Abraham, Minkowski

and “Hidden” Mechanical Momentum

Kirk T. McDonald
Joseph Henry Laboratories, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
(June 6, 2012; updated September 25, 2014)

1 Problem
Discuss the relation of “hidden” mechanical momentum to the so-called Abraham-Minkowski
debate1 as to the significance of the expressions E × H/4πc and D × B/4πc for “electromag-
netic” momentum (in Gaussian units), where c is the speed of light in vacuum.

2 Solution
In 1903 Max Abraham noted [2] that the Poynting vector [3], which describes the flow of
energy in the electromagnetic field,
c
S= E × H, (1)
4π
when divided by c2 has the additional significance of being the density of momentum stored
in the electromagnetic field,2

(A) E×H
pEM = (Abraham). (2)
4πc
Of course, D = E + 4πP and H = B − 4πM, where P and M are the densities of electric
and magnetic polarization, respectively.
In 1908 Hermann Minkowski gave an alternative derivation [9] that the electromagnetic-
momentum density is3,4

(M) D×B
pEM = (Minkowksi), (3)
4πc
and the debate over the merits of these two expressions continues to this day. Minkowski
died before adding to the debate, while Abraham published several times on it [13]. For
1
This debate has been characterized by Ginzburg as a “perpetual problem” [1].
2
J.J. Thomson wrote the electromagnetic momentum as D × H/4πc in 1891 [4] and again in 1904 [5].
This form was also used Poincaré in 1900 [6], following Lorentz’ convention [7] that the force on electric
charge q be written q(D + v/c × H) and that the Poynting vector is (c/4π) D × H. For discussion of these
forms, see, for example, [8].
3
Heaviside gave the form (3) in 1891, p. 108 of [10], and a derivation (1902) essentially that of Minkokwski
on pp. 146-147 of [11].
4
See also, for example, sec. 2.1 of [12].

1
recent reviews, see [14, 15, 16].5
A general consensus has emerged that the Abraham momentum (2) is indeed the mo-
mentum stored in the electromagnetic field,6 while the Minkowski momentum (3) includes
the momentum of matter that interacts with the electromagnetic fields.7 This suggests that
the quantity,
    
(A−M) (M) (A) D×B−E×H P×B+E×M
Phidden ≡ pEM − pEM dVol = dVol = dVol, (4)
4πc c
has the significance of mechanical momentum “hidden” within the system. We can also
identify an Abraham-Minkowski angular momentum as
  
(A−M) D×B−E×H P×B+E×M
L (A−M)
≡ r× phidden dVol = r× dVol = r× dVol. (5)
4πc c

2.1 Another Version of “Hidden” Mechanical Momentum

The term “hidden” mechanical momentum is more commonly associated with a different
context, first noted by Shockley [20], in which a system whose center of mass/energy is at
rest but for which the electromagnetic field momentum,

E×B
PEM = dVol , (6)
4πc
is nonzero. The total momentum of such a system must be zero [21], so there must be an
equal an opposite “hidden” mechanical momentum8,9

E×B
Phidden = −PEM = − dVol , (7)
4πc
The electromagnetic field angular momentum is given by

E×B
LEM = r× dVol , (8)
4πc
5
When dealing with waves of angular frequency ω in a dispersive medium with index n(ω) it is useful
to introduce the quantity ng = c/vg = c dk/dω = d(ωn)/dω = n + ω dn/dω, which is sometimes called the
group-velocity index. This velocity is positive in a passive medium, but can be negative in a gain medium
[17]. The emerging consensus [12, 14, 15, 16] is that the Abraham momentum density corresponds to the
momentum of a photon of angular frequency ω in a medium of group-velocity index ng being h̄ω/cng , and
is sometimes call the kinetic momentum density. The Minkowski momentum density corresponds to the
momentum n2 h̄ω/cng of a photon of angular frequency ω, and is sometimes called the pseudomomentum or
the quasimomentum. The momentum of a photon most often used in quantum theory is h̄k = nh̄ω k̂/c, which
is often called the canonical momentum. In a nondispersive medium with n > 0 the Minkowski momentum
is the same as the canonical momentum. For discussion of negative-index materials, see [18].
6
However, this author considers that the field-only momentum is given by eq. (6).
7
A similar issue arises in acoustics, where one sometimes speaks of the “pseudomomentum” of sound
waves, which is analogous to the Minkowski momentum in electrodynamics. See [19] and references therein.
8
For more commentary by the author on this type of “hidden” mechanical momentum, see [22].
9
Classical systems with nonzero “hidden” mechanical momentum have moving parts, as noted in [23]. If
magnetic charges existed, a system of static electric and magnetic charges would have no “hidden” mechanical
momentum, and its total field momentum must also be zero.

2
which can be nonzero for a system whose center of mass/energy is at rest.10 In general,

LEM = rcm × Phidden, (9)

but see [25] for an example in which “hidden” angular momentum is relevant.

2.2 Linear, Isotropic Media

In linear, isotropic media (at rest) the polarizations are related to the electromagnetic fields
via scalar susceptibilities according to

P = χE E, M = χM H, (10)

such that the electromagnetic fields are related via the scalar permittivity  and permeability
μ according to

D = E + 4πP = (1 + 4πχE )E ≡ E, B = H + 4πM = (1 + 4πχM )H ≡ μH, (11)

In general, χE , χM ,  and μ vary with position.

For linear, isotropic media (at rest) in which  and μ are constant in space,
   
(A−M) D×B−E×H 1 E×B
Phidden = dVol = − dVol
4πc μ 4πc
  
1 E×B E×B
= − dVol + dVol. (12)
μ medium 4πc elsewhere 4πc

Only in very special cases could be have


(A−M) E×B
Phidden =− dVol (very special case). (13)
everywhere 4πc

Hence, in linear, isotropic media (at rest) there is no general relation between the Abraham-
Minkowski “hidden” momentum (4) and the “hidden” mechanical momentum (7) of Shock-
ley.

2.3 Examples with Permanent Polarization

In some examples with permanent polarization we do find the two versions, (4) and (7), of
“hidden” momentum to be equal.
10
A famous example of nonzero field angular momentum is Feynman’s disk paradox, one version of which
is reviewed in sec. 2.3.2. For other general considerations of field energy, momentum and angular momentum,
see [24].

3
2.3.1 Romer’s Example
Following Romer [26], we consider a spherical shell of radius a with surface charge density
proportional to cos θ (with respect to the z-axis), such that the charge distribution has
electric dipole moment p and the electric field E has the form
⎧
⎪
⎨ − ap3 (r < a),
E= (14)
⎪
⎩ 3(p·r̂)r̂−p
r3
(r > a),

for which the tangential component of E is continuous across r = a. The system also includes
an electrically neutral spherical shell of radius b with surface currents proportional to sin θ
(with respect to the z  -axis), such that the current distribution has magnetic dipole moment
m, and the magnetic field B has the form
⎧
⎪
⎨ 2m
3 b
(r < b),
B= (15)
⎪
⎩ 3(m·r̂)r̂−m
r3
(r > b),

for which the normal component of B is continuous across r = b. The system is in vacuum.
We consider the case that a > b.
The usual argument in vacuum is that the electromagnetic-field momentum PEM can be
computed as

(A) (M) E×B
PEM = PEM = PEM = dVol
4πc
 
−p × 2m −p × [3(m · r̂)r̂ − m]
= 3 3
dVol + dVol
r<b 4πa b c b<r<a 4πa3r3 c

[3(p · r̂)r̂ − p] × [3(m · r̂)r̂ − m]
+ dVol
r>a 4πr6 c
2p × m p × m a p × m a 2p × m p × m
= − − ln + ln − +
3a3 c a3 c b a3 c b 3a3 c 3a3 c
m×p
= . (16)
a3 c
If a < b the result is PEM = m × p/b3c.
This system is at rest and must have zero total momentum [21]. Hence, we infer that the
system also contains “hidden” mechanical momentum,
p×m
Phidden = −PEM = , (17)
a3 c
when a > b.
Rather than supposing the fields to be due to free charge and current, we can consider
the case that there exists uniform electric polarization density P = 3p/4πa3 for r < a, and
uniform magnetic polarization density M = 3m/4πb3 for r < b. The sphere of radius a is
now an electret, and the sphere of radius b is a permanent magnet. Then, the fields E and B
are identical to those of eqs. (14)-(15), so we suppose that the field-only momentum is still

4
given by eq. (16).11 and that the system contains “hidden” mechanical momentum (17).12
Hence, for a > b,
  
(A−M) D×B−E×H P×B E×M
Phidden = dVol = dVol + dVol
4πc r<a c r<b c
  
3p × 2m 3p × [3(m · r̂)r̂ − m] −p × 3m
= 3 3
dVol + 3 3
dVol + dVol
r<b 4πa b c b<r<a 4πa r c r<b 4πa3 b3 c
p×m
= = Phidden. (18)
a3 c
Similarly, for a < b,
(A−M) p×m
Phidden = = Phidden. (19)
b3 c
Note that the total Abraham momentum is zero,13 as computed for a > b,
  
(A) E×H E×B E×M m×p p×m
PEM = dVol = dVol − dVol = + = 0, (20)
4πc 4πc c a3 c a3 c
while the total Minkowski momentum is
  
(M) D×B E×B P×B m × p 2p × m
PEM = dVol = dVol + dVol = +
4πc 4πc c a3 c a3 c
p×m
= = Phidden = −PEM . (21)
b3 c
In the language of “hidden momentum” as considered in [22], both the electromagnetic
field and the “mechanical” subsystem have nonzero “hidden” mommentum, related by
(field only) (M) (A−M)
PEM,hidden = −Pmech,hidden = PEM = PEM = −PEM,hidden. (22)

2.3.2 Sharma’s Version of the Feynman Disk Paradox

Consider a sphere of radius a with electric charge Q uniformly distributed throughout its
interior, charge −Q uniformly distributed over its surface, and surface currents proportional
to sin θ (with respect to the z-axis) such that the magnetic dipole moment is m = m ẑ [27].
The electric and magnetic fields have the forms
⎧
⎪
⎨ Q3r
a
(r < a),
E= (23)
⎪
⎩ 0 (r > a),
11
This reflects the “physicist” view that the B field rather than the H field is “the” magnetic field. If
magnetic charges existed, the H field would play a more fundamental role, but since all known magnetic
fields appear to be generated by (Ampèrian) electrical currents the B field is the more basic one. As such, I
do not consider that the Abraham momentum (1) to be the field-only momentum.
12
A classical permanent magnet would have to involve current loops, rather than intrinsic, quantum
electron magnetic moments.
13
This result reinforces my view that the now-common interpretation is not correct, that the Abraham
momentum is the momentum  associated with the fields alone. Rather, it seems to me that the field-only
momentum is PEM = E × B dVol/4πc.

5
and
⎧
⎪
⎨ 2m 2m ẑ
3a
= a3
(r < a),
B=⎪ (24)
⎩ 3(m·r̂)r̂−m (r > a).
r3

The electromagnetic-field momentum is zero in this case, but the electromagnetic-field an-
gular momentum is nonzero,
 
E×B Q r × 2m ẑ
LEM = r× dVol = r×
dVol
4πc r<a 4πa6c
  1
Qm a 4 4Qm
= 6
r dr (cos2 θ − 1) ẑ d cos θ = − ẑ . (25)
a c 0 −1 15ac
The charge and current distributions could be replaced by electric polarization P =
−Q r/4πa3 = −E/4π and magnetic polarization M = 3m/4πa3 = 3m ẑ/4πa3 = 3B/8π for
r < a, such that the E and B fields are still given by eqs. (23)-(24). Then, according to
eq. (4) the Abraham-Minkowski “hidden” momentum is
 
(A−M) P×B+E×M 1 E×B PEM
Phidden = dVol = dVol = = 0, (26)
c 2 4πc 2
and according to eq. (5) the Abraham-Minkowski angular momentum is
 
P×B+E×M 1 E×B LEM 2Qm
L(A−M) = r× dVol = r× dVol = =− ẑ. (27)
c 2 4πc 2 15ac
Suppose now the sphere is heated such that the magnetization M goes to zero over time,
but the electric polarization P remains constant [28]. As the magnetic field B decreases
(quasistatically) an azimuthal electric field E is induced, whose value for r ≤ a is14
r sin θ dBz r sin θ dm
Eφ (r ≤ a) = − =− 3 . (28)
2c dt a c dt
The electric field E exerts a torque on the surface and volume electric charge distributions,
σ = P(r = a) · r̂ = −Q/4πa2 and ρ = −∇ · P = 3Q/4πa3, respectively,
 
 2Q dm 2Q dm 4Q dm
τ = r × σE dArea + r × ρE dVol =
3
ẑ − 3 ẑ = ẑ. (29)
r=a r<a 3a c dt 5a c dt 15a3 c dt
Assuming that the sphere is free to rotate about the z-axis, the torque τ will cause it to
rotate. Once the magnetization has dropped to zero (Δm = −m), the angular momentum
of the bulk rotation will be

4Q 4Qm
Lrotation = τ dt = Δm ẑ = − ẑ. (30)
15a3 c 15a3 c
The final angular momentum (30) (when the field-related angular momentum has dropped to
zero) of the bulk rotation must be equal to the initial angular momentum. The field angular
momentum (25) does equal the final angular momentum (30), so we infer that there is no
physical significance to the “hidden” angular momentum (27). This brings into question
whether the Abraham-Minkowski “hidden” momentum (4) is physically significant.
14
A separate question is what happens to the energy initially stored in the magnetic field? Some, but not
all, of the energy is radiated away by the time-dependent magnetic dipole moment, as discussed in sec. 2.7
of [29] for current-loop magnetic dipoles.

6
2.3.3 “Point” Dipoles in External Fields
A “point” electric dipole moment p at rest in an external (Ampèrian) magnetic field B has
“hidden” mechanical momentum
 
E×B ρA qB p×B
Phidden = − dVol = − dVol = − × (d+ − d− ) = , (31)
4πc c 2c 2c
supposing the magnetic field has vector potential A = B×r/2 as for a long solenoid.[30],15,16
A“point” (Ampèrian) magnetic dipole moment m at rest in an external electric field E
has “hidden” mechanical momentum [32]
 
E×B VJ m×E
Phidden = − dVol = − dVol = . (32)
4πc c c
We can associate these moments (taken to be at the origin) with polarization densities
P = p δ 3(r) and M = m δ 3(r).
For the case of the electric dipole, D = E + 4πP, H = B, and hence,
 
(A−M) D×B−E×H P×B p×B
Phidden = dVol = dVol = = 2Phidden, (33)
4πc c c
while for the case of the magnetic dipole, D = E, H = B − 4πM, and hence,
 
(A−M) D×B−E×H E×M m×E
Phidden = dVol = − dVol = = Phidden. (34)
4πc c c
Note that the total Abraham momentum vanishes for the magnetic dipole,
  
(A) E×H E×B E×M E×m m×E
PEM = dVol = dVol − dVol = + = 0. (35)
4πc 4πc c c c
In the language of “hidden momentum” as considered in [22], both the electromagnetic
field and the “mechanical” subsystem have nonzero “hidden” mommentum, related by
(field only) (M) (A−M)
PEM,hidden = −Pmech,hidden = PEM = PEM = −PEM,hidden. (36)

Appendix: “Hidden” Mechanical Energy

Can we identify a “hidden” mechanical energy which is time component of a “hidden”
4-energy/momentum vector whose spatial components are “hidden” mechanical momentum
3-vector? The answer is NO, as discussed in [33]. Here, we consider another possible meaning
to “hidden” energy.
It is commonly considered that the expression,
E2 + B2
uμEM = , (37)
8π
15
The “hidden” mechanical momentum in this case is associated with the moving charges that produce
the magnetic field B.
16
For discussion of the alternative expressions for the electromagnetic field momentum used in eqs. (31)-
(32), see [31].

7
describes only the energy stored in the electromagnetic fields, while the density
E·D+B·H
uMaxwell
EM = , (38)
8π
includes the mechanical energy of the charges/currents that interact with the fields.17
Could we say that

E · D + B · H − E2 − B2 ?
= Uhidden. (39)
8π
For quasistatic situations, the energy (39) is largely associated with elastic potential
energy, rather than kinetic energy, and so is not obvious that this energy is the counterpart
of “hidden” mechanical momentum.

Acknowledgment
The author thanks Daniel Cross, David Griffiths, Vladimir Hnizdo and Daniel Vanzella for
e-discussions leading to this note.

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17
The form (38) was introduced in sec. 72 of [34], but Maxwell had only a vague understanding of electric
charge and current and did consider that this form included the kinetic energy of the charges/currents. See
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8
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[19] K.T. McDonald, “Hidden” Momentum in a Sound Wave (Oct. 31, 2007),
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 3
d x E×B/4πc

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10
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11