:
• Respect for the environment
• The welfare of the fish
39
 4 Diversification of culture density Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

• Increase in the quality and added-value of aquaculture products

• Product differentiation and the opening of new markets
• Improved perception and acceptance of aquaculture products by consumers
In turn, European consumers require food of the highest quality and have developed an im-
portant awareness of the need for environmental protection.

All the foregoing has assisted the development of ecological European aquaculture, the
growth of which has been possible thanks to the creation of a legislative framework in which,
among other aspects, maximum production densities are established in the operations of certified
establishments. Ecological production is basically regulated by: Photograph 4: Ecological production facility of Grupo Culmarex Piscifactoría de Aguadulce (left) and
ecological gilthead sea bream (right) farmed with a production density of 15Kg / cu. m. © Grupo Culmarex
• Community legislation (European Council regulations (EC) 834/2007, (EC) 889/2008 and
(EC) 710/2009 and amendments thereto)
• Member state legislation Kefalonia Fisheries (Greece)
• Legislation established by private organisations
The company Kefalonia Fisheries has production centres on the Island of Cephalonia. It
The Mediterranean fish-farming industry has also been incorporated into the development
breeds and fattens conventional (1,260 t/year) and ecological (300 t/year) gilthead sea bream and
of this market sector, in such a way that consumers now have available ecological gilthead sea
sea bass (2011 figures). The company is certified by Natruland e.V (pursuant to the Naturland
bream and sea bass, marketed as products with high added value.
e.V. standard) and by BIO Hellas Institute (based on the European standard) for the production,
This section describes the experiences of three Mediterranean producers of ecological handling and marketing of ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass.
gilthead sea bream and sea bass:
Although the European standard allows densities of 15 Kg/cu. m., Kefalonia Fisheries operates
Grupo Culmarex (Spain) with a density of 10 Kg/cu. m. which is the limit set by the Naturland e.V. standard.

The Culmarex business group carried out its gilthead sea bream and sea bass hatchery and
nursery activities in seven farms scattered throughout the Mediterranean region. One of the
group companies, Piscifactoría de Aguadulce (PIAGUA) is certified as a producer of ecological
gilthead sea bream and sea bass (pursuant to European legislation) by the General Directorate
of Industry and Agricultural Food Quality of the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries of the
Government of the Region of Andalusia. According to 2011 figures, 2011, PIAGUA produces
205t/year of ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass and 1,500t/year of conventional gilthead
sea bream and sea bass.

In line with the limits established by European legislation, PIAGUA’s ecological production is
carried out with a density of 15Kg/cu. m.

In turn, Culmarex, the company group responsible for packaging and marketing the ecologi-
cal gilthead sea bream and sea bass, is certified (in accordance with European legislation) by the
Ecological Agriculture Department of the Region of Murcia. Photograph 5: Aerial view of the Kefalonia Fisheries ecological pro-
duction facility Fte .Google Earth ®

40 41
 4 Diversification of culture density Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Galaxidi Marine Farm (Greece) 4.6. Recommendations

The company Galaxidi Marine Farm has production centres on the northern coast of the
Corinthian Gulf. Its principal activity is the breeding and fattening of conventional (4,000 t/year)
and ecological (380 t/year) gilthead sea bream and sea bass (2011 figures). It is certified by BIO
Hellas Institute (pursuant to the European standard) for the production, handling and marketing
of ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass.
Although the European standard allows densities of 15 Kg/cu. m., Galaxidi Marine Farm ope-
rates with densities of 12 Kg/cu. m.
In the production densities field, the future development of the Mediterranean aquaculture
industry requires optimisation with respect to breeding and fattening both traditional species and
emerging ones, in order to achieve a balance between the activity’s profitability and sustainability.
To achieve this, in-depth studies on the effects of density and its impact on animal welfare must be
conducted under industrial production conditions, in view of their repercussion on productivity
and the limited knowledge that exists about this complex issue.
Coastal zoning activities with a view to identifying appropriate areas for the development of
aquaculture activity carried out by the competent authorities in the Mediterranean region must
promote the performing of local load capacity studies, applying an ecosystem-based approach and
the updating of such studies. This will facilitate the calculation of maximum densities for each spe-
cies, depending on the production system used and the phases of the production cycle covered
by each facility.

Photograph 5: Galaxidi Marine Farm ecological production facility (left) and feeding platform (right)
© Galaxidi Marine Farm

According to their collaborating companies the gilthead sea bream and sea bass have been
well accepted in the market, to the point that in certain countries, in which considerable develo-
pment has recorded in sustainability policies (e.g., Germany), there is high demand for ecological
fish. However, since it is more expensive than gilthead sea bream and sea bass produced in con-
ventional facilities (particularly in processed products such as fillets, in which production costs are
even higher), production volumes are still small.

Kefalonia Fisheries considers that the ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass market
are not expected to record important growths, due to the effects of the international economic
crisis. For its part, Galaxidi Marine Farm considers that the growth of the ecological aquaculture
products market will be slow, given that today, supply is in excess of demand. Lastly, those respon-
sible for the gilthead sea bream and sea bass line in Grupo Culmarex indicate that based on the
market evolution, the maximum ecological production share of the group will amount to 10% of
its conventional production.

42 43
 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

5. Diversification of the production systems

Aquaculture production systems can be classified based on different criteria such as: water
salinity, organism farmed, farming phases, degree of human intervention required, culture density
and the location of the facilities.

As with any other type of production, basic systems exist, depending on the production in-
tensity and its technological development.

Depending on the classification criteria selected, the following criteria are established: (See
Figure 6)
• Production system types based on the saline tolerance of the species
• Production system types based on organism farmed
• Production system types based on the phases of development of the species
• Production system types based on the culture density
• Production system types based on the farm location
• Production system types based on the use of water
Consequently, depending on the technological development available, together with the pro-
duction goals and site, a specific production system will be used which will determine the facility.

This chapter deals with production systems based on the use of water, in other words, open
or closed systems. A description of other production systems is given in Chapter 7: diversification
of the production cycle.

5.2. Production system types based on the saline tolerance of the species

This is the simplest classification type, with two productive systems existing depending on the
water salinity and species farmed:
• Land-based aquaculture. The farming of freshwater species such as trout and carp
• Marine aquaculture. The farming of marine species such as gilthead sea bream and sea bass

5.3. Production system types based on the organism farmed

The following production systems can be established, depending on the culture development
phase:
• Algaculture: algae farming
• Shellfish culture: mollusc farming. This system includes mussel farming and oyster farming
• Carcinoculture: the farming of crustaceans. In the case of freshwater crayfish, this activity is
known as astaciculture
• Pisciculture: fish farming. In the case of farming salmon, this activity is known as salmon culture,
in the case of carp, carp farming and in the case of eels, eel farming

45
 5 Diversification of the production systems
5.4. Production system types based on the development phases of the species
Depending on the phase of the species farmed, the following types of production systems
exist:
• Integrated production: this includes all the development phases of the species in one facility, i.e.,
reproduction, breeding and fattening
• Fattening: the production of adults from juveniles
• Hatchery: the reproduction of adult individuals, from fertilisation and incubation to larval de-
velopment or young fish
• Pre-fattening: the production of juveniles from larvae or young fish
5.5. Production system types based on culture density
The intensification of production systems is subordinated to the availability of land and the
production methods, including aspects such as water, feeding and labour.
Intensification depends on the density (kg / cu. m. or kg / sq. m.), such that depending on the
culture density, the systems are classified into:
• Extensive farming: This type has a density of 0.01 – 0.1 kg / cu. m. and is characterised by the
capture or introduction of juveniles into the farming activity and the final removal of the adult
fish once fattened. Such types of farming require favourable areas in which productivity is
natural, such as coastal lagoons, salt lagoons or marshlands. In some cases, the area must be
specially prepared in advance
• Semi-extensive farming: Farming with a culture density of between 0.5 - 1 kg / cu. m.
• Semi-intensive farming: When the density is between 1 - 5 kg / cu. m.
• Intensive farming: characterised by a density of 10 - 25 kg / cu. m., this type of farming has a
higher demand for food, greater oxygen consumption and a greater accumulation of waste
and toxic metabolites. Unlike extensive farming, this type requires a greater degree of human
intervention, as it needs the appropriate technical facilities, highly-qualified staff and control
over all the phases and aspects of the farming activity such as feeding, regulation of water
parameters and the prevention of potential pathologies
• Super-intensive farming: when the culture density is 100 kg / cu. m. or higher
As a rule, the greater the culture density intensification, the greater the technological demand,
which leads to higher investment.
46
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
5.6. Production systems based on culture location.
The following types can be established:
• Land farming with breeding and/or fattening units on land. Water pumping systems must
be installed in the hatchery and in the tanks and the fattening ponds or lagoons, either from
rivers, underground water sources or the sea, and discharge pipes must be installed for the
used water to return
• Tideland farming with facilities located in tidelands on the coast, or submerged at shallow
depths in protected areas. In both cases, the areas are highly productive and rich in phyto-
plankton. The water is renewed and food provided through the tidal movements and waves.
This type of farming is almost exclusively limited to the production of macroalgae or filter-
feeding bivalve molluscs
• Marine farming, with facilities installed in coastal areas or in the sea, thereby allowing a much
greater volume of water to be used than that which they occupy. This leads to a higher pro-
duction by volume unit. Most of these types of facilities use a floating system, which means
that different types of structures are employed for this type of farming, as in the case of mus-
sel rafts, nurseries, long-lines and cages
ooMussel rafts are floating structures used for farming mussels on ropes and oysters in
baskets or cemented containers. They are installed in estuaries with sufficient depth
and widely used in Galicia, Andalusia and the Region of Valencia
ooNurseries, which are typical of the Ebro Delta (Catalonia), are formed by wooden
stakes driven into the bottom which form a lattice-type structure on the surface with
wooden cross pieces to which the farming structures are moored
ooLong-lines consist of a longitudinal linear support on or in the water, to which the far-
ming structures are moored, such as ropes, baskets, capturing elements, etc. They have
floating systems and anchoring systems and are used in Galicia, Andalusia, Catalonia
and the Region of Valencia
ooCages are totally or partially submerged enclosures, far from the coast, through which the
water passes and inside which the fish are stabled.They are in the shape of a rectangular,hexa-
gonal or circular polygon and have floating structures (buoys) and anchoring systems (me-
tres of cable).Their structure is completed by nets to prevent problems with bird predators.
The hydrodynamic, bathymetric and current characteristics should permit the correct
oxygenation of the water, the elimination of excretion products and prevent the nets
from becoming deformed
47
 5 Diversification of the production systems Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Continental
Water salinity
Marine Algaculture

Shellfish farming
Organism farmed One example of this type of facility is the extensive system which uses the natural medium
Crustacean farming to obtain production. We should not make the mistake of thinking that this type of facility cannot
produce high quantities, due to not having complex technology, since from the classification stan-
Integrated production Fish farming dpoint, a facility of floating cages in the sea for fattening gilthead sea bream would be considered
an open circuit system.
Fattening
PRODUCTION
Phase of development Other examples of open-circuit facilities with large productions are mussel rafts, long-lines
SYSTEMS
Hatchery and other sea structures.
Extensive
Nursery
Semi-extensive

Culture density Semi-intensive

Intensive NATURAL WATER NATURAL WATER

FLOW
FACILITY FLOW
On land
Super-intensive
Location On tideland

In the sea

Figure 6. Diagram summarising the different aquaculture production systems. (Source: Own elaboration)

5.7.Types of facilities, based on the use of the water: open and closed circuits FACILITY

Many aquaculture production systems exist. Depending on the classification of reference, a

final classification can be established based on the use of the water.
Figure 7. Diagram of potential alternatives for an open circuit (Source. Own elaboration)
The water may be supplied continually or on the contrary, it may be recirculated and in-
corporate higher volumes every so often. Consequently, closed circuits exist, which require the
recirculation of water and the incorporation of extra volume when necessary, or open circuits, in In sum, as shown in the above figure, an open-circuit system may be one that is located in a
which the water is used for fattening the species and is then returned to the medium after being water course (sea, river, lagoon…) or a facility located near a water source or well in which the
treated. water is suctioned from the water source or well, passes through the facility and is then returned
to the medium after being treated.
5.7.1. Open circuit • Benefits:
ooGreater advantage can be taken of the natural environment in which the facility is
In this type of circuit the water is not reused as a medium for developing the fish, and there located
is a constant supply of water to the facility. In this type of facility, the production medium is not ooThe species develop in their natural habitat
controlled and it is not possible to maintain optimum conditions for production as the medium ooLess investment
cannot be controlled. ooLess use of technology
ooLess energy consumption

48 49
 5 Diversification of the production systems Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

• Disadvantages: 5.7.3. Relationship between production system and type of circuit

ooThe aquatic medium cannot be controlled
ooIt is impossible to provide the best conditions of temperature, pH and conductivity all The following table shows the different production systems and types of circuits, depending
the year round, since they depend on the climate on whether or not the water is recirculated.
ooGreater use of water
ooGreater risk of contamination / disease in the event of potential tipping into the water Classification system Production system Type of circuit
course Land-based
Water salinity Open/closed
Marine
5.7.2. Closed circuit
Algaculture Open/closed

These are facilities in which practically all the water in them is recirculated, incorporating the Shellfish culture
Organism farmed Open
necessary treatment processes for maintaining the appropriate levels of quality. This way, water is Crustacean culture
only incorporated when its quality is reduced or in the case of a leak and only a maximum of 20% Pisciculture Open/closed
of the total water volume is incorporated. Integrated production

The basic objectives are: Fattening

Phase of development Open/closed
Hatchery
• To control the medium.This is essential in processes such as handling batches of reproductive
fish during the process of reproduction, hatching, larval systems, nurseries and fattening of Nursery
young fish Extensive
• To provide the best conditions for growth and development. For instance, keeping the water Open
Semi-extensive
at the ideal temperature for each species all the year round, to obtain maximum growth Culture density
Semi-intensive Open/closed
A typical example of a facility that functions with a closed circuit is a hatchery, which has the
Super-intensive
mission of producing young fish. In this case, the facility is located on land for producing young fish
from marine or freshwater species, and for this purpose a closed circuit is necessary in which all Land Open/closed

the parameters for producing those young fish can be controlled. Location Tidelands
Open
• Benefits: Sea
ooThe aquatic medium can be controlled at all times Table 4. Relationship between production system and type of circuit (Source: Own elaboration using data taken from Acuicultura
ooIt provides optimum temperature conditions for production (Aguaculture) I and II, Espinós F. J 2009)
ooHigh production per cu. m. of facility
ooLess water is used 5.8. Case study: Closed circuit
ooConcentration of waste for subsequent evaluation
ooControl of physical, chemical and biological parameters affecting production The company Valenciana de Acuicultura, S.A. (VASA), which was set up in 1984, directed all
ooContinued growth curve during the year its initial efforts at developing a new system for farming fish species using water-recirculation tech-
ooUnrestricted location of the farm without competing with protected species or tourist niques. Its initial interest was focused on the eel, since this product is widely consumed in Valencia
zones and in growing demand in Europe. However, the technology they wanted to develop had to allow
ooLess risk of losses for subsequent adaptation to other species of commercial interest.
• Disadvantages:
ooThis system requires high technological development In February 1986 the first eels were introduced into the facility, whose annual production ca-
ooGreater energy costs
pacity was 100 t., which, in principle, was sufficient to cater for the domestic market and following
ooGreater initial outlay
successive extensions, they now produce 400 t. per year and have a Drinking Water Treatment
Plant for treating the water in the facility.

50 51
 5 Diversification of the production systems Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

5.8.1. Operation of the facility 5.8.2. Equipment and installations

The closed circuit allows 99% of the process water to be reused. After passing through the A facility operating with a closed circuit must take into account a series of components which,
fattening tanks, this water is submitted to biological treatment to eliminate the toxic metabolites for practical purposes, are considered as elements of a closed circuit system.
(nitrites, ammonium, etc.) and then, after adding oxygen, it is reintroduced into the production
circuit. During the whole process, physical and chemical parameters such as temperature, oxygen, The VASA facilities contain the following elements:
pH, alkaline reserve, etc. are monitored regularly to ensure the correct functioning of the system • A water supply system
and good health of the fish. • Temperature control system
• A reserve tank
The main benefits offered by this technology are: • Recirculation pumps
• Better control of the parameters intervening in the production system • Biofilters
• Total isolation of external factors (diseases,…) • Fattening tanks
• Complete lack of dependence on environmental conditions, enabling it to be installed in any • Solids separator
location • Oxygen installation
• Alarm systems
As for its disadvantages, although they are few, we should mention the advanced technology
required for its operation and the important initial outlay that is necessary.

CO2
BIOFILTER BIOFILTER PUMPS

AIR Denitrification

Photograph 6: Vertical impulsion pumps (left) and production room with

RESERVE TANK tanks and pipes line (right)
© Rodolfo Barrera

FISH PUMPS
5.9. Recommendations
WATER
OXYGEN HEAT • The principal step in establishing the production system that is best adapted is to determine
pH the production objectives, i.e., the species to be farmed, estimated production and life stage
to be produced
• The sustainability of the process depends on the location, availability of the water, commu-
FISH TANKS
SOLIDS SEPARA-
WATER SOLIDS nication routes and other environmental factors which determine the choice of one system
TOR or another
• The sustainability of the closed circuit lies in greater production and reuse of water, but the
electrical consumption is much higher than in an open circuit.
• The sustainability of an open circuit lies in the lower maintenance costs, since gravity-based or
tidal management systems are used.The electrical consumption in water impulsion is minimal,
Figure 8. Diagram of closed circuit in VASA (Source: Own elaboration)
but on the other hand, lower productions are obtained

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 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

6. Diversification in the size of the facilities

6.1. Introduction

The Mediterranean Sea basin is practically closed, and its major source of water is the cons-
tant flow of surface water from the Atlantic Ocean. It is estimated that it would take one century
for the total volume of water from the Mediterranean to be completely renovated through the
Strait of, with a depth of 300m.

This limited water flow and the high rate of evaporation means that the Mediterranean con-
tains more salt than the Atlantic Ocean. Its surface temperature varies from an average minimum
temperature of 10º C in winter in the Adriatic to a maximum of 28–30° C on the south-east
shores. It is not possible to farm certain species of consolidated scaled fish within this range of
temperatures, such as the salmon and turbot.

The classifications traditionally applied to aquaculture farming facilities are closely related to
the habitat in which the production activity is to be carried out, the species to be farmed and the
culture density (this parameter is very much related to biomass and the number of individuals per
cage/tank), and based on these variables, the size of the aquaculture facility that is most suitable
can be defined.

The size of an aquaculture facility is closely related to production costs, for which reason it is
of vital importance to ensure the correct size of the facility, depending on the required objectives,
to avoid incurring extra expenses apart from production costs.

In the Mediterranean region, most of the aquaculture activity is carried out in marine areas,
but there are also many heterogeneous land-based and tideland facilities of major importance.

6.2. Justification

The facilities may have different sizes, with large marine facilities occupying a considerable
extension of public marine surface area, and on the other hand, small family concerns or simply
repopulation facilities.

From the standpoint of sustainability, the size of the facility may be a key factor. It is well
known that the larger the facility, the greater the demand for human and energy resources, which
must be offset by productive sustainability to allow the facility to provide sufficient resources to
support demand. In short, at present many different sized facilities exist in the market and their
final sustainability will depend mainly on that size being appropriate for what was originally plan-
ned in that facility.

55
 6 Diversification in the size of the facilities Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Facility size Concession size

Small <1,000 sq. m.
6.3. Land-based facilities Medium 1,000 – 5,000 sq. m.
Large > 5,000 sq. m.
These are usually facilities for breeding / fattening freshwater species, but they may also inclu-
Table 6. Size of tideland aquaculture facilities by administrative concessions (Source: Own elaboration)
de also breeding / fattening units for saltwater species.

Freshwater aquaculture with cages in the Mediterranean region is mostly carried out in Egypt, Although the facilities are large, there are two trends; cooperative societies such as those
where the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) are pro- found in the Po Delta (Italy) and the private operation of small administrative concessions, as
duced in cages in the Nile Delta. The production of these species in cages has undergone a con- occurs in the Ebro Delta.
siderable increase during the past decade, rising from 1977 tons in 1995 to 32,062 tons in 2003.
6.5. Marine facilities
The rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) are also far-
med to a lesser extent in freshwater, using cages, ponds or reservoir in Italy, Turkey, Cyprus, and The marine facilities in the Mediterranean region are floating cages for fattening gilthead sea
the Syrian Arab Republic. bream (Sparus aurata), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and meagre (Argyrosomus regius), but facili-
ties also exist for fattening red tuna (Thunnus thvnnus) (in Murcia and Malta). Experimental facilities
The most widely used farming methods in land-based aquaculture are intensive or extensive also exist with cages on the sea bed for testing new species such as sole (Solea senegalensis) and
tanks, either for breeding or fattening freshwater species, and for farming fry belonging to marine octopus (Octopus vulgaris).
species.
Depending on the number of cages in the Mediterranean aquaculture facilities, they can be
The approximate size of the facilities on land varies considerable and depends on the pro- classified in the following ways:
duction objectives of the company, but one example would be the size of the facilities used for
producing trout, as shown in the following table: Facility size Nº of cages Production (in t)
Small 12 - 24 400 – 1,000
Facility size Production (in t) Medium 24 - 48 1,000 – 2,000
Small < 500 Large > 48 > 2,000
Medium 500 – 1,500
Large > 1,500 Table 7. Size of marine aquaculture facilities based on the number of cages (Source: Own elaboration)

Table 5. Size of land-based facilities for farming trout based on the production figures

6.4.Tideland facilities
Most tideland facilities in the Mediterranean are dedicated to the farming or collecting of
molluscs, such as the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), Japanese clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) and
fine clam (Tapes decussatus) and even echinoderms such as the common sea urchin (Paracentrotus
lividus) or the black sea urchin (Arbacia lixula).
The Mediterranean coast has a large variety of farming sites, including protected and open
sites. For that reason, different types of cages are used, from simple ones with wooden frames and
barrel-type structures (Egypt) to more modern facilities with sophisticated technologies such as
steel platforms or submersible steel cages with integrated feeding systems (Murcia, Catalonia and
Greece). Nonetheless, the floating cages most widely used are made of high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) due to their capacity to adapt to diverse marine conditions.

The Mediterranean areas in which molluscs are farmed are comprised of large areas, mainly
in bays or estuaries, where the confluences of freshwater and salt water courses are of great im-
portance in primary production.
The following table shows the average size of tideland aquaculture facilities.
The floating cages used in the Mediterranean for farming gilthead sea bream, sea bass and
meagre are 22 or 25m in diameter with a depth of 13m, with a cone of a depth of about 2 to 3m.
The nets used for containment are made of polyamide that is resistant to the effects of UV
radiation, in mesh without knots.

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 6 Diversification in the size of the facilities Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

For this size of cage, the depth of the ocean bed must be at least double the depth of the top
of the net, so that waste generated during the activity (faeces and feed remains) can be correctly
dispersed throughout the zone and does not build up in specific points.
Another parameter for defining the size of an aquaculture facility is by the surface area occu-
pied by the administrative concession in which the production activity is carried out. Depending
on that surface area, another classification can be established:
6.6. Case study: Aquaculture facility in Burriana (Castellón)
The facility is four sea miles to the south (course 175º) of the port of Burriana (Castellón),
in a polygon of 1,200 x 990m with a surface area of almost 119 hectares (1,188,000 sq. m.). That
facility has an annual production of 4,800 t of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), 900 t of sea
bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and 300 t of meagre (Argyrosomus regius), reaching a total production
of 6,000 t.

The facility originally occupied an administrative concession of 255,000 sq. m., and has the
Facility size Concession surface area Production (in t) following elements:
Small < 250,000 sq. m. 400 – 1,000 • 2 groups of 12 surface cages with a diameter of 20 metres for farming gilthead sea bream
Medium 250,000 – 500,000 sq. m. 1,000 – 2,000 and sea bass
Large > 500,000 sq. m. > 2,000 • 1 group of 6 surface cages with a diameter of 20 metres for farming gilthead sea bream and
Table 8. Size of marine aquaculture facilities based on the concession area (Source: Own elaboration)
sea bass
Due to reasons of demand, it was decided to increase production, by adding 8 octopus cages,
Both classifications would be correct in determining the size of a marine aquaculture facility, 2 sole cages, 1 turbot cage and 4 suspended octopus pots. The whole concession was eventually
since they are related to each other through the approximate production that can be obtained as described below:
in each one. • 2 groups of 12 surface cages with a diameter of 20 metres for farming gilthead sea bream
and sea bass
Mediterranean marine aquaculture facilities are mainly dedicated to fattening gilthead sea • 1 group of 6 surface cages with a diameter of 20 metres for farming gilthead sea bream and
bream and sea bass and we could say that both these species are native to the Mediterranean Sea. sea bass
• 8 cages on the sea bed with a diameter of 25 metres for octopus
Diverse parameters exist for defining the size of a facility, but the final size of the facility is not • 2 cages on the sea bed with a diameter of 25 metres for sole
determined by only one parameter, but by all of them. • 1 cage on the sea bed with a diameter of 25 metres for turbot
• 4 long-line suspended octopus pots
The following diagram shows the main parameters that determine the size of a facility. Following this first extension related only to capacity, a new extension was undertaken, re-
questing an enlargement of the occupied maritime-land surface area. Specifically, an occupation
of 933,000 sq. m. was requested. 60 long-lines for mussel and oyster were placed in this new
occupied surface area and 6 gilthead sea bream and sea bass cages with a diameter of 25 metres,
Species to be farmed The size of the species affects the size of the facility 12 cages of 25 metres for meagre, 3 octopus cages with a diameter of 25 metres and the 8 octo-
pus cages of 25 metres were relocated, and a cage for farming sole was eliminated, with the sole
remaining sole cage and turbot cage being relocated. In sum, the whole facility (1,118,800 sq. m.)
Production objective Fry, fattening, repopulation now has the following elements:
Facility size • 1 cage on the sea bed for turbot with a diameter of 25m.
Desired production
• 1 cage for sole on the sea bed with a diameter of 25m.
More or less space is needed, depending on production
• 8 octopus cages on the sea bed with a diameter of 25m.
• 72 surface cages for gilthead sea bream, sea bass and meagre with a diameter of 25m.
• 23 long-lines for mussels and oysters
Production density Intensive, extensive semi-intensive facility
• 13 surface cages for gilthead sea bream and sea bass with a diameter of 16m, for auxiliary
operations
Figure 9. Parameters affecting the size of a facility (Source: Own elaboration)

58 59
 6 Diversification in the size of the facilities

Concesión de ocumación de 255.000m2

Jaulas de 20m Jaulas de 25m

Jaulas pulpo
sumergidas
Jaulas de 16m

Nasas pulpos

Entramado pulpo

Jaulas rodaballo long-lines

y lenguado

Figure 10. Sketch of the current status of the facility (Source: Andrómeda Iberica Group)

Estimating an average survival rate of 85% for all the species and a commercial size of 450g
for gilthead sea bream and sea bass and 1 - 2kg for meagre, total annual production is reckoned to
be 12,870,000 fish and 6,000 tons. These figures may vary from one year to the next, depending
on the farming and selling conditions.

This is a large facility (> 48 cages), with a large production (6,000 t) of sea bass, gilthead sea
bream and meagre, and long-lines for farming mussel and oyster and bottom cages for fattening
octopus, turbot and sole.

6.7. Recommendations
• Selecting a good site for the facility, either on land or in the sea. In the case of locating the site
in the sea, it is important to have a fishing port nearby and if on land, it must be located near
a town and have good land communications
• Consider potential enlargements at a later date, for increasing production, adding other spe-
cies for farming, etc.
• Studying the human and economic resources required to execute the planned facility
• • Not oversizing the facility

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 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

7. Diversification of the production cycle

7.1. Introduction

In sustainable aquaculture, diversification of the production cycle in the marine or continental

species to be farmed has been used to advantage by aquaculture businesses to correctly generate,
use and develop their facilities.

The development of diverse types of cycle in the facilities may have a positive effect on final
production. This is due to the fact that it is one thing to mass-produce fry and quite another to
produce adults of a commercial size. The establishing and marketing of the different products
obtained is not the same for each phase of growth in the species farmed.

Semi-intensive fish farming Integrated fish farming Semi-intensive mollusc farming Integrated mollusc farming

Natural medium Reproductive specimens Natural medium Reproductive specimens

Larvae Eggs Seed Larvae

Post larval/fry Larvae Fattening Seed

Fattening Post larval/fry Fattening

Fattening

Figure 11. Classification based on the biological cycle phases included in the farming of fish and molluscs (Source:
Own elaboration

In general, the degree of biological cycle diversification carried out by the companies need
not be absolute, meaning that they need not include the production of all the cycle growth phases
in their facilities: hatchery, nursery and fattening units. At present there are some companies that
diversify the whole cycle, especially in the case of flatfish (turbot and sole), while others simply
function as breeding, nursery or fattening units.

One important fact is that in general, the processes executed in a hatchery or nursery facility
can be carried out in land facilities, while the fattening phase (nursery facilities) may be located on
land (some molluscs, crustaceans and flatfish) or in the sea in mussel rafts, nurseries for molluscs
and pelagic fish, floating cages, submerged cages, etc.

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 7 Diversification of the production cycle Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Fish-farming facilities Mollusc farming facilities

Reproductive specimens Reproductive 7.2.1.Technical development

specimens
Hatcheries
Companies in which these industrial processes are carried out have the necessary equipment
Eggs Hatcheries Larvae and systems to ensure the technical feasibility of this phase. This can be summarised as follows:
• Pumping systems: pumps of all the types and capacities existing in the market which pump the
Larvae Seeds Nurseries sea water and force it through the different circuits (auxiliary filter circuits, etc.)
• Filtering systems: systems and components that ensure the sea water arrives with the highest
possible quality
Post-Post larval/fry Nurseries Adults
Fattening units: • Water heating – cooling systems: in developing this first phase of the cycle, it is essential to
tideland areas/ have the appropriate temperature gradients by using components (electric elements, solar
mussel rafts
Adults Fattening units or photovoltaic panels, diesel boilers, heat pumps and exchangers, etc.) to improve animal
husbandry technology aspects in farming
• Sterilisation systems: the water used must be completely free from germs and parasites that
Figure 12.: Classification based on the type of aquaculture facility (fish and molluscs) and what is could interfere with the processes executed during this cycle culture phase. There are 2 va-
farmed in each one (Source: Own elaboration) lidated methods: UV radiation at 254 nm and ionisation (O3). Both methods require energy
• Aeration systems: in all the culture phases, oxygen must be supplied, but it need not be pure
oxygen. It is normal to use “air blowers” with differing capacities and powers. In farming mi-
croalgae, it is important to have CO2 in order to maximise the output
Nurseries can be located next to hatcheries, but in Mediterranean marine aquaculture, nur- • Containers and tans for farming: the forms and dimensions must be in keeping with the or-
series act as logistic platforms, given that they are normally located in areas of the Mediterranean ganism farmed during the different phases of the cycle and range from pyramid to circular
where temperatures are lower, while the fattening units are located in areas with higher tempe- elements, including rectangular elements or “raceways”
ratures; transportation of live fish over long distances (> 1,000 km) is easier if the fish are of a • Phyto and zoo-plankton production systems: different phyto and zoo-plankton species are
used in the development of the first phases of the organisms that are farmed
small size, but the fattening units are not the best place for receiving these small fry. However, the
nurseries located in the fattening areas fulfil the mission of receiving fry weighing 1 - 2g, where
they are nursed until they reach 5 - 20g and returned to the fattening units.
Essential parameters in the post-larval farming of molluscs
7.2. Hatcheries and nurseries Temperature 20- 25 ºC
Filtration 1µ
By definition, these are land facilities where mass industrial-scale production is carried out
Sterilisation No
during the first cycle phases, namely:
60 units/sq cm (clam)
• The capture, transportation, conditioning and maintenance of reproductive fish Density 22 units/sq cm (oyster)
• Larval development Food 50-200 l microalgae/Kg. seed/day
• Nursing until reaching larger sizes of 8-10mm in the case of molluscs and fish over 10g for all
40 days (clam)
fish species until they are taken to the fattening units Farming time 60 days (oyster)
The fish and mollusc hatcheries may be compatible as regards their operation and produc- Size 0.6-3 mm (clam)
0.6-5 mm (oyster)
tion, by reusing the fish exit water for nursing molluscs.
Trays or drums (with mesh base) in tanks with larger
Tanks capacities
Renovations 2-4 times/day
The quality of the water quality in which they are farmed is of great importance
Table 9. Values of the essential parameters in the larval and post-larval farming of molluscs

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 7 Diversification of the production cycle Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Parameters Gilthead / Sea bass / Turbot

Pyramid-shaped with a capacity of 0.15- 5 cu. m.
Tanks Weaning *: 2-5 cu. m. Round or rectangular
7.3. Fattening units
Aeration Lightweight for maintaining zooplankton in suspension
Temperature 18-20º C Fattening of the different aquaculture species is done in the hatcheries. The fry obtained in
Density 40-50 larvae/l. the hatcheries and nurseries are fattened until they reach a commercial size.These facilities can be
Weaning* 15 kg/cu. m. classified based on a geographical location criterion, as follows:
Sterilisation UV or O3
• Land facilities:
1µ ooFacilities for fattening fish, molluscs and crustaceans
Filtration Weaning*: 40 µ
ooFarming in tanks or lagoons
Continuous and/or long (16 h.light: 8 darkness). Lighting of • Tideland facilities / lagoons:
Photoperiod 500-2.000 lux
ooMollusc-farms (oyster, clam, etc.)
< 0.01 mg/l.
Nitrites and Ammonia Weaning*: < 2 ppm • Marine facilities:
ooFloating cages for fish (gilthead sea bream, sea bass, etc.)
Oxygenation Minimum 5 mg/litre
ooSubmerged cages (sole, octopus)
Water renovation 0 (5-10 days); 5-10% Renovation rate/hour. ooMussel rafts (mussel, oyster, etc.)
Weaning: 50% hour
ooLong-lines (mussel, oyster etc.)
Salinity 30-38‰
As commented above, fattening of fish and molluscs should also be compatible with a sea
10-15 %
Survival Weaning*:50-80% environment (fish cages, long-lines and mollusc rafts). Multi-species culture would also be possible,
40-90 days combining fish and molluscs on the surface and on the sea bed.
Duration (days) Metamorphosis between15-60 days.
Weaning*: 50-70 days after hatching 7.3.1. Land facilities
Growth (g) 0.05 - 3
* Weaning: Change in diet from live to inert (commercial feed) Fish
Table 10.: Parameter values observed during the larval culture of fish of commercial interest
In the western Mediterranean, a generic example is given for farming trout in cement tanks
or ponds.
Parameters Gilthead / Sea bass / Turbot
Tanks 2-5 cu. m. Round or rectangular
Aeration Several points and continuous Parameters Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
Temperature 18-22º C Cement or fibreglass tanks for fry / juveniles (3 x 1 x 0.5)
Tanks / Ponds Rectangular or round ponds for adults (10 x 2 x 2)
Density 15 kg/ cu. m.
200 – 250g commercial size
Growth (g)
Sterilisation Not necessary Reproductive fish up to 500g
Filtration 40 µ 7.2 - 17.0º C for growth (ideal 15º C)
Temperature (ºC) 7.2 - 12.8º C for reproduction and incubation
Photoperiod Natural Tolerates up to 25° C for short periods
<0.01 mg/l. Salinity freshwater farming
Nitrites and Ammonia Weaning: < 2 ppm
6.5 – 9 ppm
Oxygen
Oxygenation > 5mg/litre Can survive in waters with 3 mg/L
Water renovation 50% h 6.5 – 8.5
pH Values of less than 5 and over 9.5 are lethal
Salinity 30-38‰
Ammonia <1 (mg/l)
Survival 80%
0.2 – 12g: 1.3 – 7.2kg / sq. m.
Duration (days) 50-70 days 12 – 45 g: 8-10kg / sq. m.
Density 45 – 250 g: 10 – 15kg / sq. m.
Growth (g) 1-10 Reproductive fish: 15-20 kg / sq. m.

Table 11. Parameters observed during nursery period for different species of fish of commercial interest Table 12. Parameters for farming trout in land facilities (Source: Gurung T.B (2008))

66 67
 7 Diversification of the production cycle
Crustaceans
The Japanese prawn is used as an example (Penaeus japonicus). The post-larvae are sown in
ancient salt flats in Cádiz, in which the water is renovated through a tidal gate or in ponds excava-
ted in marshlands, into which sea water is pumped (Huelva).The size of the ponds varies from 0.2
– 6 hectares and their shape is usually rectangular, with a clay base. In extensive culture (without
external feeding) they are usually sown with 2 - 10 post-larvae per sq. m. and in semi-intensive cul-
ture (including some food) with 10 - 20 post-larvae per sq. m. The final productions are variable,
even within the same type of culture, 100 - 400kg per hectare for extensive and 1,600 – 2,800kg
per hectare for semi-intensive.
Molluscs
The species used here as examples are the clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) and the Pacific
oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Their fattening phase is carried out in tidelands (farms), directly on the
sea bed or using bags or nets to cover the seeds.
During this phase it is necessary to prepare the terrain on commencing the fattening phase,
to allow the specimens to be buried, and regular cleaning of the mesh forming the enclosures
or bags to eliminate epibiontal organisms and promote water circulation. The culture density de-
pends on the primary production in the area near the facility, and is between 8 – 1,000 specimens
per sq. m. in enclosed media and 200 specimens per sq. m. in culture media.
At the end of this phase, which lasts for about 8-12 months, clams with a commercial size of
35-45mm (25g) are obtained.
7.3.2. Farming in tidelands
Fattening during this phase is done in farms or nurseries, on the sea bed. In the case of the
oyster, the seeds, measuring 5 - 8mm, are detached from the pipes and transferred to these farms
on a support or “mesh bags”. In the case of the latter, the seeds are placed in plastic bags. When
they reach a size of 5cm they are removed from the bags and the oysters are left on trays or
attached to ropes until they reach a commercial size of 8 - 10cm.
7.3.3. Marine facilities
Floating cages
Fish farming in general has undergone considerable development and in particular, fattening
on floating structures. Different types of cages exist in terms of size and shape. They may be fixed,
floating, submerged, etc.
68
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
Depending on the culture method, three types of farming are established: extensive, semi-
intensive and intensive. However, intensive farming is currently the most widespread since they
withstand high production densities. The adequate control of feeding and correct handling of the
farm can give rise to large productions.
Mussel rafts
Mussel rafts are based on a system of 6 floating elements which support a wooden lattice-
type structure (usually made of eucalyptus wood) from which ropes are suspended that support
the mussels (the maximum surface area is 550 sq. m.). In the Ebro Delta they are anchored to the
bottom by a series of fibrocement girders which support the wooden lattice structure.The ropes
have a series of plastic sticks at intervals of 20 - 30cm to facilitate the adherence and production
of the mussels. The maximum number permitted depends on the bay in question (Alfacs and
Fangar) which permits 500 ropes with a maximum length of 12m. In the Ebro Delta (Tarragona)
they range from 2.5m and 3.5m. to ensure reasonable production quantities and product quality.
The mussel-farming process is divided up into several phases: obtaining the seed in the natu-
ral medium, placing them on the ropes, thinning them out and harvesting them. This process lasts
for 12 - 14 months in Galicia. In the Ebro Delta and the Region of Valencia, this term is reduced
to 9 - 12 months, due to market demand and the production cycle. Sowing is usually done in
September and harvesting starts in May.
Long-lines
The long-line farming systems consists of a main line with floating elements, anchored at the
ends and at other points of the sea bed. The farming ropes hang from this main line. The long-line
floatability can easily be adapted to the needs of each production phase.
The long-line is a floating structure with a trapezoidal shape, comprised of a polypropylene
or nylon line with a diameter of 12 - 16mm and a length of 100 - 600m. This line is called the
main line and is anchored to the sea bed by its ends with two blocks, each weighing up to 25 t,
so that the main production line does not move with the current. The main line is suspended at
a depth of between 3 and 5m using surface and submerged buoys. These buoys have secondary
lines hanging from them which maintain the farming implements (manifolds, baskets and lanterns)
inside the water column. At the bottom of each element are weights to ensure that they do not
become tangled and always remain in suspension.
Long-line farming is practised only in the western Mediterranean, taking advantage of the
artificial reefs previously installed in these areas.
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 7 Diversification of the production cycle Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

IMTA as a sustainable method.

The following types of long-lines exist:
• Protected waters These systems promote economic and environmental sustainability, through converting the
ooSurface, double buoy solid, soluble nutrients of the organisms and their food (intensive culture of crustaceans and fish)
ooSurface, single buoy in harvests for extractive organisms (algae and molluscs), thereby reducing the potential for eu-
ooSemi-submerged trophication and increasing economic diversification. If selected and located in the appropriate
• Exposed waters way, the growth of the co-farmed species can be accelerated through assimilating extra nutrients
ooSemi-submerged with a single buoy
supplied by the species farmed, by introducing food.
ooSubmerged with a single buoy
The IMTA system allows producers to diversify without having to seek new sites. Initial results
7.4. Integrated multi-trophic aquacul- suggest that recycling waste from farming as food for others can increase the revenues of an IMTA
ture (IMTA) system. An analysis of the IMTA system shows that it can reduce financial risks stemming from
problems posed by the climate, disease and market fluctuations (Ridler et al., 2007).
Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is
defined as a combination of different maricultures IMTA systems; health in food and quality
using species from different taxonomic groups in
one physical system or facility, with a view to impro- One possible reason for concern about the waste produced by a species if not consumed by
ving environmental quality and making the best use Photograph 7. Detalle de una batea y long-line
another is that they are a potential source of contamination. As of today, this does not appear to
of the system resources. (de doble boya) en superficie (aguas protegidas)
© Francisco J. Espinós
be a problem for IMTA systems. One example is the project under way since 2001 in Fundy Bay
(Canada) on mussel populations raised in zones adjacent to salmon cages, in which analyses of
The multi-trophic concept refers to the incorporation of species with differing nutritional contamination due to medicines, metals, arsenic, PCBs and pesticides has shown concentrations
levels in one system (Chopin, 2006). This is a different characteristic from aquatic multi-culture in that are negligible or lower than the limits established by different agencies (Canadian Food Ins-
which different fish species with the same trophic level are farmed. pection Agency, USA Food and Drug Administration, EEC Directives). Tasting tests conducted on
the mussels indicated that they were free from fish and other aromas, with parameters similar to
In IMTA systems, by-products (waste) produced in breeding certain species can be used as those observed by wild mussel evaluators. However, their meat production was significantly higher,
inputs (fertilisers, food) for others. In these systems the culture of species requiring feed (fish, which reflects the increase in the availability of food and energy (Haya et al., 2004).
crustaceans) is combined with the aquaculture of inorganic (marine algae) and organic (molluscs)
extractive organisms, thereby achieving a balanced ecosystem that produces mutual benefits for 7.5. Recommendations
the co-farmed species, fostering environmental sustainability criteria (biomitigation), economic sta-
• The joint farming of fish and molluscs in one facility is recommended, using the water from
bility (diversification of products and reduction of risks) and social acceptance (improved handling farming the fish to fatten the mollusc seed
practices: Chopin et al., 2001). • Mussel rafts are still a very good option in protected zones (inlets, bays, estuaries, etc.)
• Long-lines are a sustainable, economic alternative, with a low visual impact
Ideally speaking, the biological and chemical process of an IMTA system are balanced if a • Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture is a good option which brings environmental and econo-
careful and proportional selection is made of the different species to be farmed together, each of mic benefits, with a multi-production of species that are compatible with each other
which assumes a different function in the ecosystem.

7.4.1. IMTA systems

The IMTA concept is extremely flexible. IMTA systems can be located on land or in the sea, in
marine systems or freshwater systems and may include diverse combinations of species (i.e., fish-
algae-molluscs, molluscs-crustaceans, etc.) (Troell et al., 2003). The important thing is to select the
organisms taking into account the functions they will carry out in the ecosystem, their economic
value and/or their potential acceptance by consumers.

70 71
 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

8. Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition

International aquaculture production has increased in enormous proportions in recent years,

especially through the development of semi-intensive practices in Asia and Africa. Nutrition plays
an important part in this, from the standpoint of the study of the nutritional requirements of each
species, the availability of raw materials and nature conservation.

In the face of the challenges posed for Mediterranean aquaculture in Europe, it is neces-
sary to fight to obtain sustainability, technology, diversification and profitability. Competition from
countries with lower production costs and other species with scant development in Europe, the
stricter demands in quality and traceability by consumers, the volatile prices of raw materials and
food and the harsh legislative requirements in Europe regarding quality, health and environmental
protection make it more and more difficult to stabilise this activity.

The development and diversification of aquaculture must be considered in terms of achie-

ving a balance between the main factors which affect it, namely reproduction, new species, the
environment, pathologies, genetics, handling.. and of course, nutrition.

For an aquaculture facility to be profitable, a diet is required and guidelines for applying it
(Zamora, 2006). Much work has been done on nutritional studies since the 1970s and in parti-
cular, during the last ten years, but the progress made is different, depending on the fish species
to be farmed.

Feeding in larval phases in aquaculture is an important obstacle for its development. At pre-
sent, it is necessary for most auxiliary facilities to have parallel cultures of zooplankton (Artemia
and rotifers) and phytoplankton (principally microalgae) to feed the larvae, with the complex task
of meeting the nutritional requirements of each particular species through this channel (Zamora,
2006). Furthermore, the zooplankton used must be supplemented with essential fatty acids, since
these are not readily available in Artemia and rotifers. The development of dry diets based on mi-
croparticles containing these elements would be a great step forward for aquaculture. Tests have
been conducted with inert diets using hydrolysed proteins and probiotics and essential fatty acids.
These microdiets must fulfil a series of characteristics: a bright colour to attract the larvae, high
floatability, stability in water and being composed of elements that are easy to digest (given the
lack of development of the larvae digestive tract). The results varied; in some cases the microdiets
were relatively well accepted by the larvae and in others, a period of co-feeding with live prey
was necessary.

8.2. Current problem with raw materials

The development of intensive aquaculture on a worldwide scale is conditioned by the availa-

bility of raw materials for feeding the hatched species. Fish flour and oil are the main raw materials
used as a source of protein and energy, respectively, in feed for fish, and especially for the intensive
breeding of carnivorous species.

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 8 Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

High-quality fish flours are without doubt the best source of protein for the farmed fish, due Lastly, within the above context of alternative
to their great digestibility and their amino acid composition, which is very close to the profile of and possibilities, we should not forget that we are
needs of most species (Cowey, 1994). This has determined that, simultaneously to the develop- operating in a sector in which the volatile prices of
ment of intensive fish farming, the demand for fish flour has soared, which on occasions, accounts most raw materials (and in particular, flour, grain
for up to 60% of all fish feed formulations. As a result, there is a possibility that the supply of fish and oil) is enormous, and poses a great obstacle
flour on an international scale will not follow keep up with the pace as its demand in livestock in stabilising the business for both feed manufac-
nutrition and in particular, fish farming and for this reason, guarantees of supply are at risk (Pike, turers and farmers. Speculation, availability, strict
1998). Meanwhile, its price has risen steeply, such that the total or partial substitution of fish flour quality controls and restrictive legislation are four
with other protein-based raw materials has become a priority in research conducted into nutri- factors which interfere directly with this volatility
tion and feed formulation in aquaculture. in markets and prices.

The most important manufacturers of fish flour are Peru and Chile, which contribute to just 8.3. Nutritional requirements of fish
over half of international production (IFFO, 2005). Forecasts of demand for fish flour for forthco- farmed in aquaculture
ming years in aquaculture are fast increasing and this makes it necessary to find other sustainable,
Fish nutrition is a research area which has
available and quality alternatives (FAO, 2009).
undergone significant development, particularly Photograph 8. Detail of some of the raw mate-
The use of vegetable protein such as that found in soy flour, pea, lupine, rapeseed, rice, bean, when we consider that feeding and feeding costs rials used to manufacture fish feed in aquaculture
marine macroalgae or sunflower is being tested as alternatives to fish flour, and corn or wheat constitute the most important part of the opera- © Grupo Dibaq

gluten (de la Gándara, 2006). These raw materials are reasonably priced due to their greater avai-
lability, but they may contain anti-nutritional factors and not contribute sufficient minerals, energy
and amino acids that are essential for ensuring the correct nutrition of the fish species farmed.
Furthermore, the digestibility of these raw materials is often insufficient for the digestive system
of the fish, and it is necessary to limit their inclusion or increase their digestibility, through acid or
enzymatic hydrolysis processes.
On the other hand, the use of other proteins of animal origin has also been studied, such
as meat flour, blood derivatives and hydrolysed proteins. Unlike plant-based materials, these raw
materials provide an excellent source of energy, vitamins, minerals and essential amino acids and
do not contain anti-nutritional factors. However, in the case of meat flours, following the cases
of spongiform bovine encephalopathy in Europe, such substances were banned in manufactu-
ring practically all composite feeds to prevent health problems and risks (European Regulation
1774/2002), although it is true that in recent years, data with grounds are being published about
the authorisation of transformed animal proteins (TAP) in aquaculture, which would provide a
new tool for achieving the sustainable aquaculture objective.
In addition, a key factor in aquaculture sustainability and one which is taking on ever-increasing
importance is the use of by-products from the agro-food industry which, due to their nutritional
properties and availability, could represent an alternative to traditional raw materials.
ting costs of an aquaculture facility. The develop-
ment of feed for aquaculture requires at least a basic understanding of nutrition and a definition
and knowledge of the nutritional needs of the species being farmed.
All animal species have their own requirements in terms of the proteins, energy (lipids, car-
bohydrates), vitamins and minerals included in their diets. The type and quantity of each of these
nutrients varies, not just between species but depending on the ages, productive function and
environmental conditions, and such requirements warrant special treatment.
Moreover, the nutritional value of a food is not only based on its chemical composition, but
also on the ability of the fish to digest and absorb it. Consequently, knowledge of the digestibility
of the nutrients is essential for designing practical diets.
On the other hand, current legislation on animal nutrition is extremely strict, following the
recent food crises of past years, and poses a slight obstacle in achieving objectives that appear
clear and also much closer. Some examples of this are control of the environmental nitrogen and
phosphorus in diets, digestibility, labelling and integrated traceability.
Based on the above, it is clear that knowledge of the nutritional needs of fished farmed in
aquaculture is not easy and must be supported by complex research and approximations on the
subject. As has already been commented, there are many research projects and studies on this
topic but greater depth and know-how must be applied in all these projects.

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 8 Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition
8.3.1. Protein
Needs with respect to protein, which constitutes approximately 70% of the dry component
of organic matter and is essential for the growth of the fish and influenced by biological factors
such as: the size of the fish, physiological function, culture density, type of feed and nutritional fac-
tors such as quality and digestibility, energy level in the diet and the quantity of feed to be supplied.
Generally speaking, nursery feed or that given to the fish at an early age has greater protein
percentages and is also of greater quality and more digestible.
Knowing the amino acid profile of each species is one of the great challenges in the nutrition
of farmed fish. The majority of studies conducted to date show that the requirements are very
similar for all species in the sum total, but there are significant differences between species (parti-
cularly freshwater and saltwater species) when treated individually (Luquet, 1989).
8.3.2. Lipids
Lipids are the most concentrated and readily available source of energy of all nutrients. In
fish feeds, lipids improve the palatability, texture and stability of those nutrients. Furthermore, they
are very important as a source of essential fatty acids for the normal growth and survival of the
fish and the normal development of their vital functions. They are also essential in that they act as
vehicles for liposoluble vitamins and photolipids, in particular, play an important part in the mem-
branes and the hormonal and enzymatic functions.
In the case of knowledge of the requirements of the fatty acids included in their diet, the
same occurs as with amino acids and proteins. The fatty acids which exert the greatest influence
on farmed fish species during all their production phases are the omega 3 or linoleic acid series
and omega 6 or linolenic acid series.The requirements with respect to these acids vary, depending
on whether the species is freshwater or saltwater and within this group, whether they thrive in
cold or warm waters.
8.3.3. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are considered to be the cheapest form of energy in any diet. However, they
are the most controversial group of nutrients in fish feed, considering that fish do not show defi-
ciency symptoms if carbohydrates are not included in their diets. This situation makes it possible
to affirm that the requirements with respect to carbohydrates in farmed fish are practically zero.
While carnivorous fish have little or no ability to assimilate carbohydrates, herbivorous fish,
omnivorous fish and plankton-eating fish easily hydrolise the carbohydrates, since they are synthe-
sised in their digestive tract by amylase and cellulase enzymes.
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Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
8.3.4. Energy
The formation of fish feed is designed based on the energy demands of each species and
in particular, the energy/protein ratio. Fish, like all species, require energy to grow, develop and
reproduce. In general, a ratio of 9 kcal / g of protein would be enough for them to develop their
functions and ensure optimum growth. The speed with which the energy is used is influenced by
factors such as temperature, species, age, size, activity, physiological condition, body functions and
chemical changes in the water, such as oxygen, pH, temperature and salinity.
Like other animals, fish use different sources of energy in a way that is specific to their species.
Thus, fish which thrive in cold waters use proteins and lipids as sources of energy and make poor
use of carbohydrates, whereas fish which live in warm waters use carbohydrates with relative
success for exactly the same purpose.
Energy deficits or excesses in diet will have no relevant effects on the health of the fish.
Nevertheless, in a diet that is deficient in energy in relation to protein, a proportional quantity of
protein in that diet will be used as a source of energy instead of being used to form tissues and
promote growth. In the case of diets with excess energy content, the fish will feel satiated before
consuming the necessary quantity of feed for optimum growth.
8.3.5.Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins are a heterogeneous group of organic compounds required in very small quantities.
Since they are not synthesised by the organism, they must be supplied in daily feed rations. They
stipulate the appetite and ultimately, give a positive response in terms of growth, in addition to
stimulating the defences.
Vitamin requirements ranges among the different species of farmed fish are extremely va-
riable, due to a lack of knowledge about many of them, with the exception of vitamins C and E,
about which more studies exist, due to their importance.
In the case of minerals, like vitamins, they are not synthesised by the organism and must be
supplied daily in small quantities. They are essential elements for bones and soft tissues and are
also used by fish to regulate their osmotic balance, and are essential in the transmission of nerve
impulses and in the organism’s acid-base balance.
Both vitamins and minerals must be administered as supplements in diets for highly-compe-
titive production systems.
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 8 Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

8.4. Case study: Nutritional and environmental evaluation of a fall in protein
levels in fattening feed for the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) in a marine farm
located in the Mediterranean Sea.
The shortage of fish flour and enormous fluctuations in its market has led the aquaculture
sector in general and specialists in animal nutrition in particular to search for alternative raw ma-
terials. Comparing other components that can be used in aquaculture in fish feed with this raw
material is a difficult task. For aquaculture, whose main objective is the rapid production of healthy,
fresh, high-quality fish, feed represents the most important cost for its development.Therefore any
change, no matter how small, in this regard may have major consequences on earnings.
During recent years, the certainty exists that fish have been overfed with levels of proteins
that are far superior to their biological, physiological and nutritional needs.
In this experiment, the animal protein source was partly replaced with digestible raw mate-
rials of plant origin, with the fish flour formulation being of greater quality. Several experiments
were conducted, reducing the protein and fat profile by up to 5 and 3 units respectively, which
gave rise to a reduction in costs for producers.
The positive results resulted in the maintaining of growth and conversion that was even bet-
ter in seasons with high temperatures, and a fall in mortality during times of greater feeding rates.
This experiment shows that the quantity of protein is not proportional to the quality of the
feed but to the quality and digestibility of that protein. In addition, this affirmation has an important
component, not only in terms of nutrition, but in economic, sustainability and environmental terms.
8.5. Recommendations
The development and diversification of aquaculture must be considered as the achieving of
a balance between the main factors that affect it: reproduction, new species, environment, patho-
logies, genetics, handling.. and, of course, nutrition.
Special importance must be placed on taking advantage of by-products from the agro-food
industry which, due to their nutricional properties and availability, could be used as alternatives for
traditional raw materials.
Obtaining knowledge about the nutritional requirements of farmed fish is not easy and re-
quires complex studies and research into this subject.
As for protein, the amino acid profile of each species must be known, and this is one of the
greatest challenges facing nutrition in fish farming.
It is advisable to pay special attention to the fatty acids that most affect aquaculture species
in all the production phases, and in particular, the omega 3 or linoleic acid series, and omega 6 or
linolenic acid series, since their nutritional and functional properties are the main hallmark that
identifies quality fish.
Fish diets and their formulation are designed based on the energy demands of each specie
and in particular the energy/protein ratio; when a diet is deficient in energy in relation to protein,
a proportional quantity of protein in the diet will be used as energy instead of being used for
promoting the development of tissues and growth

In the case of minerals, like vitamins, they are not synthesised by the organism and must be
CONVERSION (FCR)
7,00
supplied daily in small quantities. They have not been widely studied, and research is necessary
6,00
in this sense. However, maintaining the recommended levels and above all, not exceeding the
maximum limits established in literature is highly recommended to ensure the correct assimilation
5,00

4,00
A of other nutrients.
3,00 B
2,00

1,00

0,00
APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Figure 13. Comparison of conversion (FCR) between a traditional

feed (A) and a feed with less protein content but greater digestibility
(B)
REFERENCE: Experiment conducted within the framework of the CENIT ACUISOST Project “Towards Sustainable Aquaculture
2007-2010” promoted by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology through the CDTI (Industrial and Technical Development
Centre) programme entitled Ingenio 2010.

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 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

9. Diversification of products

9.1. Background: diversification with respect to previous planning

Previous planning in aquaculture is necessary, depending on the products to be obtained. It is

one thing to devote a farm to the exclusive obtaining of fish meat and quite another to devote it
exclusively to the production of roe (caviar from the sturgeon). The facility must be designed for
the correct handling of the different phases of development, based on their requirements in terms
of space, flow rates, temperature, luminous phase, etc.

Furthermore, needs with respect to handling the final product (whether or not it is proces-
sed in the same plant) will also affect planning with respect to breeding and removing the fish.

To reach the consumer, the products must be attractive due to their quality and their ease
of conservation and preparation. Great efforts have been made during recent years to ensure a
longer useful life for the product, guarantee its quality and facilitate its consumption.

9.2. Lengthening the life of the product

To offer new, more elaborate products that are more complex and more attractive, first it is
necessary to overcome the problem of conservation.

The period for conserving fresh refrigerated fish5 is limited and no more than a few days.
Spoiling of aquaculture products begins immediately after the death of the animal due to the de-
velopment of various types of micro-organisms such as bacteria, mould and yeast and chemical
and enzymatic reactions of degradation, with obvious and direct economic implications for both
producers and for distributors and consumers. Micro-organisms are responsible for important
losses in foods produced all over the world, and entail relevant losses in economic terms and with
respect to resources, and evident risks for health (FAO 1997).

All thee deterioration processes are greatly influenced by temperature, in such a way that
the conservation of aquaculture products in optimum conditions usually requires strict storage
temperature controls.

Fish muscle is easily contaminated during evisceration and infested by micro-organisms from
the gills, intestines and skin. Correct hygienic practices in preparing the products will contribute to
keeping them in useful condition.

In addition, the metabolic reactions of certain bacteria generate trimethylamine and sulphur
compounds which cause unpleasant odours and other substances that are harmful to heath such
as histamine, which may cause food allergies (García et al., 2006).

5.
Refrigeration is lowering the temperature of the products to bring them to the melting point of ice.

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 9 Diversification of products
On the other hand, enzymatic reactions due to the softening of the texture of the fish flesh
and the development of unpleasant odours and tastes also affect the life of aquaculture products.
Moreover, in oily fish (with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids) lipid oxidation processes
take place which lead to rancid odours and tastes.
One of the advantages of aquaculture products is the speed with which they can be put on
the market and maintained fresh. This permits great safety in hygiene and better prices. However,
lengthening the life of the products, once purchased, is the war horse based on which a great deal
of research has been conducted to encourage people to buy products which are easy to handle
and conserve.
In this field, the use of protective atmospheres is being developed. The most basic protective
atmosphere systems are the so-called “vacuum packing”, which inhibits the development of aero-
bic micro-organisms and oxidation reactions due to the negligible portion of oxygen that remains
in the package. Furthermore, this type of treatment prevents the product from being burned by
the cold, ice crystals from forming and the surface of the products from becoming dehydrated.
The use of modified atmospheres6 as a method for packaging and conserving food has pro-
ved to be a very useful technology in increasing its shelf life, given that in foods with short shelf
lives such as fish, their shelf life can be prolonged by 4 - 5 days, which can lead to improving the
competitiveness of the products (Beltrán 2001).
Packaging in modified atmospheres consists basically of changing the composition of the at-
mosphere surrounding a product after it is inserted into a package that is impermeable to gases.
The conservation effect of modified atmospheres is based on the effect of CO2 (carbonic
anhydrase) which suppresses microbial growth and metabolism (Beltrán 2001). It can be said that
this suppression is specific to aerobic flora, and usually occurs in fish stored in refrigerated facilities.
The concentration of CO2 must be higher than 25% and may reach a maximum of 50-60%, at
which the maximum suppressive effect of microbial growth is reached. On the other hand, con-
centrations of more than 50% may lead to the packaging collapsing and exudates and changes in
the muscle texture. The incorporation of nitrogen prevents deformation and the collapse of the
packaging caused by the dissolution of the CO2 in the food tissues.. The combinations most often
used are 40% CO2: 30% N2: 30% O2 for white fish and 60% CO2: 40% N2 for oily fish (García et al.
2006). Some products undergo changes in their colour and taste when exposed to high concen-
trations of CO2. As for oxygen, it is advisable to include a small quantity thereof in the packages,
to suppress the growth of anaerobic micro-organisms such as Clostridium botulinum (García et
al. 2006). Although the gases most widely used in combinations for packaging fish are, as already
commented, CO2, O2 and N2, the use of noble gases such as argon (Ar) has also been studied as
a substitute for nitrogen (Beltrán 2001).
6.
Type of protective atmosphere used for fish, in addition to vacuum packaging and “second skin” vacuum packaging.
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Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
In relation to the materials used for packaging agro-food products in protective atmospheres,
these must be resistant to the diffusion of gases and mechanical perforation that could occur due
to the presence of bones or low freezing temperatures.
The use of protective atmospheres in packaging fish has the following advantages (García et
al., 2006):
• It delays the deterioration of the products, thereby increasing their shelf life without using
additives
• It prevents the generation of trimethylamine and histamine
• It allows warehouse management to be optimised, as the hermetic packaging isolates the
foods and allows different foods to be stored in the same area without the risk of odours
being transmitted between them or released into the atmosphere, thereby maintaining opti-
mum conditions of hygiene
• The longer shelf life allows the distribution frequency to be reduced (with the ensuing reduc-
tion in costs) and the geographical distribution scope to be increased
• Losses due to returning the products are reduced and in general, a reduction in production
and storage costs, since working peaks, spaces and equipment can be more easily managed.
• The presentation of the food is improved
• Value is added to the product, since it facilitates the conservation and handling thereof
However, there are also certain disadvantages (García et al., 2006):
• It is necessary to design a specific atmosphere that is suitable for the characteristics of the
food
• An important initial outlay is required in packaging machinery and control systems
• The budget is increased by the cost of the packaging maerials and the gases used (except in
the case of vacuum packaging)
• The volume of the packs (except vacuum packaging) is larger, which entails an increase in
storage space, transport and exposure
• The staff must have specific training in the different phases of the packaging and control pro-
cess and in particular, in handling the machinery
• In the event of the packaging being damaged or torn all the benefits of packaging the product
in a protective atmosphere are lost
• There is risk of the proliferation of micro-organisms in the food in the event of extreme
conservation temperatures, as the food must be maintained refrigerated.
• In modified atmospheres with a high content in carbon dioxide, problems such as the collapse
of the packaging, exudates, changes in texture, the development of acid tastes and decolora-
tion of the muscle tissue may arise
In relation to diversification in the presentation of aquaculture products and the use of new
conservation methods such as protective atmospheres, the possibility exists of selling different
parts of the fish (side, neck, etc.) ready cleaned and packaged for cooking or even ready-cooked,
as will be seen later.
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 9 Diversification of products
Other traditional procedures for conserving and presenting aquaculture products are salting,
dehydrating, dehydrating-salting, smoking, canning and semi-preserving.
The majority of these presentations were developed to favour the conservation of extractive
fish products when refrigeration was not available as a method of conservation and to offset the
marked seasonal component of many products.
Consequently salting was traditionally used for sardines, anchovies and tuna, with the codfish
dehydrating-salting technique used in fishing over long distances, the smoking technique used in
oily fish in damp climaes where dehydration was not easy to perform and in modern times, can-
ning and semi-preservation, amaking it possible to extend the longevity of the products and and
more easily enter other, more remote markets.
Although at present, aquaculture products do not suffer from such pressing conservation
problems, many of these techniques have been converted into presentations that are widely
accepted by the public, for instance, smoked salmon and sturgeon, semi-preserved caviar, salted
tuna (cured salt tuna), etc. What were once conservation methods have now become forms of
presentation that bring significant added-value to the products, and also extend the options avai-
lable for supplying these products.
9.3. Processed and elaborated products
We have already seen that a good way to add value to the products is their diversification.
This approach also includes processing (preparing cleaned fillets) and the elaboration of culinary
preparations, such as pre-cooked foods.
The treatment given to the foods determines the “ranges” in which they are included:
• Range I (fresh products): These are non-transformed foods which have not undergone a pro-
cess of sanitisation or conservation, but are offered directly to consumers without any kind of
preservative treatment other than refrigeration. In this case (aquaculture products) they are
highly perishable products that require extremely strict conditions of hygiene
• Range II (canned and semi-preserved foods): For preservation purposes, these foods are usua-
lly subjected to thermal treatment. In the case of semi-preserved foods, these also require
refrigeration
• Range III (frozen and deep-frozen): These products are preserved by applying extreme cold,
and it is necessary to maintain the cold chain to keep them in perfect condition. They may be
uncooked products or pre-cooked products
• Range IV (processed products that are vacuum-packed or packed in controlled atmospheres):
These are fresh, cleaned products wrapped in flexible plastic material which sometimes also
require refrigeration
• Range V: Next-generation foods, ready-prepared and packaged after being subjected to saniti-
sation processes to ensure that they are safe and health to eat, and that their texture and all
their original sensory properties remain intact. Their easy, fast regeneration for consumption
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Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
requires no equipment or special training. There is a very wide offer which ranges from basic
dishes to more sophisticated haute-cuisine dishes at affordable prices that can be used just as
they are or as part of what is called "assembly cooking" in which they are used as a basis for
other, more creative preparations (Eroski Consumer 2008)
In a market that is increasingly more complex, consumers are more and more interested in
products that are already prepared for cooking and pre-cooked foods. In other countries, the
marketing of fourth and fifty-range products is now widespread. In general, their quality is similar
to that of foods which can be prepared instantly, but with the added advantage of not having to
cook them. In Spain, this market is not yet ripe.
Fifth-range food products are pre-cooked products with varying shelf lives, depending on
how they are marketed (refrigerated or frozen). They need to be regenerated to be consumed,
i.e., heated in the oven, microwave or using the bain-marie method before eating them, without
the need for any other type of handling.
These new products are made with high-quality raw materials and come in different types
of packaging, such as pasteurised or sterilised, to lengthen their shelf life without the need for
preservatives.
Once in the home or restaurant, all that is necessary is to remove the packaging from the
product and customise it, to suit the taste of the end consumer. Based on studies conducted,
no taste or aroma is lost in the chain, from production to consumption, and all the nutrients are
maintained in full.
Fifth-range products are undergoing a considerable boom in Spain, and reaching the levels
of other countries in which this type of food is well accepted, such as Great Britain or the United
States. This consolidation process is due mainly to changes in lifestyles (less time at home, less
dedication to household chores by families, etc.) and to improvements in the quality and variety
of this type of product. Year after year, the data point to a strong increase in the consumption of
fifth-range products in Spain.
With respect to the hotel and restaurants sector, more and more establishments are deciding
to include fifth-range products in their menus, in order to cut costs while maintaining adequate
levels of quality and reducing expenses in raw materials and cooking time.
The hotel and restaurants sector has realised that a profit is to be made from having the
exact portions required, without running the risk of unsold food spoiling since, in general, fifth-
range products have a long shelf life and the risk of them not being used within that time is quite
small. Furthermore, they are an excellent solution for establishments that want to offer different,
high-quality menus but do not have the appropriate culinary facilities.
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 9 Diversification of products
The development of this range of foods requires many years of research and innovation. In
particular, in designing new machinery and new packaging to achieve end products of the appro-
priate texture and with optimum taste, without forgetting the importance of the final regenera-
tion in the whole process.
They have multiple uses in the hotel and restaurants trade: cook&chill system, and are excep-
tional in catering and banqueting, as this type of food can easily and quickly be transported to any
place. In this way, the options for restaurants are increased considerably, and the raw material has
another method of penetrating the market.
Market trends and their rapid growth allow us to be optimistic with respect to the future of
these products. For this reason it is important to know and work with these new techniques. In
sum, it can be said that the elaboration of fifth-range products allows potential consumers to have
seasonal products at times of the year in which they are not naturally available.
Of course, it is obligatory to set up HACCP and traceability systems (labelling, control of
suppliers, control of risks, waters, facilities, etc.) in the production processes, in accordance with
current legislation. This means a considerably outlay in machinery and the designing of processes.
However, experts agree that companies which are able to reach the end consumer in fifth-range
products at competitive prices are much more likely to be successful.
9.4. Brands (collective brands, guaranteed brands)
Collective and guaranteed brands may be an element that denotes safety and quality and the
responsibility of the producer to win the loyalty of consumers to a guaranteed image, endorsed
by a prestigious concern. In this way, the creation of a brand makes the product stand out in com-
mercial terms and promotes it to a better position in the market, stabilising it and often improving
its price vs. other existing brands, provided that there is in all cases a basis of quality and guarantee
supporting the product, which is what is pursued with the guaranteed and quality brand figures.
Collective brands are brands that cover a group of producers who offer a product with
common characteristics that identify it to consumers as one whose characteristics are completely
homogeneous. It should be said that no differential quality is implicit in a collective brand, and this
is an element adopted by the brand, with the standard and regulation evident in the brand rules.
In this sense, initiatives have been set up, including the creation of brands as “crianza del mar” (sea-
farmed), which is used to denote gilthead sea bream and sea bass with differential quality.
Guaranteed brands are instruments for protecting a potentially large number of brands of di-
verse products from one family (e.g., foods) which safeguard the excellent quality of the products
protected. These brands are usually owned by public entities for the purpose of promoting regio-
nal products, as is the case of “Calidad Certificada” (Certified Quality) in Andalusia, among others.
In such cases, the body supervising compliance with the regulations (the owner of the brand) is
independent from the associated producers.
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Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
In this respect, there are also brands regulated by international standards such as Protected
Designations of Origin (PDO) and Protected Geographical Indications (PGI). There are even
fewer examples in the agricultural sector, but some interesting examples already exist in extensi-
ve aquaculture within the geographical scope of this guide, such as Tench from Pianalto di Poirino
(Italy).
Other systems for certification and differentiation are Integrated Management Systems which
establish, describe, process and document the different working methods and forms on all the
productive levels of a company. The most frequent certifications are the UNE-EN ISO 9001:2008
quality standard, UNE-EN ISO 14001:2004 environmental standard, UNE-EN ISO 22000 Food
Safety Standard and the OHSAS 18001:2007 on occupational safety and health.
Apart from these generic certifications, specific quality standards exist such as UNE
173003:2008 on correct hygienic practices in trout production or UNE 173201:2010 on Correct
Hygienic Practices in mariculture.
Ecological production is an important method of differentiation in production, which has
managed to fill a gap in a market that is in constant growth. Ecological production is based on
good environmental practices, a high level of biodiversity, the conservation of natural resources,
the application of strict regulations on animal welfare and production that is in keeping with the
preferences of certain consumers for products obtained using natural substances and processes.
EC Regulation 66/201 regulates ecological labelling in the EU. The EU ecological labelling criteria
are based on environmental conduct, taking into account the whole life cycle of the products, pur-
suant to the most recent strategic objectives of the Community with respect to the environment.
Each member state designates the competent organisation or organisations inside or outside the
government ministries that will undertake the actions included in the Regulation and guarantee
its operativity.
9.5. Case study: the collective brand “Crianza del Mar”
The collective brand “Crianza del Mar” was set up in 2005. It protects the gilthead sea bream
and sea bass species produced in aquaculture in Spain.
The reasons for establishing this quality brand are the following:
• The establishing of a brand for promoting mariculture products, with the ensuing repercus-
sion on sales
• The objective of being a distinctive brand for gilthead sea bream and sea bass produced in
Spanish aquaculture facilities, as opposed to those from other countries
• Through the implantation of the brand in companies, which entails complying with a series
of strict production, sanitary and environmental requirements, improvements can be brought
about in fish production and marketing processes
• The use of the brand implies the development of aquaculture that shows a respect for the
environment and is in keeping with sustainable development undertakings
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Affiliation to the brand is voluntary and does not entail an obligation for the producers, but it
does mean undertaking to respect a series of quality standards in production processes and a res-
pectful attitude towards the environment. These aspects are considered to be greatly appreciated
by consumers and in short, are intended to improve the commercial position of the producers of
the brand. However, all the above would be useless if not set down in a standard and a disciplinary
system covering the correct use of the brand.

Of all the legal options available for protecting products that deserve to be considered apart,
the most appropriate for this case are those set out in Act 17/2001 of 7 December 2001, on
Brands, and the regulations thereof (Royal Decree 687/2002 of 12 July 2002, approving the exe-
cution of the Brands Act 17/2001, of 7 December 2001). The figures included in this Act are: the
brand (sensu stricto), the collective brand and the guaranteed brand. Of these figures, it was deci-
ded to adopt the Collective Brand due to being the one that was best adapted to the particular
circumstances of the aquaculture sector for gilthead sea bream, sea bass and turbot.

The Collective Brand is a method for “distinguishing the products or services of the members of
an association owning the brand covering the products or services of other companies in the market”
(art. 62.1). This type of brand must be governed by a usage-based regulation which, nonetheless,
does not necessarily include the certification of quality characteristics for the products covered.

9.6. Recommendations
• Continuing research into improvements and more effective conservation methods, whilst
maintaining the sensory and nutritive properties of aquaculture products
• Develop new products with the prevalent condition based on “healthy eating”
• Continue to create guaranteed brands (sensu lato) to optimise the product image and quality
• The development and implementation of specific quality standards for aquaculture

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10. Diversification of markets

10.1. Introduction and background

When aquaculture products are marketed, they are marketed as simply one more aquatic
product.Their competitive advantage or disadvantage has more to do with their intrinsic characte-
ristics than with their aquaculture origin, and factors such as the fact that they are foods and their
availability and price are considered over and above their aquaculture origin.

Many market studies have been conducted7 which indicate that the factors that consumers
take into account the most when buying fish are (1) its appearance (apparent freshness), (2) its
price, (3) its presentation, (4) the species and (5) other available information. Whether or not an
aquatic product is captured or farmed ranks 6th in importance, and is therefore not a relevant
factor in the purchase decision of consumers.

The benefits of aquaculture products must respond correctly to those preferences. The
conducting of detailed market studies is essential for undertaking the diversification of markets
with any degree of success. Even so, the opening up of new markets is a lengthy process which
only yields results in the mid-term.

Since aquaculture is a productive activity subject to considerable controls, in theory it has

more advantages than captured fish in terms of selectively satisfying the demands of consumers.
However, the farming of species in aquaculture also involves restrictions which pose limits on
obtaining ideal products. There are biological limitations, such as the current lack of possibilities of
farming certain species of enormous interest, technical limitations such as the difficulty in subs-
tantially increasing the individual size of each fish, and biological limitations such as the complex
nature of farming fish in which processing gives rise to fewer losses.

The control of production processes in aquaculture animals, particularly their feeding and
reproduction, will, in the near future, enable greater progress to be made in optimising their cha-
racteristics in the eyes of consumers, in keeping with the philosophy of functional foods.

10.2. Orientation to production as opposed to market orientation

Traditionally, aquaculture arose as an activity orientated at production. Faced with the exis-
tence of traditional markets in which the demand for fish was not satisfied due to declining cap-
tures, aquiculture took advantage of the situation to launch similar fish in the market. The efforts
made by aquaculture companies were at that time focused on optimising technical and produc-
tion issues in order to produce larger quantities which the market accepted without any problem.
However, over the years, in view of the progressive market saturation, aquaculture has had to
redirect its efforts towards market development.
7.
Findings from a recent study on perception of aquaculture products in France. AGRIMER. Presented on April 16th,
2010 at an OECD conference. Paris.

91
10 Diversification of markets Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

10.3. Differentiation of products
The strategic positioning of companies must be directed at the market orientation of aqua-
culture. There are two directions or strategies and both are equally valid. Companies can deci-
de to product large volumes and compete in price. This involves using advanced technologies,
applying a cost economy and having a strong commercial organisation.The second option consists
of focusing on finding market gaps, betting on quality, selective marketing and customer service.
sed on age, gender, family size, education and economic possibilities, and others. In addition, other
differentiation factors exist, such as per capita fish consumption, local preferences, consumption
at home as opposed to outside the home, etc. Company strategies must search for the most
appropriate consumer segments and take advantage of differentiation factors in which they have
a competitive advantage over their competitors.
10.5. Diversification of geographical markets

In both cases, a transition has been observed over time from putting generic products on
sale towards putting differentiated products on sale, i.e.., products endorsed by a brand. This is es-
sential aimed at achieving a mental association among consumers between a specific product and
its manufacturer. Product differentiation is essential in opening up new markets, to prevent efforts
in promotion being used by others who produce the same product. This differentiation may be
individual, regional or even national.
Individual differentiation enables companies to take advantage of investments in advertising
and promotion. The recognition of a brand is achieved through the brand logo. In the European
Union, regional differences are usually based on Protected Designations of Origin (PDO) or Pro-
tected Geographical Indications (GDI), as is the case of the PDO of mussels produced in Galicia
(Mexillón de Galicia).
The consumption of aquatic products in certain countries depends on the culture, history,
gastronomic traditions and religious beliefs of those countries. It is a complex task to launch a
new type of fish in a market, whether or not a high quantity of fish is consumed in that market
or whether the consumption of aquatic products is low. Nevertheless, in view of the recognised
nutritional properties of fish and the efforts of governments to increase its consumption, the per
capita intake is increasing, especially in countries where fish is not usually consumed much. All in
all, there are increasing market opportunities.
Each aquatic product market requires fish with different characteristics. In general, in markets
where fish is not traditionally consumed, the acceptance of new fish comes through providing fish
cleaned, filleted and without bones or skin, whereas more mature markets with a greater gastro-
nomic culture of eating fish accept many other formats.

Lastly, national differentiation links the production of a country with the image of that country. The first step to be taken by a company in extending its traditional market is usually taken in
A good example would be marine products from Norway, promoted by the Norwegian Seafood its own country. Knowledge of the language, culture, habits and commercial mechanisms facilitates
this first level of geographical expansion. In large countries, considerable differences may exist in
Exports Council (NORGE). This organisation the consumption of fish in terms of the quantities consumed and the species preferred.
has set up powerful promotions in markets all
over the world for Norwegian salmon, the origin On the other hand, in the eyes of consumers, many fish species are replaceable or interchan-
of which is associated with a series of guaran- geable with others. For instance, white fish may be launched in a market as a substitute for another
tees and quality. better-known species of fish.

10.4. Market segmentation Given the overwhelming number of small or middle-sized companies engaging in aquaculture,
aquaculture producers tend to undertake expansion into new markets on a collective basis, sup-
Any type of market diversification must ported by their national governments. The existence of agencies which promote exportation in
be aimed at placing the correct product in the many countries (for instance the Foreign Trade Institute (ICEX) in Spain) and commercial attachés
correct format in the correct market segment, in embassies often take the first steps in opening up international markets.
at the correct time and at the correct price. In
this respect, it is important to bear in mind that There are many channels for promoting aquaculture products in new geographical markets.
markets are not monolithic or homogeneous, One is worth mentioning, due to its potential and the scant use made of it up to now. Tourism is
but segmented into clearly different parts. Con- a reality that allows many people to explore new countries and gastronomic habits. This can be
Figure 14. Commercial poster for Galician mussels.
sequently, there are certain consumer groups ba- used to advantage to convince tourists of the positive effects of certain species of fish with the
(Source: Mejillón de Galicia website)

92 93
10 Diversification of markets Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

aim of selling them to these tourists once they return home. One example is the positive image The benefits that clients are searching for in aquaculture products are stable, competitive pri-
of the Mediterranean and the Mediterranean diet, which could be impressed on the many millions ces, a long shelf life for the fish along and a regular supply that is predictable in terms of dates and
of tourists who visit Spain, Italy or Greece each year, with the objective of subsequently sending quantities, reliable in logistical terms, homogeneous and certified with respect to quality, uniform in
shipments of gilthead sea bream, sea bass or meagre from the Mediterranean to their homes. respect of sizes and with the necessary hygienic-sanitary controls. On the contrary, the limitations
imposed on aquaculture producers with respect to their clients are the great pressure brought to
10.6. Diversification based on types of market bear on them by large companies, which are in many cases, multinationals, and the marketing of
what are usually generic products, thereby making it easy to change suppliers.
Most aquaculture production on a global scale is aimed at obtaining food for people, in the
form of fish, molluscs, crustaceans and algae. However, other interesting markets exist of different Consumers of aquaculture products are searching for benefits regarding price, nutritional
types, which could be explored by aquaculture products, while making a contribution to aqua- values, freshness and gastronomic quality, ease of preparation for cooking, food safety and respect
culture sustainability. These destinations of production, even though smaller in tonnage terms, are for the environment in production. In addition, the limits posed by the above causes harm to the
usually specialised and can sometimes prove to be extremely profitable. image of aquaculture products and conservative attitudes in accepting new products.
They can be summarised as follows: 10.8.Trust in products for opening up new markets
• Angling
• Environmental repopulation The globalisation factor in the supply of aquatic products has led to the establishing of a
• Aquariums complex certification system, with a view to guaranteeing the characteristics of the products or
• Microalgae as food their production systems to third parties. These guarantee systems aim to overcome the gap that
• Microalgae as fuels exists between producers and marketers, or between producers and consumers.
• Scientific research
• Pharmaceuticals Certification is particularly relevant as a tool for opening up new markets, given the presence
• Using fish processes waste of modern commercial structures. Compliance with the certification requirements leads to faster
acceptance of the products. The aspects they cover vary from environmental, social and animal
10.7. Identification of targets welfare issues to food safety issues. These certifications are targeted at the producer’s clients and
also at consumers. In the first case, reference is often made to B2B (Business to Business) certi-
In planning expansion in new markets, there is no room for error. To that end, it is essential to ficates and usually consists of guarantees regarding the characteristics of the fish which include
clearly identify the targets in each activity. In this respect, the figure of the client must be distinguis- freshness, composition of the feed, veterinary treatments permitted and others.
hed from that of the consumer. The client or marketer is the intermediary who buys the farmed
fish and then supplies it to consumers. On the other hand, the consumer is the final recipient in In the second case, they are known as B2C (Business to Consumer) certifications and usually
the marketing chain. provide guarantees about the production methods, in terms of environmental protection, social
In negotiating their pur- justice or animal welfare. The present collection of Guides on the Sustainable Development of
chases, clients look for different Mediterranean Aquaculture undertook an exhaustive study of the certifications topic in its third
characteristics to those sought issue8, and established their importance as tools for the sustainable development of aquaculture.
by consumers, but the satisfac-
tion of future consumers is also 10.9. Case study: Norway in action in the markets
a necessary prerequisite for the
client. Making a clear distinction The opening up of new markets requires not only an important monetary outlay, but also
between these differences is of highly qualified professionals and organisations. One of the most reputed organisations in this
vital importance in all situations,
Photograph 9. Gilthead sea bream in point of sale © Javier Ojeda 8.
UICN (2010). Guide for the Sustainable Development of Mediterranean Aquaculture 3.
above all, in new markets. Aquaculture: Responsible Practices and Certification. IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Málaga, Spain. vi+78 pages.

94 95
10 Diversification of markets

sense is NORGE (the Norwegian Seafood Exports Council), which was set up in 1991. Norway
exports fish farmed in aquaculture and in the wild to 150 countries. Farmed salmon is its star pro-
duct. Every year, NORGE draws up a report on its activities in more than 20 different markets. Its
headquarters are in Tromso (Norway) and it has offices in China, Japan, Russia, Germany, France,
Italy, Spain, Portugal, Singapore and Brazil.

NORGE organises advertising campaigns in stores and restaurants, inserts ads in the local
press, carries out communication activities and takes part in organising activites for consumers and
distributors. All these activities are paid for by the Norwegian aquaculture producers and fisheries.

The mission of NORGE is to foster competitiveness in the Norwegian aquaculture sector

and fisheries. Another of its activities is to provide information for its members.

The NORGE website (www.seafoodfromnorway.com) is offered in 12 languages and con-

tains fish recipes, tips about purchasing and cooking, information about products and company
contact data.

Figure 15. Detail of the NORGE website (Source: NORGE

website)

10.10. Recommendations
• The diversification of markets offers important sustainability elements in aquaculture
• The competitiveness of an aquaculture product depends on how it responds to consumer
preferences. In this respect, the most relevant issues are apparent freshness, price, presenta-
tion and species
• Diversification should be based on market-development strategies, focusing on the study,
analysis and promotion thereof

96
 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

11. Appendixes

11.1. Abbreviations

FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations

R+D+i Research, development and innovation.

ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management
GIS Geographic Information System
ICV lInstituto Cartográfico Valenciano (Cartographic Institute of Valencia)
SA Sociedad Anónima (Public Limited Company)
SCI Site of Community Interest
IMTA Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture
JACUMAR Junta Asesora de Cultivos Marinos (National Mariculture Advisory Board)
APROMAR Asociación Empresarial de Productores de Cultivos Marinos (Spanish Association of Mariculture Producers)
EU European Union
EC European Comission
IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
t. Tons
m. Metre
l. Litre
ml. Millilitre
g Gram
mg Milligram
FAWC Farm Animal Welfare Council
Sq. M. Square metre
Cu. m. Cubic metre
WWTE Wastewater Treatment Equipment
Kg. Kilograms
ºC Degrees centigrade
h. Hours
mm. Millimetre
Sq. cm Square centimetre
ppm Parts per million
Ha. Hectare
TAP Transformed Animal Proteins
Kcal. Kilocalories
art. Article
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PDO Protected Designation of Origin
PGI Protected Geographical Indication
UICN International Union for Conservation of Nature

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11 Appendixes Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

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11.3. Information about the authors
Francisco J. Espinós Gutiérrez. Head Professor of the Animal Science Department at Valencia
Polytechnic University (UPV). Director of the UPV ACUMA (Aquaculture and the Environment)
Research Group, Director of RIIA-CV (Aquaculture Industries Innovation Network Association in
the Region of Valencia) and Director of the DIBAQ-UPV Aquaculture Chair.
Francisco J. Ruiz Sánchez. He obtained a B. Sc. and Ph. D. in Biological Science from Valencia
University and is the author of one hundred scientific communications. He occupied different
posts in Valencia Regional Environmental and Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Department bet-
ween 1992 and 2007. He is an Expert at the Association of Fish Farming Companies of Valencia
(AVEMPI). Between 2008 and 2010 he acted as the Representative of the Pescaplus Mediterrea-
nean Office (Innovamar Foundation – Valencia Polytechnic University) and has been an Associate
Professor at Valencia University since 1999.
Manuel Segarra Mañes. He obtained a degree in Technical Agricultural Engineering, specia-
lising in Livestock Farming in 2009 from Valencia Polytechnic University and has a specialisation
scholarship at the ACUMA Research Group in the same University, mainly in the environmental,
fisheries and aquaculture fields. He has taken part in implementing and executing regional and
national projects.
Jerónimo Chirivella Martorell. He has a Ph. D. in Biology from Valencia University, and is
Technical Director in the company Alevines del Mediterráneo S.L.U., which engages in providing
nursery facilities for gilthead sea bream and sea bass in closed circuits. He is a university lecturer
in the aquaculture and fisheries area, at the Sea Sciences department of the Catholic University
of St. Vicent the Martyr in Valencia.
Evaristo L. Mañanós Sanchez. He has a Ph. D in Biology from Valencia University (1993)
and has worked as a Full-time Scientist by the Spanish National Scientific Council (CSIC) at the
Aquaculture Institute of Torre la Sal (IATS) in Castellón since 2001. He has cooperated as a joint
investigator in the “Center of Marine Biotechnology” (Baltimore, MD, USA; 1994-1996) and at
Rennes University (France, between 1997-1998). He is currently responsible for the research
group “Endcrinology in the reproduction of fish and diversification of aquaculture” at IATS.
Eduardo Soler Torres. (1960). He has a Ph. D. in Biology from Valencia University (1996), and
has devoted most of his professional career to studying the marine environment and to aquacul-
ture, initially in the Hydraulic Engineering Dept. of Valencia Polytechnic University and from 1999
as Technical Director of PISCIMAR S.L., and from 2010 as Quality and Environmental Manager in
GRUPO ANDRÓMEDA. He continues to hold this post at the present time.
José Luis Muñoz. He has a Degree in Biology from Seville University. At present he is em-
ployed by El Toruño Centre, at the Institute of Research and Training in Agriculture and Fisheries
107
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of the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries of the Regional Government of Andalusia, where
his functions include research, transfer and training in aquaculture. He has published several stu-
dies in specialised congresses and journals and is a member of the Spanish Aquaculture Society
Management Council.
Clive Dove. He has a Degree in Marine Science from Cádiz University and is currently un-
dertaking Ph. D. studies at Valencia Polytechnic University. His current occupation is Project Ma-
nager in the Fisheries and Agriculture Division of the INNOVAMAR Foundation and he has wide
experience in fish farming in different public and private facilities in the Region of Valencia. He is a
member of the aquaculture work group and group of representatives of the Spanish Technological
Fisheries and Aquaculture Platform (STFAP) and of the Knowledge Management Thematic Area
of the European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation Platform (EATIP) work group.
Rodolfo Barrera Orozco. He has a Ph. D in Veterinary Science and is the Managing Director
of Valenciana de Acuicultura, S.A. He has been working on closed-circuit systems for more than 26
years and has directed or taken part in 30 30 research projects in Spain and overseas. He is the
author of 42 scientific publications and congress reports and is deeply committed to the aqua-
culture sector. He is President of the Association of Fish Farming Companies of Valencia, of the
Spanish Federation of Health Defence Groups, of the Region of Valencia Health Defence Group
and of the Innovation Network in Aquaculture Industries.
Rubén Tahiche Lacomba Sobrino. He has a Degree in Biology from Valencia University
(1992-1997) and training as a polyvalent ship’s captain, yacht captain, 2-star diver, level 1 survival
at sea, level 1 fire fighting skills, occupational risk prevention and sailing skills. He is current Mana-
ging Director of Andrómeda Ibérica Group s.a.
Sebastià Balasch i Parisi. He is a Professor in the Department of Statistics and Operational
Research applied to Quality at Valencia Polytechnic University and is the author of many scientific
communications (published in Spanish and international journals specialising in ISI, congress re-
ports, conferences, etc.) and has taken part in many projects financed in public and private calls.
José Luis Tejedor del Real, (Segovia, 1979). He has a Ph. D. in Veterinary Science from
Madrid Complutense University and has spent time at the Center for Fish Diseases, Oregon
(USA) and DPIWE, Tasmania (Australia). He was awarded a scholarship by the Animal Health
Laboratories VISAVET at Madrid Complutense University where he focused his research on Me-
diterranean aquaculture, Mediterranean ictiopathology and molecular biology. He is current Head
of the R+D+i department of Grupo DIBAQ and coordinator of the project CENIT ACUISOST
“Sustainable Aquaculture”.
Jordi López Ramón. He has a Degree in Veterinary Science from CEU San Pablo Universi-
ty of Valencia and is currently Technical Veterinary Director of the Aquaculture Health Defence
Group of the Region of Valencia (ADS ACUIVAL) and coordinator of the Technical Committee of
the Spanish Federation for Health Defence in Aquaculture (SFHDA).
108
Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability
José María Santiago Sáez. He has a Degree in Biology and since 1990, has worked as a con-
sultant in the environmental, fisheries and aquaculture fields. He has participated in executing
and managing more than 200 projects. He is the Founder Partner and Director of the company
Estudios Biológicos, and currently works as an independent consultant for different public ad-
ministrations and companies from the private sector. He has executed missions in Spain and in
Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Namibia, Mozambique) and South America (Peru, Bolivia and
Colombia)
Javier Ojeda González-Posada. He has a Degree in Biology and a Master’s Degree in Ocea-
nography and has fourteen years’ experience in mariculture fish- farming companies in Spain, the
USA, and Ireland. Since 2003 he has been working as Managing Director of the Spanish Associa-
tion of Mariculture Producers (APROMAR). He works for the General Spanish State Administra-
tion, Regional Authorities and trade union organisations and national and European organisations.
He is known in particular for his work performed for the European Commission on the Fisheries
and Agriculture Consultative Committee, for the European Parliament, the FAO and the Euro-
pean Federation of Aquaculture Producers (FEAP)
Luis Ambrosio Blázquez. He has a Degree in Biology and since 1989, has worked as a con-
sultant on fisheries, aquaculture and marine biosphere topics. He is currently Managing Director
of the consultant firm Proyectos Biológicos y Técnicos s.l. (PROBITEC). In relation to Fisheries and
Agriculture, he has collaborated with different public administrations and companies from the pri-
vate sector, and in particular, with respect to work on fisheries executed for the General Marine
Secretariat related to extractive fishing, subsidies, marketing and improvements in the quality of
fishery products and the environmental interactions of fishing and socio-economic impact of the
fishing industry, etc. He has also taken part in international cooperation projects and missions in
Africa and in South America for the Spanish Agency of International Cooperation for Develop-
ment.
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GOBIERNO MINISTERIO
DE ESPAÑA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE,
Y MEDIO RURAL Y MARINO