Introduction

Baculoviridae is a family of viruses that are found in arthropods (insects),

Lepidoptera (moths, butterflies), hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, bees and
ants), diptera (flies) and decapoda (crabs, lobsters, shrimp). The
baculovirus must be ingested by the insect to be fatal. There are 49
species in the Baculoviridae family divided in 4 genera. These viruses are
excellent for species-specific, narrow spectrum insecticidal applications
and thus represent effective biopesticides. They have been shown to have
no negative impacts on plants, mammals, birds, fish, or even on non-
target insects.

Baculovirus Structure

The name Baculo refers to the rod-shaped capsids of the virus particles.
Baculovirus capsids are 40-50nm in diameter and 200-400nm in length,
which enclose the DNA along with the predominant protein called p6.9.
The DNA genome is circular and double-stranded. The two baculoviruses
commonly studied and used for expression vector work are Autographa
californica multicapsid nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV) and
Bombyx mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus (BmNPV). AcMNPV was
originally isolated from a lepidopteran called alfalfa looper.

Two Forms of Virions

The baculovirus replication cycle is complex and involves two types of

virions. The environmentally stable (adapted for stability outside the host
insect) but alkali-soluble occlusion body, and occluded virions that have
an envelope and associated proteins that allow survival and infection in
the harsh alkaline midgut environment. Upon release from occlusion
bodies, the virions are called occlusion-derived virus (ODV). Occlusion
derived virus (ODV) is surrounded by a protein matrix (polyhedrin or
granulin) and is responsible for the primary infection of the host. The
other virus type, budded virions (BV) have an envelope distinct from
ODV that facilitates systemic infection (from cell to cell spreading to
whole system). The budded virus (BV) is released from the infected host
cells later during the secondary infection.
Lifecycle of Baculovirus

The baculovirus infection can be split into 3 phases, early (0-6

hours post infection), late (6-24 hpi) and very late phase (18-24
to 72 hpi). A common feature of the life cycle of all baculoviruses is the
presence of virions embedded in occlusion bodies that are produced in the final
stage of the replication cycle and are released upon the death and
disintegration of the insect. Occlusion bodies serve to stabilize the virus in the
environment and are normally only dissolved under alkaline conditions. High
pH environments are rarely, if ever, encountered in most ecosystems and
normally are only found in the midguts of some susceptible insects.

The infection occurs when a host insect feeds on plants that have been contaminated with
occlusion bodies.Thealkaline conditions of the midgut of larvae cause the
dissolution of the occlusion bodies by proteinases in the gut and the release of
the ODV which bind to the columnal epithelial cells of the midgut lining releasing
nucleocapsids into the cell cytoplasm.

Once inside, the nucleocapsids are transported to the nucleus where they are replicated in
preparation to form budded virus. The BV initiates the secondary infection spreading
systematically through the cells.

In the later stages of the infection the occlusion derived form of the virus is produced. The
occlusion bodies are released when the cells lyse. The lysis caused by the infection is
extensive effectively causing the host insect to melt.

One common feature of baculovirus infection is to cause a “zombie effect” in the host insect,
which is also called ‘’wandering behaviour’’. This causes the insect to wander up the plant
before lysis to maximise dispersal of the virus during disintegration of the host insect. These
released viruses to cause the subsequent contamination of lower vegetation which could result in
the infection of additional insect hosts.

BACULOVIRUSES AS BIOPESTICIDES

Baculoviruses have been recognized as possessing the ability to develop into potential
biopesticides used to kill specific insects which pose a threat to many agricultural crops and forest
trees. Despite the widespread interest and intrinsic attractiveness of their application, the
acceptance and use of viruses for insect control has been limited. This can be attributed to
their slow speed of kill(delays in the death of the host result in more vegetation being consumed by
the infected insect.),

their limited host range (such that one preparation can only be used on a few insects),

labor intensive nature of baculovirus production  high cost

and to a certain degree, the complexity of producing standardized viral preparations.

A variety of recombinant viruses have been investigated that have been designed to enhance the
efficacy of the virus by reducing the time it takes to kill target insects or by causing the cessation of
feeding. These recombinants express insect specific toxins, insect hormones or enzymes.

Formulation

Most baculovirus products are produced in the form of concentrated wettable

powders. Methods used are spray after dilution. UV protectants such as metallic
oxides are also added to the virus formulation to prevent inactivation of the virus
by UV radiation,

Method of application

Most baculoviruses are applied as sprays, with the spray-droplet size playing a key
factor. Smaller droplets give a better surface coverage on the foliage, thus
increasing the chances of an insect encountering a virus-containing droplet. Other
application techniques are the release of infected insects in the field; or application
as baculovirus dusts to stored product pests, where water-based sprays might pose a
problem by encouraging the growth of fungi in stores; or application as baits

Pest biology
A virus will generally fail in the field if it is not applied at the right place and at the
right time. For Lepidopteran pests, the larval stage is damaging to crops, with
most of the damage being done in the final two instars, so the baculovirus must
be applied at the larval stage.