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FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION

Education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes. It is not only a preparation for life but it is life
itself. This is so because throughout man’s life, he learns many things, may it be formally or informally. The
components in the educative process are the learner, the teaching-learning process, the teacher and the policy
maker. The most important of these is the learner who occupies the center stage in the educational system.

Foundation is a base upon which any structure or system stands. A strong foundation makes the structure or a
system firmly established and strong enough to be able to serve its purpose.

This course Foundations of Education covers the six foundations of education: psychological, sociological,
anthropological, historical, philosophical and legal bases.

Psychology is the study of human behavior, of how person acts and reacts under different situations,
consciously or unconsciously, mentally, physiologically, physically, overtly, or covertly. It is the study of man’s
reactions to life’s simulation.

Sociology deals with study of human beings living in groups, of how people act and interact under different
social situations, and how they relate themselves to one social situation, and how they relate themselves to
one another. Terms that indicate group actions are used here such as cooperate, team work, sociable, conflict,
etc.

Anthropology is the study of civilizations and cultures of people: their origins, customs, traditions, beliefs,
mores, folkways, and practices. This also includes languages, forms of writings, tools and weapons, buildings
and other physical structures.

History is the study of past events that makes us understand the present situation, and to enable us to predict
future events.

Philosophy is a systematized truth or principles that serve as guide for conduct or thinking. Philosophy is a
fixed idea or principle arrived at after a very rigid scrutiny or study of the state of things, situations, or events.

Legality refers to the conformity to the laws passed by the State to establish and guide the conduct of an
educational system. The Constitution is the most important legal document that establishes and guides in
understanding the educational system of any country. It contains the philosophy of education of any country.

The Psychological Foundations of Education

It is said that education depends on psychology because the kind and amount of education that the
learner acquires is conditioned by the psychological traits such as general mental abilities, aptitudes,
temperaments, interests, effort making capacity, physical condition etc, hence the principles of education are
basically based on psychology.

The Learner
Teaching and learning are psychological processes. There are three components of the educative
process which have been the concern of both psychologists and teachers. These are the learner, the learning
process, and the learning situation. This module discusses the principles of growth and development, the
learner’s stages of development and the different theories of development.

Understanding Growth and Development

The terms growth and development have been continually used in most readings in psychology. Many
times, these terms are used interchangeably; although in certain respects both terms, though parallel, imply
different definitions.

Growth essentially refers to quantitative changes in an individual as he progresses in chronological age. It

may refer to increases in size, height, or weight.

Development, on the other hand, refers to the progressive series of change of an orderly and coherent type
leading to the individual’s maturation. This definition implies that for development to be progressive, there is a
direction in the manner in which changes occur. Development is also coherent, essentially because the
sequence of changes that occur are related to each other and do not occur haphazardly or abruptly.
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Factors in Growth and Development

Two general factors influence human development; namely, 1) maturation or natural growth resulting
from heredity; and 2) environmental influences in and through which the growing takes place. These two
factors are so thoroughly interrelated that it is impossible to isolate their specific influences.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

From numerous studies conducted on growth and development, developmental psychologists have
established some basic principles of developmental change that occur over the life cycle.

1. Development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable.

The developmental process, guided by the interaction of maturation and learning, follows a predictable
pattern. It is a continuous process that proceeds according to a definite direction and uniform pattern
throughout the life cycle. Developmental change continues as long as life continues. They have never occurred
in reverse. Predictable sequence is also observable in the phylogenetic skills – those skills which are
universally of the human race.

2. The rate of development is unique to each individual

Developmental changes follow a predictable pattern, the rate at which changes may occur may be
different from one individual to another. Such differences in rate of change are determined by the interaction of
heredity and environmental factors.

3. Development involves change.

This principle implies that the human being is always evolving based on theories by developmental
psychologists. As stated earlier, children undergo physical, emotional, and mental changes.

4. Early development is more critical than later development.

The studies of Freud, Erikson, and Piaget on early patterns of behavior led to the conclusion that early
development is very important. It is at this stage of development where individuals develop the foundations for
social relatedness, emotional well-being, and personal adjustments. It has been widely accepted that the first
two years of life, often called the “formative years”, greatly dictate the course of an individual’s growth and
development. This principle is also the rationale behind early childhood education.

5. Development is the product of maturation and learning.

Development is an outcome of both maturation and environmental influences. Although people are
genetically endowed with certain characteristics, learning allows individuals to develop these innate
potentialities. Through exercise and effort, people can act on their environments and develop their
competencies. In most cases, individuals learn through imitation and observation of other role models.

6. There are individual differences in development.

Although children follow a predictable pattern of development, a step-by-step progression, all children
do not reach these developmental stages all at the same time or all at the same age. These differences in
development are often ascribed to both genetic and environmental influences, where each individual is either
born or exposed to varying factors.

7. There are social expectations for every developmental period which are often referred to as developmental
tasks.

This principle clearly states that at any point in the individual’s development, each one is expected to
fulfill certain social expectations.

THE LEARNER’S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

There are eight stages of development usually ascribed to the life span of human beings. These stages
which are based on chronological age are listed below. Corresponding to each stage are characteristics often
achieved by individuals within each specified age group.

Infancy and Early Childhood

The period which covers from birth to six years is generally referred to as the pre-school years. It is
characterized as the time when neuromuscular functions basic to development of motor skills are developed. It
is the time when a child is extremely dependent upon adults and seeks their affection and care. Inquisitiveness
is characteristic of this stage.
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Developmental Stage Characteristics

1. Pre-Natal Age when heredity endowments and sex are fixed and all body features,
(Conception to Birth) both external and internal, are developed.

2. Infancy Foundation age when basic behavior patterns are organized and many
(Birth to 2 years) ontogenic maturational skills emerge.
3. Early Childhood Pre-gang exploratory, and questioning, when language and elementary
(2 to 6 years) reasoning are acquired and initial socialization is experienced.
4. Late Childhood Gang and creativity age when self help skills, social skills, school skills,
( 6 to 12 years) and play skills are developed.

5. Adolescence Transition age from childhood to adulthood when sex maturation and
(puberty to 18 years) rapid physical development occur resulting to changes in ways of
feeling, thinking and acting.

6. Early Adulthood Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse,
(18 to 40 years) parent, and bread winner.

7. Middle Age
(40 years to retirement)
8. Old Age
(Retirement to Death)
Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline
are experienced.
Retirement age when increasingly rapid physical and mental decline are
experienced.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

In the study of human development and behavior, developmental psychologists have come up with a
variety of theories. These theories which have served as tools in teaching their ideas and concepts have
helped them in understanding the organization and course of human development.
To gain further insight into the behavioral changes at various stages of development, four theories of
development which have influenced contemporary concepts about the nature of individual development are
presented in this section. These are Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytical theory, Erik Erikson’s psychosocial
development theory, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Laurence Kohlberg’s Theory of moral
development.

Summary of Categories for Developmental Tasks

INFANCY TO
STAGES OF EARLY LATE ADOLESCENCE EARLY
DEVELOPMENT CHILDHOOD CHILDHOOD ADULTHOOD
Learning to walk Learning Physical Accepting changes Maintaining
Learning to talk skills necessary for in one’s physique physical health
Physical skills Learning to take games and using the body and well-being.
solid foods effectively.
Learning to control
Elimination of body
wastes
Getting ready to Developing Preparing for an Getting started in
read fundamental skills economic career an occupation
Intellectual in reading, writing, with knowledge
Skills and calculating. gained from
Developing academic exposure
concepts
necessary for daily
living
Learning sex Learning to get Achieving new and Learning to live
differences and along with age- mature social with a marriage
sexual modesty mates Beginning to relations with partner or
develop agemates of both independently
appropriate sexes achieving a selecting a mate
Social Skills masculine or masculine or taking an civic
feminine social feminine social role responsibility
roles developing desiring, accepting, finding a
attitudes toward and achieving congenial social
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social groups and socially responsible group

institutions behavior
Learning to Building a Achieving Starting a family
distinguish right and wholesome attitude emotional rearing children
wrong and toward oneself as a independence from managing a home
beginning to develop growing individual parents and other
a conscience developing a adults preparing for
conscience, a marriage and family
Emotional sense of morality, life acquiring a set
Skills and a scale of of values and an
various achieving ethical system as a
personal guide to behavior
independence. depending on
ideology.

Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Austrian physician and founder of psychoanalysis. He was born into a
middle-class Jewish family in Freiberg, Moravia (now Pribor in the Czech Republic) on May 6, 1856.
Freud believed that people are born with biological drives that must be redirected so as to live in
society. He proposed that personality is formed in childhood, as children deals with unconscious conflicts
between these inborn urges and the requirements of civilized life. This conflict occur in an unvarying sequence
of five maturationally based stages of psychosexual development, in which sexual or sensual pleasure shifts
from one body zone to another- from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals. At each stage, the
behavior that is the chief source of gratification (or frustration) changes- from feeding to elimination and
eventually to sexual activity.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

I. Oral Stage (birth to 12-18 months) to other accounts (0 to 2 years)

Baby’s chief source of pleasure involves mouth-oriented activities (sucking and feeding).
II. Anal Stage (12-18 months to 3 years) to other accounts (2-4 years)
Child derives sensual gratification from withholding and expelling feces. Zone of gratification is
anal region, and toilet training is important activity.

III. Phallic Stage (3-6 years) to other accounts (4-6 years)

Child becomes attached to parent of the other sex (boys-Oedipus Complex; girls- Electra
Complex;) and later identifies with same-sex parent. Superego develops. Zone of gratification
shifts to genital region

IV. Latency Stage (6 years to puberty) to other accounts (6-12 years)

V. Genital Stage (puberty through adulthood) to some accounts (12 years and up)
Freud proposed three hypothetical parts of the personality: the id the ego, and the superego.
Newborns are governed by the id, which operates under the pleasure principle – the drive to seek
immediate satisfaction of its needs and desires. When gratification is delayed, as it is when infants have
to wait to be fed, they begin to see themselves as separate from the outside world. The ego, which
represents the reason, develops gradually during the first year or so of life and operates under the reality
principle. The ego’s aim is to find realistic way to gratify the id. The superego develops during early
childhood. It includes the conscience and incorporates socially approved “shoulds” and “should nots” into
the child’s own value system. If its standards are not met, a child may feel guilty and anxious. The ego
acts as a mediator between the impulses of the id and the demands of the superego.
Freud himself was impresses by the instinctual aspect of man’s development and particularly with his
sexual drives. His theory of personality development consequently was organized around vicissitudes in the
development of sexual instinct. While this view has proved too restrictive to many scientists for its lack of
emphasis on the socio-cultural determinants of behavior and development, Freud did call attention to the fact
that psychological development begins at birth passes through predictable stages, and is molded for good or ill
by the emotional climate surrounding significant development milestones. The child’s success in coping with
the various developmental milestones largely dictates how adequate he will be in meeting life stresses as an
adult.

Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory Of Development

"Human personality in principle develops according to steps predetermined in the growing person's
readiness to be driven toward, to be aware of and to interact with a widening social radius"
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Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994), American psychoanalyst who made major contributions to the field of
psychology with his work on child development and on the identity crisis.
After emigrating to the U. S. in 1933, Erikson taught at Harvard (1933–36; 1960–70) and engaged in a
variety of clinical work, widening the scope of psychoanalytic theory to take greater account of social, cultural,
and other environmental factors. In his most influential work, Childhood and Society (1950), he divided the
human life cycle into eight psychosocial stages of development.

Erikson's Eight Stages of Human Development

Stage 1: Infancy -- Age 0 to 1 to other accounts birth to 12-18 months

Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
Virtue: Hope
Description: In the first year of life, infants depend on others for food, warmth, and affection, and therefore
must be able to blindly trust the parents (or caregivers) for providing those.
Positive outcome: If their needs are met consistently and responsively by the parents, infants not only will
develop a secure attachment with the parents, but will learn to trust their environment in general as
well.
Negative outcome: If not, infant will develop mistrust towards people and things in their environment, even
towards themselves.

Stage 2: Toddler -- Age 1 to 2 to other accounts 12-18 months to 3 years

Crisis: Autonomy (Independence) vs. Doubt (or Shame)
Virtue: Will
Description: Toddlers learn to walk, talk, use toilets, and do things for themselves. Their self-control and self-
confidence begin to develop at this stage.
Positive outcome: If parents encourage their child's use of initiative and reassure her when she makes
mistakes, the child will develop the confidence needed to cope with future situations that require choice,
control, and independence.
Negative outcome: If parents are overprotective, or disapproving of the child's acts of independence, she may
begin to feel ashamed of her behavior, or have too much doubt of her abilities.

Stage 3: Early Childhood -- Age 2 to 6 to other accounts 3 to 6 years

Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt
Virtue: Purpose
Description: Children have newfound power at this stage as they have developed motor skills and become
more and more engaged in social interaction with people around them. They now must learn to achieve
a balance between eagerness for more adventure and more responsibility, and learning to control
impulses and childish fantasies.
Positive outcome: If parents are encouraging, but consistent in discipline, children will learn to accept without
guilt, that certain things are not allowed, but at the same time will not feel shame when using their
imagination and engaging in make-believe role plays.
Negative outcome: If not, children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to believe that it is wrong to be
independent.

Stage 4: Elementary and Middle School Years -- Age 6 to 12 to other accounts 6 years to puberty
Crisis: Competence (aka. "Industry") vs. Inferiority
Virtue: Skill
Description: School is the important event at this stage. Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire
the skills to be a worker and a potential provider. And they do all these while making the transition from
the world of home into the world of peers.
Positive outcome: If children can discover pleasure in intellectual stimulation, being productive, seeking
success, they will develop a sense of competence.
Negative outcome: If not, they will develop a sense of inferiority.

Stage 5: Adolescence -- Age 12 to 18 to other accounts puberty to young adulthood

Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Virtue: Fidelity
Description: This is the time when we ask the question "Who am I?" To successfully answer this question,
Erikson suggests, the adolescent must integrate the healthy resolution of all earlier conflicts.
Adolescents who have successfully dealt with earlier conflicts are ready for the "Identity Crisis", which
is considered by Erikson as the single most significant conflict a person must face.
Positive outcome: If the adolescent solves this conflict successfully, he will come out of this stage with a strong
identity, and ready to plan for the future.
Negative outcome: If not, the adolescent will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions and choices,
especially about vocation, sexual orientation, and his role in life in general.
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Stage 6: Young Adulthood -- Age 19 to 40

Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Virtue: Love
Description: In this stage, the most important events are love relationships. No matter how successful you are with
your work, said Erikson, you are not developmentally complete until you are capable of intimacy. An
individual who has not developed a sense of identity usually will fear a committed relationship and may
retreat into isolation.
Positive outcome: Adult individuals can form close relationships and share with others if they have achieved a sense
of identity.
Negative outcome: If not, they will fear commitment, feel isolated and unable to depend on anybody in the world.

Stage 7: Middle Adulthood -- Age 40 to 65

Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Virtue: Care
Description: By "generativity" Erikson refers to the adult's ability to look outside oneself and care for others, through
parenting, for instance. Erikson suggested that adults need children as much as children need adults, and
that this stage reflects the need to create a living legacy.
Positive outcome: People can solve this crisis by having and nurturing children, or helping the next generation in
other ways.
Negative outcome: If this crisis is not successfully resolved, the person will remain self-centered and experience
stagnation later in life.

Stage 8: Late Adulthood -- Age 65 to death

Crisis: Integrity vs. Despair
Virtue: Wisdom
Description: Old age is a time for reflecting upon one's own life and its role in the big scheme of things, and seeing it
filled with pleasure and satisfaction or disappointments and failures.
Positive outcome: If the adult has achieved a sense of fulfillment about life and a sense of unity within himself and
with others, he will accept death with a sense of integrity. Just as the healthy child will not fear life, said
Erikson, the healthy adult will not fear death.
Negative outcome: If not, the individual will despair and fear death.

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel (Switzerland) on August 9, 1896. He died in Geneva on September 16,
1980. He was the oldest child of Arthur Piaget, professor of medieval literature at the University, and of Rebecca
Jackson. At age 11, while he was a pupil at Neuchâtel Latin high school, he wrote a short notice on an albino
sparrow. This short paper is generally considered as the start of a brilliant scientific career made of over sixty books
and several hundred articles.

Piaget's oeuvre is known all over the world and is still an inspiration in fields like psychology, sociology,
education, epistemology, economics and law as witnessed in the annual catalogues of the Jean Piaget Archives. He
was awarded numerous prizes and honorary degrees all over the world.
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Piaget described cognitive development as occurring in four different stages which differ not only in the quantity of
information acquired at each, but also in the quality of knowledge and understanding at that stage. Piaget suggested that
movement from one stage to the next occurred when the child reached an appropriate level of maturation and was
exposed to relevant types of experiences. Without experience, children were assumed incapable of reaching their highest
cognitive ability. Cognitive growth occurs through three interrelated processes: organization, adaptation, and equilibration.

Organization is the tendency to create increasingly complex cognitive structure systems of knowledge or ways of
thinking that incorporate more and more accurate images of reality. These structures, called, schemes or schemas, are
organized patterns of behavior that a person uses to think about and act in a situation. Schemas can be characterized by:
1.
mobility of schemas – that it can applied to a variety of objects even objects never encountered before; 2. sensorimotor
schemas – involve overt actions; 3. cognitive schemas – include the number system, concept of space, or the laws of logic.
As children acquire more information, their schemes become more and more complex.

Adaptation is Piaget’s term for how children handle new information in light of what they already know.
Adaptation involves two steps: assimilation, taking in new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive
structures, and accommodation, changing one’s cognitive structures to include the new information. Assimilation is
classified into four types: 1. reproductive assimilation – where the schema tends to be repeated over and over again,
coming to function stably and smoothly in the process, which is achieve through exercise; 2. generalizing assimilation –
where schemas accommodate to the range of specific stimulus objects that occur in the child’s particular environment;
recognitory assimilation – the fitting of a schema to the demands of the objects and acknowledging the familiarity of the
object and the fact that one has fitted; and mutual coordination and assimilation of schemas – two schemes are
interacting with each other and assimilating each other.
Equilibration – a constant striving for a stable balance, or equilibrium – dictates the shift from assimilation to
accommodation. When children cannot handle new experiences within their existing cognitive structures, and thus
experience disequilibrium, they organize new mental patterns that integrate the new experience, thus restoring more
comfortable state of equilibrium. Thus, assimilation and accommodation work together to produce equilibrium and
cognitive growth.
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development are known as the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operational stages.

The sensorimotor stage in a child is from birth to approximately two years. During this stage, a child has
relatively little competence in representing the environment using images, language, or symbols. Piaget called this a lack
of object permanence. Object permanence is the awareness that objects and people continue to exist even if they are out
of sight.

Sub-stages Ages Description

Use of reflexes Birth to 1 Infants exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control over them. They
month do not coordinate information from their senses. They do not grasp an object
they are looking at.
Primary circular 1 to 4
reactions months Infants repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance (thumb
sucking). Activities focus on infant’s body rather that the effects of the
behavior on the environment. Infants make first acquired adaptations; that
is they suck different objects. They begin to coordinate sensory information
and grasp objects.

Secondary 4 to 8 Infants become more interested in the environment; they repeat actions that
circular months bring interesting results (such as shaking a rattle) and prolong interesting
reactions experiences. Actions are intentional but not initially goal-directed.

Coordination of 8 to 12 Behavior is more deliberate and purposeful (intentional) as infants coordinate

secondary months previously learned schemes (such as looking at and grasping a rattle) and
schemes use previously learned behaviors to attain their goals (such as crawling
across the room to get desired toy). They can anticipate events.

Tertiary circular 12 to 18 Toddlers show curiosity and experimentation; they purposely vary their
reactions months actions to see results (for example, by shaking different rattles to hear their
sounds). They actively explore their world to determine what is novel about
an object, event, or situation. They try out new activities and use trial and
error in solving problems.

Mental 18 to 24 Since toddlers cam mentally represents events, they are no longer confined
combinations months to trial and error to solve problems. Symbolic thought allows toddlers to
begin to think about events and anticipate their consequences without
always resorting to action. Toddlers begin to demonstrate insight. They can
use symbols, such as gestures and words, and can pretend.
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Object Permanence
This is Piaget’s term for the child’s realization that an object or person continues to exist when out of
sight. According to him, object permanence develops gradually during the sensorimotor stage. At first, infants
have no such concept. By the third substage, from about 4 to 8 months, they will look for something they have
dropped, but if they cannot see it, they act as if it no longer exists. In the fourth substage, about 8 to 12
months, they will look for an object in a place where they first found it after seeing it hidden, even if they later
saw it being moved to another place. Piaget called this the A, not B error. In the fifth substage, 12 to 18
months, they no longer make this error; they will search for an object in the last place they saw it hidden.
However, they will not search for it in a place where they did not see it hidden. By the sixth substage, 18 to 24
months, object permanence is fully achieved; toddlers will look for an object even if they did not see it hidden.

The preoperational stage is from the age of two to seven years. The most important development at
this time is language. Children develop an internal representation of the world that allows them to describe
people, events, and feelings. Children at this time use symbols, they can pretend when driving their toy car
across the couch that the couch is actually a bridge. Although the thinking of the child is more advanced than
when it was in the sensorimotor stage, it is still qualitatively inferior to that of an adult. Children in the
preoperational stage are characterized by what Piaget called egocentric thoughts. The world at this stage is
viewed entirely from the child’s own perspective. Thus a child’s explanation to an adult can be uninformative.

Three-year-olds will generally hide their face when they are in trouble--even though they are in plain
view, three-year-olds believe that their inability to see others also results in others’ inability to see them. A child
in the preoperational stage also lacks the principle of conservation. This is the knowledge that quantity is
unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects. Children who have not passed this stage do
not know that the amount, volume or length of an object does not change length when the shape of the
configuration is changed. If you put two identical pieces of clay in front of a child, one rolled up in the shape of
a ball, the other rolled into a snake, a child at this stage may say the snake piece is bigger because it is rolled
out. Piaget declared that this is not mastered until the next stage of development.

Cognitive Advances during Preoperational Stage

Advance Significance
Use of symbols Children do not need to be in the sensorimotor contact with an
object, person, or event in order to think about it.
Children can imagine that objects or people have properties other
than those they actually have.
Understanding of identities Children are aware that superficial alterations do not change the
nature of things.
Understanding of cause and effect Children realize that events have causes.
Ability to classify Children organize objects, people, and events into meaningful
categories.
Understanding of number Children can count and deal with quantities.
Empathy Children become more able to imagine how others might feel.
Theory of mind Children become more aware of mental activity and the functioning
of the mind.

Limitations of Preoperational Thought (according to Piaget)

The concrete operational stage lasts from the age of seven to twelve years of age. The beginning of
this stage is marked by the mastery of the principal of conservation. Children develop the ability to think in a
more logical manner and they begin to overcome some of the egocentric characteristics of the preoperational
period. One of the major ideas learned in this stage is the idea of reversibility. This is the idea that some
changes can be undone by reversing an earlier action. An example is the ball of clay that is rolled out into a
snake piece of clay. Children at this stage understand that you can regain the ball of clay formation by rolling
the piece of clay the other way. Children can even conceptualize the stage in their heads without having to see
the action performed. Children in the concrete operational stage have a better understanding of time and
space. Children at this stage have limits to their abstract thinking, according to Piaget.

Limitation Description
Centration: inability to decenter Children focus on one aspect of a situation and
neglect others.
Children fail to understand that some operations or
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Irreversibility actions can be reversed, restoring the original

situation.
Focus on states rather than transformations Children fail to understand the significance of
transformation between states
Transductive reasoning Children do not use inductive or deductive; instead
they jump from one particular to another and see
cause where non-exists.
Egocentrism Children assume every-one else thinks, perceives,
and feels as they do.
Animism Children attribute life to objects not alive.
Inability to distinguish appearance from Children confuse what is real with outward
reality appearance.

Cognitive Advances During Concrete Operational Stage

Advance Description
Space and causality Children at this stage have a clearer idea of how far it is from one place
to another and how long it will take to get there, and they can more easily
remember the route and the landmarks along the way.
The abilities to use maps and models and to communicate spatial
information improve with age
Although 6 year olds can search for and find hidden objects, they usually
do not give clear directions for finding the same objects- perhaps because
they lack the proper vocabulary or do not realize what information the
other person needs.
Categorization The ability to categorize helps children think logically. Categorization
now includes such a sophisticated abilities as seriation (ability to order
items along a dimension), transitive inference (understanding of the
relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship of each to a
third object), and class inclusion (understanding of the relationship
between a whole and its parts.
Inductive and Deductive According to Piaget, children in the stage of concrete operations use
Reasoning inductive reasoning- a type of logical reasoning that moves from
particular observations about members of a class to a general conclusion
about that class.
Deductive reasoning- type of logical reasoning that moves from a
general premise about a class to a conclusion about a particular member
or members of the class. Piaget’s belief that this type of reasoning does
not develop until adolescence was opposed by new researchers for they
have found that second graders (but not kindergartners) were able to
correctly answer deductive problems which sought not to call upon their
knowledge of the real world.
Conservation In solving various types of conservation problems, children in the stage
of concrete operations can work out the answers in their heads; they do
not have to measure or weight objects. At this stage children understand
the principle of identity, reversibility, and can decenter. Typically, children
can solve problems involving conservation of substance at 7-8 years old,
and conservation of weight at 9-10 years old; in conservation of volume,
on the other hand correct answer are rare before age 12.

Horizontal decal age –a term given by Piaget to the inability of the child at this stage to transfer
learning about one type of conservation to other types, which causes a child to master different types of
conservation tasks at different stages.

The formal operational stage begins in most people at age twelve and continues into adulthood. This
stage produces a new kind of thinking that is abstract, formal, and logical. Thinking is no longer tied to events
that can be observed. A child at this stage can think hypothetically and use logic to solve problems. It is thought
that not all individuals reach this level of thinking. Most studies show only forty to sixty percent of American
college students and adults fully achieve it. In developing countries where the technology is not as advanced
as the United States, almost no one reaches the formal operational stage.
Contemporary theorists suggest that a better description of how children develop cognitively can be
provided by approaches that do not employ concrete fixed stages. Research also has proven that children are
not always consistent in their performance of tasks at each stage. Furthermore, developmental psychologists
 10

imply that cognitive development proceeds in a continuous fashion; they propose that such development is
primarily quantitative, rather than qualitative.
Most developmental theorists have agreed that Piaget has provided us with an accurate account of
age-related changes in cognitive development. Piaget’s suggestion, that cognitive performance cannot be
attained unless cognitive readiness is brought about by maturation and environmental stimuli, has been
instrumental in determining the structure of educational curricula.

Cognitive Advances During Formal Operational Stage

Advance
Combinatorial thinking
Hypothetic thinking, or
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning,
or
Hypothetical deductive reasoning
Description
According to Piaget it is a young person’s ability to
conceive possibilities and organize situations and
problems.
Ability, believed by Piaget to accompany the stage of
formal operations, to develop, consider, and test
hypotheses.

Assumptions that are Involved in this theory:

1. Development is an unfolding of the growth process or maturation. A child’s development is essentially
the accumulation of the learning acquired from experiences within the environment.
2. Development is brought about by experiences with the environment.
3. Development is the result of explicit and implicit teaching of the child by other people.
4. Development is brought about by the process of equilibration where the child’s beliefs become
organized into a system.

Analyzing Piaget’s Theory in the Primary Classroom

Preoperational
1. Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible.
2. Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words.
3. Do not expect the students to be consistently; to see the world from someone else’s point of view.
4. Be sensitive to the possibility that students may have different meanings for the same word or different
words for the same meaning. Students may also expect everyone to understand words they have
invented.
5. Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more
complex skills like reading comprehension.
6. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language.

Concrete Operational
1. Continue to use concrete props and visual aids, especially when dealing with sophisticated material.
2. Give students the opportunity to manipulate and test objects.
3. Make sure presentations and readings are brief and are well organized.
4. Use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas.
5. Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels.
6. Present problems that require logical and analytical thinking.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg spent many years researching how an individual develop his or her own moral
codes. First, Kohlberg was born into wealth on October 25, 1927 in Bronxville, New York. Even though he was
wealthy, he chose to become a sailor; and after World War II, he helped to smuggle Jews through the British
blockade of Palestine.
Kohlberg believed and was able to demonstrate through studies that people progressed in their moral
reasoning (i.e., in their bases for ethical behavior) through a series of stages. He believed that there were six
identifiable stages which could be more generally classified into three levels.
 11

Kohlberg's classification can be outlined in the following manner:

LEVEL STAGE SOCIAL ORIENTATION
Pre- 1 Obedience and Punishment
conventional
2 Individualism,
Instrumentalism,
and Exchange
Conventional 3 "Good boy/girl"
4 Law and Order
Post- 5 Social Contract
conventional
6 Principled Conscience
The first level of moral thinking is that generally found at the elementary school level. In the first stage of this
level, people behave according to socially acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority
figure (e.g., parent or teacher). This obedience is compelled by the threat or application of punishment. The
second stage of this level is characterized by a view that right behavior means acting in one's own best
interests.
The second level of moral thinking is that generally found in society, hence the name "conventional."
The first stage of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude which seeks to do what will gain the
approval of others. The second stage is one oriented to abiding by the law and responding to the obligations of
duty.
The third level of moral thinking is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the majority of adults. Its
first stage (stage 5) is an understanding of social mutuality and a genuine interest in the welfare of others. The
last stage (stage 6) is based on respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages one stage at a time. That
is, they could not "jump" stages.

I Pre-conventional Level

At this level, the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or wrong, but he
interprets the labels in terms of either the physical or hedonistic consequences of action (punishment, reward,
exchange of favors) or the physical power of those who enunciate the rules and labels. The level is divided into
the following three stages:
Stage 0: Egocentric judgment. The child makes judgments of good on the basis of what he likes and wants
or what helps him, and bad on the basis of what he does not like or what hurts him. He has no
concept of rules or of obligations to obey or conform independent of his wish.
Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation. The physical consequences of action determine its
goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning or value of these consequences. Avoidance
of punishment and unquestioning deference to power are values in their own right, not in terms of
respect for an underlying moral order supported by punishment and authority (the latter is stage 4).
Stage 2: The instrumental relativist orientation. Right action consists of what instrumentally satisfies one's
own needs and occasionally the needs of others. Human relations are viewed in terms such as those
of the market place. Elements of fairness, reciprocity, and equal sharing are present, but they are
always interpreted in a physical, pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a matter of "you scratch my back and
I'll scratch yours", not loyalty, gratitude, or justice.
II Conventional Level
At this level, the individual perceives the maintenance of the expectations of his family, group, or nation
as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious consequences. The attitude is not only one of
conformity to personal expectations and social order, but of loyalty to it, of actively maintaining, supporting, and
justifying the order and identifying with the persons or group involved in it. The level consists of the following
two stages:
Stage 3: The interpersonal concordance or "good boy-nice girl" orientation. Good behavior is what
pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much conformity to stereotypical images of
what is majority or "natural" behavior. Behavior is frequently judged by intention -- "he means well"
becomes important for the first time. One earns approval by being "nice".
Stage 4: The "law and order" orientation. The individual is oriented toward authority, fixed rules, and the
maintenance of the social order. Right behavior consists in doing one's duty, showing respect for
authority, and maintaining the given social order for its own sake.

III Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level

The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have validity and
application apart from the authority of the groups of persons holding them and apart from the individual's own
identification with the group. The level has the two following stages:
 12

Stage 5: The social contract legalistic orientation (generally with utilitarian overtones). Right action
tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically
examined and agreed upon by the whole society.
Stage 6: The universal ethical-principle orientation. Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord
with self-chosen ethical principles that appeal to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and
consistency.

The table below shows how people in each stage of Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning usually respond to Heinz
dilemma.

Levels Stages of Typical Answers to Heinz Dilemma

Reasoning
Stage 1: Pro: “He should steal the drug. It isn’t really bad to take it. It isn’t as
Orientation it he hadn’t asked to pay for it first. The drug he’d take is worth
toward only $200; he’s not really taking a $2,000 drug.”
punishment and Con: “He shouldn’t steal the drug. It’s a big crime. He didn’t get
obedience permission; he used force and broke and entered. He did a lot of
Level I: damage and stole a very expensive drug.”
Preconventional Stage 2: Pro: “ It’s all right to steal the drug, because his wife needs it
morality Instrumental and he wants her to live. It isn’t that he wants to steal, but that’s what
(ages 4 to 10) purpose and he has to do to save her.”
exchange/ Con: “He shouldn’t steal it. The druggist isn’t wrong or bad; he just
instrumental wants to make a profit. That’s what you’re in business for – to
relativist make money.
orientation
Stage 3: Pro: He should steal the drug. He is only doing something that is
Interpersonal natural for a good husband to do. You can’t blame him for doing
concordance or something out of love for his wife. You’d blame him if he didn’t
"good boy-nice love his wife enough to save her.”
girl" Con: “He shouldn’t steal. If his wife dies, he can’t be blamed. It isn’t
because he’s heartless or that he doesn’t love her enough to do
Level II: everything that he legally can. The druggist is the selfish or
Conventional heartless one.”
morality Stage 4: Social Pro: “You should steal it. If you did nothing you’d be letting your
(ages 10 to 13 concern and wife die. It’s your responsibility if she dies. You have to take it
or beyond) conscience / with the idea of paying the druggist.”
"law and order" Con: “It is a natural thing for Heinz to want to save his wife, but it‘s
orientation still always wrong to steal. He knows he’s taking a valuable drug
from the man who made it.”
Stage 5: Social Pro: “The law wasn’t set up for these circumstances. Taking the drug
contract legalistic in this situation isn’t really right, but it’s justified.”
orientation Con: “You can’t completely blame someone for stealing, but extreme
Level III: Post circumstances don’t really justify taking the law into your own
conventional hands. You can’ t have people stealing whenever they are
morality (early desperate. The end may be good, but the ends don’t justify the
adolescence, or means.”
not until young Stage 6: Pro: “This is a situation that forces him to choose between stealing
adulthood, or Universal ethical- and letting his wife die. In a situation where the choice must be
never) principle made, it is morally right to steal. He has to act in terms in the
orientation principle of preserving and respecting life.”
Con: “Heinz is faced with the decision of whether to consider the
other people who need the drug just as badly as his wife. Heinz
ought to act not according to his feelings for his wife, but
considering the value of all the lives involved.”

THE LEARNING PROCESS

The Nature of Learning

There are almost as many definitions of learning of learning as there are authorities on the subject.
 13

Learning is the acquisition, through maturation and experience, of new and more knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that will enable the learner to make better and more adequate reactions, responses, and adjustments to
new situations and conditions.
Types of Learning
The types, kinds, or outcomes of learning are the following:
1. Cognitive learning. This is the acquisition of knowledge, facts and information, principles, ideas,
concepts, understanding, reasoning, etc. There are two types of cognitive learning these are:
a) Associative learning
This is establishing the relationship between words or ideas and their meanings, between words
or ideas and the things they refer to, between principles and the situations and conditions they are
applied to, etc. This involves an accurate understanding of the relationships of things /or
situations.
b. Problem-solving learning
Problem-solving is the process of overcoming difficulties that hinder the attainment of a goal by
using knowledge and skills gained from associative learning and other types of learning. In this
type of learning, reflective, analytical, and constructive thinking are very much needed. This type
of learning is used in all subjects. Generally, cognitive learning is verbal and ideational learning.
2. Attitudinal or affective learning.
This type of learning is the formation of good and acceptable attitudes, judgments, appreciation, and
values. It is the acquisition or development of sound moral and spiritual values such as honesty,
integrity, punctuality, piety, etc. There are two types of appreciative learning. These are:
a). Aesthetic learning
The appreciation of what is good and abhorrence of what is bad. Appreciation of the good
includes noble traits of people, good music and other expressions of art.
b). Intellectual learning
This may be developed by reading good and classical literary pieces, the Bible (for Christians)
and the Koran (for Muslims), and other similar activities.
3. Psychomotor learning. The involves the use of the muscles in bodily movement. The reflexes are
especially important because the activities are usually responsive to certain stimuli. There are two types
of psychomotor learning and these are:
a) Bodily movement coordination
The harmonious functioning of the different parts of the body in order to attain the desired
performance of the activity, Precision and accuracy result to muscular coordination.
b) Manipulative dexterity
The skillful of the hands and feet. precision and accuracy are necessary in both basic and
complicated activities

THE TEST OF LEARNING

When has a person learned? The following are the criteria or test of learning.
1. Greater speed. One who has learned how to write, writes faster than one who has not.
2. Greater precision and accuracy. One who has learned a dance can execute the steps with greater
precision and accuracy than one who has not.
3. Reduced effort. One who has already learned to write exerts effort in writing than one who is just
learning how to write.
4. Less expense, hence more savings. One who has learned how to type does not need to hire a typist to
type. He cuts down on expenses.
5. Greater knowledge, information, and ideas. One who has gone to school to learn has greater knowledge,
information, and ideas of the things around him than one who has not.
6. Greater understanding. One who has studied has a better understanding of the things communicated to
him than one who has not.
7. Greater facility of communication. One who has gone to school has learned the mechanics of the
language and so he has a greater facility in communicating his ideas than one who has not.
8. More logical reasoning. One who has learned how to reason out can make more logical reasoning than
one who has not.
9. Greater innovativeness and creativity. An educated person has more innovative and creative ideas than
one who is not.
10. Greater chance of employment. One who has acquired skills has more chances of employment than the
one who has not.
OTHER KINDS OF LEARNING
1. Learning may be classified into (1) direct learning and (2) indirect learning.
 14

2. Learning to ride a bicycle is direct learning.

3. Reading books, newspapers, magazines, and other publications, listening to the radio, and viewing
movies and television shows to gain information is indirect learning.
4. Burnham classifies learning as (1) congenital (2) temporary and (3) permanent.
5. Reflex action such as the sudden withdrawal of the foot as it steps on a live charcoal is congenital
learning.
Forgetting portions of a poem or lines in a play is an example of temporary learning. Knowledge used in
a lifetime such as basic mathematical operation, language, values, etc. is permanent learning.
6. Other kinds of learning are (1) sensory learning such as Braille reading used by the blind, (2) motor
learning as in typing and writing, (3) verbal learning such as solving a mathematical problem or memorizing a
principle, (4) ideational learning such as writing a story or novel, and (5) attitudinal learning as in learning
values.
BASIC THEORIES OF LEARNING
CONNECTIOVISM THEORY
"Colors fade, temples crumble, empires fall, but wise words endure"

Edward Lee Thorndike [thôrn´dIk] was an American educator and psychologist born in Williamsburg,
Massachusetts. By using trial-and-error experiments with animals, Thorndike formulated his so-called law of
effect—the more satisfying the result of a particular action, the better that action is learned—and applied it to
the development of special teaching techniques for use in the classroom. Because of his opposition to that
belief, he greatly encouraged the inclusion of various informational subjects, such as the physical and social
sciences, in elementary and secondary school curricula.

Overview of the Theory:

The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology:
Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits"
become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws:
1. law of effect - responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be
strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation
2. law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will
result in annoyance if blocked
3. law of exercise - connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is
discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of
achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) would decrease in strength.
Scope/Application:
Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for animals and humans. Thorndike was
especially interested in the application of his theory to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922),
spelling and reading (Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and adult learning
(Thorndike at al., 1928).

Principles:
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of
readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

"Science demands from a man all his life. If you had two lives that would not be enough for you. Be passionate
in your work and in your searching."

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov [Evän´ pEtrô´vich päv´luf] was born on September 14, 1849 at Ryazan, Russia,
where his father, Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov, was a village priest. He was educated first at the church school in
Ryazan and then at the theological seminary there.
Pavlov deduced three principles for the theory of reflexes: the principle of determinism, the principle of
analysis and synthesis, and the principle of structure.
 15

Experiments carried out by Pavlov and his pupils showed that conditioned reflexes originate in the
cerebral cortex, which acts as the (prime distributor and organizer of all activity of the organism) and which is
responsible for the very delicate equilibrium of an animal with its environment.

Overview of the Theory:

In classical conditioning of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, the critical association occurs when one
environmental event predicts the occurrence of another. Pavlov knew that dogs (his usual experimental
subjects) would salivate not just on taking food into the mouth, but in response to a range of other events—for
instance, at the approach of the laboratory attendant who supplied the food. The ability of such events to evoke
this reflex depended, Pavlov suspected, on the animal's having experienced them prior to feeding.
To further illustrate the basic phenomenon Pavlov’s studied, it is represented in this way.

An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus which is adequate at the outset of training to produce the
response in question. The response to such a stimulus is called unconditioned response. In Pavlov’s experiment,
the sight or taste of food was an unconditioned stimulus for the unconditioned response of salivating.
A conditioned stimulus is one which is initially inadequate to evoke the response in question but will do
so if paired with the unconditioned stimulus. The learned process is called conditioned response. In Pavlov’s
experiment, the buzzer was the conditioned stimulus for the conditioned response of salivating.
Discrimination refers to eliciting different responses to two different stimuli. A dog, trained to withdraw
a paw from an electric grid at the sound of a tone, will learn in time that he need not move his paw at the sound
of a tone very slightly different in pitch. The dog will learn this discrimination if one tone is consistently
reinforced while another is not.
Responses that are no longer reinforced tend to disappear from the organism’s repertoire of behavior.
This is called extinction. Pavlov’s dog will not salivate at all times at the sound of a buzzer. If the buzzer is
presented time after time without being paired with meat, extinction will occur.
Spontaneous recovery refers to the return of a conditioned response, following experimental extinction,
after periods of no reinforcements. If the buzzer is sounded many times without presenting any food, the dog
will reach a situation wherein it will ignore the buzzer. Although there will be times when the dog would
salivate again at the sound of the buzzer. Studies have shown that once a conditioned response is established, it
never completely disappears from the behavioral repertoire of an organism. After periods of rest or disuse, a
conditioned response often reappears. If there is no reinforcement, it will extinguish again.
Associative interpretations have also been offered for operant conditioning. In this case the link is likely
to be between the center that controls the response and the food center. Exactly how the strengthening of this
link leads to an increased rate of response is currently the subject of intensive investigation.

OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born March 20, 1904, in the small Pennsylvania town of Susquehanna.
Skinner, who formulated the principles of operant conditioning, worked primarily with rats and pigeons
(one of his
experiments with rats is illustrated at the end of the discussion of behavior modification), but Skinner
maintained that the same principles apply to human beings. He found that an organism will tend to repeat a
response that has been reinforced and will suppress a response that has been punished.
Reinforcement is a consequence of behavior that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be
repeated; in Terrell’s case, his parents’ attention reinforces his smiling.
Punishment is a consequence of behavior that decreases the likelihood of repetition. If Terrell’s parents
frowned when he smiled, he would be less likely to smile again. Whether a consequence is reinforcing or
punishing depends on the person. What is reinforcing for one person may be punishing for another.
Skinner proposed that in terms of effect, punishment is not the opposite of reinforcement. For Skinner,
punishment leads to 3 undesirable effects: (1) Punished responses only disappear temporarily; (2) Emotional
predisposition such as guilt or shame may be conditioned through the use of punishment; and (3) Any behavior
that reduces the aversive stimulation accompanying the punishment will be reinforced.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura was born on December 4, 1925, in Mundare, a hamlet in northern Alberta, Canada,
about 50 miles east of Edmonton.
 16

Overview of the Theory

This theory embodies several basic assumptions:
(1) It is assumed that infants posses innate or inborn reflexes.
(2) Humans have a symbolizing capacity to process / transform experiences into internal models that can guide
future actions.
(3) Forethought influences our present actions by anticipation of consequences and events.
(4) The capacity of vicarious learning is present in humans; thus individuals can learn by observation and not by
trial and error. (5) Humans have the capability for reflective self-consciousness. This involves thinking of
thoughts and attributing meaning to their experiences.
The basic principle embodied in this theory is the reciprocal relationship between behavior and the
conditions that control it.
In one of Bandura’s classical experiment, children were exposed to models in films. In one film, the
model is rewarded; in another, the model is punished; and in the third, nothing is done with the model. The
result showed that children first choose to imitate the model who was rewarded, the no-consequence model was
next, and the model who was punished was the last choice. Bandura’s view stresses two important things-
modeling and imitation. Imitation involves copying the behavior of the model one is exposed to.
The exposure to a model may produce different effects; namely:
(a) Observational learning effect – where an individual recombines previously learned behavioral
patterns to produce novel responses;
(b)Inhibitory effects - where the model’s behavior either strengthens or weakens the inhibition of
responses already available to the observer;
(c) Social facilitation effect – where the model’s behavior leads toward acting out a response already
available to the observer.

In order to control aggression, Bandura stated that the problem should be diagnosed and treated during
one’s childhood. "We should not be subjecting people to treatments and then, some years later, trying to figure
out what effects they have. We should test treatments before we embark on widespread applications
(Evans,1989: p3.)." Children learn to act aggressive when they model their behavior after violent acts of adults,
especially family members. For example, the boy who witness his father repeatedly strike his mother will more
than likely become an abusive parent and husband (Siegel, 1992: p. 170)

Albert Bandura is most famous for the Bobo doll experiment. Albert Bandura believed that aggression
must explain three aspects:
First, how aggressive patterns of behavior are developed;
Second, what provokes people to behave aggressively,
Third, what determines whether they are going to continue to resort to an aggressive behavior pattern on
future occasions
Observational learning is also known as imitation or modeling. In this process, learning occurs when
individuals observes and imitate others’ behavior. There are four component processes influenced by the
observer’s behavior following exposure to models. These components include: attention; retention; motor
reproduction or motoric reproduction; and motivation or reinforcement
Attention is the first component of observational learning that includes modeled events (distinctiveness,
affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities,
arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement).
Retention is the next component that includes including symbolic coding, cognitive organization,
symbolic rehearsal, and motor rehearsal.
Motor reproduction is another process in observational learning in which physical capabilities, self-
observation of reproduction, and accuracy of feedback are included.
The final process in observational learning is motivation or reinforcements including external, vicarious
and self-reinforcement.

Scope/Application:
Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression and
psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification . It is also the theoretical
foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years,
Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts.

Example:
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials.
Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular
 17

and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as
attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being
advertised.

Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled
behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or
images results in better retention than simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.

GESTALTISTS
THEORY CONFIGURATION/ GESTALT THEORY / FIELD THEORY

A. Max Wertheimer
Max Wertheimer was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia in April 15, 1880, the son of a school teacher.
Wertheimer had been schooled in the structuralist psychological tradition, a point of view which held
that all psychological phenomena could be broken down and analyzed into their smallest parts or elements. He
purchased a child’s stroboscope, a device, when turned at a constant speed, exposed a series of still pictures that
appeared to move. He spun the stroboscope, fascinated by the apparent movement that the device produced,
and in one of the history of psychology’s great examples of insight, thought, here was a psychological
perception, apparent movement, which simply could not be explained or understood by analyzing the individual
still pictures. When the elements of this perception were studied individually, the total phenomenon of
perceived movement was lost. The whole must be more than just the sum of its parts. In order to understand
this perception of movement, one had to study all the parts together in their particular “Gestalt,” a German
word which means whole, or totality, or configuration.
Wertheimer went to the University of Frankfurt and began a series of controlled experiments. His first
subject was Wolfgang Kohler, who was later joined by Kurt Koffka. Early in 1912 Wertheimer explained to
Kohler and Koffka the results and meaning of his studies. Gestalt psychology had been born.
Wertheimer was also interested in education and the techniques of good teaching. He pointed out the
importance of Gestalt principles as they apply to learning in the classroom. He criticized the use of repetition
and rote memorization, explaining that such procedures lead only to blind, nonproductive learning on the part of
the students. He insisted that the educators should teach for understanding, and this is made possible when the
teacher arranges the material so that the student can see the “whole” or the Gestalt, and not just a series of
seemingly unrelated parts. In his book Productive Thinking, Wertheimer stressed the importance of Gestalt
theory in the practical problem of educating children.

B. Wolgang Kohler
Kohler was a German- American psychologist born in Revel, Estonia in January 21, 1887. In one of his
experiments he arranged an ape’s cage so that there were bananas hanging from the top and a couple of boxes
on the floor. In order to reach the bananas the ape had to stock one box on top of another and then climb to the
top. The ape’s solution to the problem appeared to Kohler not to be one of blind trial and error. Instead the ape
seemed to size up the solution and then, almost in a flash, he understood the problem and “saw” the solution.
The ape displayed what Kohler called insight, and Kohler felt that this was more typical of learning, especially
human learning. Kohler’s explanation was that the ape was able to see the problem as a unified whole. In the
box-stacking problem, the ape did not see the boxes and bananas as separate elements but came to realize that
they belonged together as a part of a total gestalt.
Insight has been called “a-ha” phenomenon. Kohler made much of the concept of insight, perhaps too
much. He felt that insight learning did not depend on past experience, that it was not just a special case of
transfer.
C. Kurt Koffka
Kurt Koffka was a German psychologist who was born in Berlin in March 18, 1886. Along with Kohler
he served as a subject in experiments on perception conducted by Wertheimer. Their findings led Koffka,
Wertheimer, and Kohler to stress the holistic approach the psychological phenomena cannot be interpreted as
combinations of elements: parts derive their meaning from the whole, and people perceive complex entities
rather than their elements.
Koffka conducted a great amount of experimental work, but he is perhaps best known for his systematic
application of Gestalt principles to a wide range of questions. One of his major works, “The Growth of the
 18

Mind (1921),” applied the Gestalt viewpoint to child psychology and argued that infants initially experience
organized wholes in the barely differentiated world about them.

Overview of the Theory:

The Gestalt theory of learning stresses wholes, that is, the whole field or the situation in its entire setting
and the whole person of the learner. Learning is a process involving both the whole being of the child and the
total situation. It is usually defined as the organization and reorganization of behavior which arises from the
dynamic interaction of a maturing organism and its environment, involving the activities of differentiation and
integration, that is, the recognition of significant relationships and similarities and likewise of significant
differences between and among experiences and the understanding of the situation or problem in all its
relations.
The Gestaltists were mainly concerned with perception that’s why they developed different perceptual
principles. All these principles were consistent with one overriding principle, that is the Law of Pragnantz.
This law said that we tend to see things in their most simple, harmonious, and concise form. We respond to the
world so as to make it maximally meaningful under existing conditions. We simplify, organize, then harmonize
our experiences. This was the Gestaltists guiding principle for studying perception, learning, and memory.

Gestalt Laws/ Principles of Perception

1. Law of Continuity – this law states the perceptual organization tends to preserve smooth continuities rather
than abrupt changes.
Example: Try to look at the figures below, they tend to perceive the zigzag lines as letters A and V with lines
cutting across, while the remaining triangles on both ends look like upper and lower triangles.

2. Law of Closure – this law states that incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete.
Example: The following figures will be perceived better as complete circles and squares.

3. Law of Similarity – this law refers to the perception of similar objects that tend to be
related.
Example: In the illustration below, even though the horizontal and vertical distances among the letters are
the same, most people perceive rows rather than columns because the letters are the same.
 19

4. Law of Proximity – this law holds that things close together are grouped together in perception.
Example: Lines drawn close together seem to be grouped as in this figure.

One of the most popular experiments done by the Gestaltists with regards to perception were the
experiments regarding the perceived motion or better known as the “phi-phenomenon.” This so-called phi-
phenomenon might be familiar to all of us for we are exposed with this phenomenon for quite a number of
times.
The phenomenon of apparent motion might be familiar, but the Gestaltists sensed the theoretical
importance of the pattering stimuli in producing the effect. According to them our experience depends on the
pattern formed by the stimuli and the organization of experience. What we see is relative to background and to
other aspects of the whole. “The whole is different from the sum of its parts; the whole consists of parts in
relationship.” Stroboscopic illusion was used by Wertheimer to illustrate this principle. The experience of
motion produced by a series of still pictures viewed in quick succession is not present in the pictures
individually; instead, it arises from the relation between them. As years passed, a large number of perceptual
phenomena fall into one of the three classes:
a. Perceptual Organization (figure and ground effects and perceptual groupings)

b. Perceptual Constancy (lightness, color, shape, size, and location)

 20

c. Perceptual Illusion

Which is longer, A or B?

Which is larger a or b?

Key Concepts:
Gestalt – a German word that may be defined as pattern, whole, form, or configuration.
Gestalt Psychology – a school of thought that was developed in the early 20 th century by Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka.
Max Wertheimer – spearhead of the Gestalt theory and the experiments regarding the phi-phenomenon.
Wolfgang Kohler – one of the pioneer of Gestalt psychology who performed Gestalt psychology’s most famous
animal studies.
Kurt Koffka – one of the founder of Gestalt psychology who was best known for his systematic application of
the Gestalt principles to a wide range of questions.
Perception – the realm of experiences which are not merely “imagined,” “represented,” or “thought of.” e.g.
desk, candy flavor, traffic noise, etc.,
Pragnantz – is a German word for essence
Law of Pragnantz – a law which is concerned with perception. This law stated that all possible organizations
that could be perceived through visual stimulus, the one that is most likely to occur is the one that
possesses the best, simplest, and most stable form;(we tend to see things in their most simple,
harmonious, and concise form)
Law of Continuity – phenomena tend to be perceived as continuos.
Law of Closure – the tendency of perception to fill in gaps or to complete in perception what is physically
incomplete.
Law of Similarity – things that are similar in size, shape, color brightness, etc., will be “perceived as belonging
together.”
Law of Proximity – things that are closer together will be perceived as “belonging” together.
Phi-phenomenon – the experience of motion emerged from the combination of the elemental stimuli.
Stroboscope – a device for exposing a series of related visual stimuli rapidly. Under such conditions the stimuli
give rise to an illusion of continuous movement.
Stroboscopic Illusion – the apparent motion of two stimuli which are presented in close succession. e.g. motion
picture
Figure and Ground Effects – the tendency to perceived figures from our experience to have some shape, while
the ground tends to be without form covering the figure behind continuously.
Perceptual Groupings – the tendency to perceived different stimuli as having the same pattern dependent on
nearness, similarity and configuration.
Light Constancy – objects retain their degree of color or brightness regardless of illumination. e.g. White paper
remains white whether viewed in dim light or intense illumination.
Color Constancy – the tendency to see the color of an object as stable.
Shape Constancy – the tendency of the shape of an object to retain their visual shape whether viewed from an
angle or head on e.g. a window is perceived as rectangular although as it opens or shuts, the actual shape
changes from rectangular to trapezoidal.
Size Constancy – it is illustrated in the way we perceive a distant person or object as being of the same or usual
size regardless of distance.
Location Constancy – the tendency to see an object retaining its position in space when we move about.
 21

Perceptual Illusion – an impression from experience which does not correctly represent the objective situation
outside the observer.
Insight Learning – means grasping or understanding of the situation or object or materials in such a way that
significant relations are apparent. It is the form of gestalt or pattern in which the relevant factors fall
into place with respect to the whole. It involve total organization and implies a mental integration by
which a situation or problem is understood in all its relations.

How Learning Takes Place:

Gestalt explains learning in terms of modifications that take place in response to meaningful patterns or
configurations. According to Wertheimer it was useless to study small parts of psychological concepts, like
perception or learning. Studying parts in isolation was unjustified, because changing any single part necessarily
changes the whole, or the gestalt. Similarly, the whole may remain, even when all the parts have changed.
Gestaltists was concerned with the way children learn, particularly in school. They were against the use
of rote memorization, especially when it so often seemed to be an end in itself. Above all else, they wanted
children to achieve understanding, to have insight into the nature of the problem.
Wertheimer explained that there are two kinds of solutions to problems, type A and type B. Type A
solutions are those that use originality and insight, whereas type B solutions are those that make use of past
associations in a rigid, inappropriate way. Wertheimer used the example of teaching a child how to find the area
of a parallelogram.
The child is first taught how to find the area of a rectangle, not by memorizing the formula but by
understanding why the formula works.
Bruner’s Theory of Instruction: “Instrumental Conceptualism”

Jerome Seymour Bruner, an American psychologist and educator who has done pioneering work in the
field of cognition, in World War II, Bruner’s interest shifted to social psychology, and he wrote his doctoral
thesis on the techniques of Nazi propagandists. During the war, Bruner entered the army and worked on
psychological warfare in General Eisenhower’s headquarters in SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters Allied
Expeditionary Force).
Cognitive psychology deals with the human being’s ability to obtain knowledge and develop
intellectually. By 1960 he had helped found Harvard University’s Center for Cognitive Studies, and although he
didn’t invent cognitive psychology, he certainly went a long way toward making it systematic and consistent
with the rules of science and published the important work The Process of Education.

Overview Of The Theory:

Another cognitive theorist, Bruner, came up with his theory which focused on the problem of what
people do with information to achieve generalized insights or understanding. Mastering of skills would
facilitate the new learning.
Bruner emphasizes four major theories applicable to all areas of teaching and learning.
The first states that learning involves understanding of basic relationships in the structure of a subject.
This comprehension of relationships will enable the student to retain the material better and even transfer it to
new learning situations.
The second theme of Bruner pertains to readiness for learning. He believed that the basic foundations of
any discipline could be taught in a meaningful form even to young children. According to Bruner, subject
matter could be matched with the cognitive level of a child.
Bruner’s third theme urges schools to put more emphasis on the development on intuitive thinking. This
is the ability to arrive at reasonable but tentative solutions or generalizations before any actual formal analysis.
The fourth theme of Bruner concerned motivation. He believes that intrinsic motivation, that of creating
interest in the subject matter itself so that the student is convinced that it is worth knowing, is better that
extrinsic motivation in the form of grades, medals, and other external goals.
According to Bruner, the process of learning a subject takes place in three integrative steps:
1. Acquisition is the process of obtaining new information that can either replace or refine
something previously known.
2. Transformation is the manipulation of information to fit new situations.
3. Evaluation is checking whether or not the learned material has been manipulated appropriately.

Major Principles
1. MOTIVATION
Bruner’s first principle specifies the conditions that predispose an individual toward learning. Another
motivation we bring into the world with us is the drive to achieve competence. Finally, Bruner lists reciprocity
 22

as a motivation that is built into the species. According to Bruner, the intrinsic motivations are rewarding in
themselves and are therefore self-sustaining.
The exploration of alternatives has three phases: activation, maintenance, and direction.

Activation- in order to activate exploration, in order to get it started, children must experience a certain level of
uncertainty.

Maintenance- once activated, exploration must be maintained.

Direction - meaningful exploration must have direction. The direction of exploration is a function of two
factors: knowledge of the goal, and the knowledge that the exploration of alternatives is relevant to the
achievement of that goal.

II. STRUCTURE
Bruner’s second principle states that any given subject area, any body of knowledge, can be organized in
some optimal fashion so that it can be transmitted to and understood by almost any student. According to
Bruner, the structure of anybody of knowledge can be characterized in three ways: mode of presentation,
economy, and power.

Mode of Presentation
Mode of presentation refers to the technique, the method, whereby information is communicated.
Enactive Representation - very young children can understand things best in terms of actions. In short, when
young children are in the enactive stage of thinking, the best, the most comprehensible, messages are wordless
ones.

Iconic Representation
Somewhat older children learn to think at a different level, the iconic level. Objectives become
conceivable without action.

Symbolic Representation
At this stage children can translate experience into language. The balance beam can be explained
through the use of words rather than pictures. Symbolic representation allows children to begin logical
derivations and to think more compactly.

Economy of Presentation
Economy in communicating a body of knowledge depends n the amount of information the learner must
keep in mind in order to continue learning. The fewer bits of information, the fewer facts the learner must bear
in mind, the greater the economy. The best way to provide economy in teaching is to give the learner concise
summaries.
Power of Presentation
Bruner believes that nature is simple; hence, to be powerful, a presentation of some aspect of nature
should reflect nature’s simplicity. Teachers often make difficult what is inherently easy. A powerful
presentation is a simple presentation, one that is easily understood. It allows the learner to see new
relationships, to find connections between facts that may at first seem quite separate. Bruner feels that a
powerful presentation is especially important in the field of mathematics.

III. SEQUENCE
The extent to which student finds it difficult to master a given subject depends largely on the sequence
in which the material is presented. Teaching involves leading the learner through a certain sequence of the
various aspects of the subject. The sequence in which new material is presented is also important during
exploration. Finally, sequencing is significant aspect of motivation.

IV. REINFORCEMENT
Learning requires reinforcement. In order to achieve mastery of a problem, we must receive feedback as
to how we are doing. The timing of the reinforcement is crucial to success in learning. He emphasizes that
“instruction is a provisional state that has its object to make the learner or problem solver self-sufficient”. Thus,
the learner cannot become so dependent on the teacher’s reinforcement that the teacher must be perpetually
present. Ultimately, the learner must take on a self-corrective function.

DISCOVERY
 23

Though it is possible to memorize a poem, or the multiplication tables, or the state capitals, meaningful
learning often requires actual discovery. Bruner is not saying that discovery is the only form of learning. Nor is
he saying that students must discover for themselves the solutions to every problem in a given field.
Discovery learning has been compared to “reception” learning. In reception learning the student is
simply presented with some material, the content of which is already organized and complete.
He sees the following as possible benefits which can be derived from the experience of learning through
discovery:
1. The increase in intellectual potency; 2. The sift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards; 3. Learning of
the heuristics of discovery and 4. The aid to conserving memory

The good teacher is a patient teacher, for discovery teaching cannot be hurried. It is often frustratingly
slow, but the goal of real student understanding is well worth the wait.

KEY CONCEPTS:
Jerome Seymour Bruner – father of cognitive psychology and proponent of structure first and facts second in
education.
Cognition – comes from the Latin word cognoscere which means to know.
Cognitive Theories – place emphasis upon the concept that learning is a process of discovering and
understanding relationships, and organizing and finding significance in the sensory experiences aroused
by the external situation.
Acquisition – is the process of obtaining new information that can either replace or refine something previously
known.
Transformation – is the manipulation of information to fit new situations.
Evaluation – is checking whether or not the learned material has been manipulated appropriately.
Learning Theory – describes what happens after the fact.
Theory of Instruction – prescribes in advance how a given subject can be best taught.
Bruner’s First Principle – specifies the conditions that predispose an individual toward learning.
Motivation – the practical art of applying incentives and arousing interests for the purpose of causing a pupil or
student to perform in a desired way.
Extrinsic Motivation – the application of incentives that are external to a given activity to make work pleasant
and to facilitate performance e.g. praises rewards, etc.,
Intrinsic Motivation – determination of behavior that is resident within an activity and that sustains it as with
autonomous acts and interests (curiosity, drive to achieve competence, and reciprocity).
curiosity – the desire to know or learn about something.
drive to achieve competence – an energy or initiative to process certain skill, knowledge, experience, etc.,
which is needed for the individual to excel in his chosen field.
reciprocity – a need to work with others cooperatively.
Bruner’s Second Principle – here it was told that any given subject area if structured appropriately could be
understood by almost any student.
Structure – the manner which the elements or parts of a certain subject or discipline is organized base on the
degree of importance and difficulty.
Mode of presentation – refers to the technique and method whereby information is communicated.
Enactive Representation – the stage where children define words in terms of the actions associated with them.
Iconic Representation – at this level subjects become conceivable without having to be acted out.
Symbolic Representation – at this stage children can translate experience into language.
Economy of Presentation – the shorter the subject could be summarize, the fewer the facts, the greater is the
economy.
Power of Presentation – a powerful presentation is a simple presentation, one that is easily understood by the
learner.
Bruner’s Third Principle – indicates that teaching should begin with the enactive representation going to
iconic and then symbolic.
Sequence – the order of representation of the elements of a subject.
Bruner’s Fourth Principle – discussed that for the student to be able to gain mastery of the subject,
reinforcement should be given at the right time.
Reinforcement – the strengthening of a response by adding an increment of habit strength.
SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

What is social stratification?

 24

Social stratification always takes place in a society. There can be no social stratification without society. Hence,
there is a need to define society first before explaining the meaning of social stratification.

The Meaning of Society

There is several definition of society given the eminent authorities but the definitions all point out at the
following as the characteristics of society:

a.) A society is an organized group of people.

b.) The people occupy a portion of territory;
c.) The people show a district and continuous way of life, with a comprehensive culture;
d.) The people perpetuate their group by sexual reproduction;
e.) The people think of themselves as a district group who common sentiments and loyalties, an esprit de
corps; and,
f.) The individual, under certain circumstances, sacrifices himself for the good of the group.

The above-mentioned characteristics may as well constitute a comprehensive definition of society. A

group of people cannot constitute a society unless it has the above-mentioned characteristics.

MEANING OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social stratification is the division of a society into different hierarchical classes of people according to
certain criteria. The scale of division is from the highest to lowest class
In some countries, social stratification is very rigid. Take the scale system of India. The people are
classified according to the following: the Brahmans belong to the highest class, associated with the
priesthood; the second class is composed of the Kshatriyas, the warrior group or class; to the third class
belong the Vaisyas or tradesmen; to the fourth class belong the Sudras, the servant class; and the last are the
outcasts or untouchables, the Pariahs. The people are born into and they die in their own caste. The people
of one caste. Do not usually associate the people of another caste. One cannot get out of his own caste and
joint another caste ot easily. However, some efforts are being exerted to lessen the rigidity of the caste
system.
Social stratification in a democratic country like the Philippines is not very rigid. Classification is loose
and based merely on the general perceptions of the people. The classes do not have any district nor clear-cut
divisions. The people are merely divided according the socio-economic criteria which were having any
definite limits boundaries. Thus, some people are considered to belong to the upper class, some to the
middle class, and the rest of the lower class but exactly where the dividing lines are located is not known.
People may also be classified as very rich, rich, poor, very poor.

SOCIAL STATUS

Social status is the social class to which one belongs. It is the class into which his socio-economic
standing fits.

Social status may be ascribed of achieved. Ascribed status is due to the accident of birth. It is the class
into which one is born. If one is borne into a rich family, then he belongs to the rich class. If one is born into
a poor family, then he belongs to a poor class

Achieved status is earned or acquired by means of a talent and effort-making capacity of an individual or
by force of circumstances. Nora Aunor climbed the social ladder through her singing talent and acting
ability coupled with hard work. Vilma Santos rose from obscurity to prominence through her acting ability
and hard work too. Education is probably the best surest way of improving social status but much effort
must be exerted to obtain one. There are also instances when one climbs the social ladder by force of
circumstances. When a poor girl marries a rich boy then she becomes a member of the rich class. And so
with a poor boy who marries a rich girl. There was a man who won first prize in a Sweepstake’s draw. He
invested the money in good business which prospered tremendously. Thus, that man became a member of
the upper class.

DETERMINANTS OF SOCIAL STATUS OR CLASS

There are some determinants of social status. Some of which are the following arranged from highest to
lowest in scale.
 25

A. Occupational and Income Scale

1. Owners and high officials of big business enterprises, high government officials; professionals who
have gained notable expertise and prestige; superstars on the show business. Amounts of income are
very high.

2. Lower officials of big business enterprises; owners and officials of smaller business; professionals
with moderate success; lower government officials; movie stars with moderate success. Amounts of
income are high.
3. Employees performing clerical jobs. Amounts of income and average. Also included here are skilled
workers and small store owners. Incomes are average.
4. Unskilled workers, laborers, tenant farmers, domestic helpers, small vendors. Incomes are below
average.
5. Semi-employed, underemployed, or even jobless. Incomes are very low.

B. Education

1. Graduates from post collegiate courses such as graduate in medicines and law.
2. College graduates
3. High school graduates
4. Elementary graduates
5. Primary graduates
6. Below primary schooling
C. Hour Type
1. Excellent houses- palatial, made of concrete and fine lumber, air-conditioned, with garage for
one or more cars, spacious and well-kept yard, landscaped and well-kept lawn, and fully furnished. The
yard is well fenced.
2. Very good houses- big but not so palatial, made of concrete and fine lumber, air-conditioned,
with garage for one or more cars, with fairly spacious yard and landscaped lawn, fully furnished. The
yard is well fenced.
3. Good houses- fairly big, made of concrete and fine lumber, either air-conditioned or not, with a
garage for one car, with a small yard but well-fenced, with substantial furnishings.
4. Average houses- not so big, semi-concrete, not air-conditioned, no garage, a very small yard or a
big yard but not well-kept or fenced, and scantily furnished.
5. Fair houses- usually small but enough for a family, made of wood and other light materials, with
a small yard and sometimes not fenced, usually unfurnished.
6. Poor houses- usually small, made of light and flammable materials, with very little or no privacy
at all no furnishings.
7. Very poor houses- usually a one-room affair, made of cardboards and other lights and flammable
materials, no yard of its own but very close to other houses of the same kind, easily blown down during
typhoons.

D. Dwelling Area

1. Very affluent- these are first class subdivisions with well-paved streets and sanitary, usually
residences of very rich people. Lots are very costly.
2. Affluent- these are also good subdivisions but not as good as the first class subdivisions, the residents
are also rich and the lots are also costly.
3. Fairly affluent- these may or may not be subdivisions but places district by themselves and good
enough for the people to go about their daily chores in peace.
4. Not affluent – these are the dwelling places of the great majority of the common people. Most of the
residents are not well-to-do but not so poor and they can still manage to lead an ordinary life.
5. Poor – most of the people here poor and there is a great need for improvement, but the residents can
still manage to lead a livable life.
6. Very poor – these are places where are people are very poor and can hardly manage to live. These are
the slum areas where the living quarters of the families are so close to each other that there is hardly
space to move about.
 26

SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility is the case by which people move from one social class to another. In the Philippines,
since there is no law impeding the changing of one’s social class, there are several opportunities of improving
one’s social class. Some of these opportunities are the following:

1. By effort-making

a.) By obtaining an education

This is the way improving one’s lot in life, and thus climbs the social ladder. Many poor boys
and girls who have worked during the day and studied at night have been very successful in their professional
practice. Some have even acquired some kind of political power.

b.) By exploiting a talent

These are many boys and girls with special talent. They can raise prominence by exploiting their talents
to the fullest. Nora Aunor, as mentioned before, has risen to the top through her acting proficiently. Flash Elorde
exploited to the full his boxing prowess and he rose from obscurity to fame.

c.) By hard work and resourcefulness

A women started her business career by selling odd things such as soap, children’s bread and candies,
thread balls, etc. from house to house. Then she was able to open a one-meter-wide store in her town. Through
the years, she kept on expanding her business until she became one ot eh big store owners of her town. Later,
she was also able to acquire some passenger jeeps for hire.

2. By force of circumstances

a) By marriage
When a poor girl marries a rich boy, then she also becomes rich. The same is true when a poor
boy weds a rich girl. The boy also becomes rich. There was a Filipina maid who married her millionaire boss
and she became a millionaire, too.

B.) By just being lucky

There was a small store owner in a certain city who won first prize in a Sweepstakes draw. He
made wise investments with his money and now his heirs have good business establishments in the city in the
form of movie houses, hotels, buildings, offices for rent, and real estate. Another lucky man was a janitor. He
was a college graduate but of the difficulty of finding a more respectable job, he accepted a janitor’s job. One
day while doing his chore, he came across a big envelope with a large amount of money inside. He turned over
the enveloped with the money of he manager of the establishment who returned the money to the rightful
owner. Because of his honesty, the janitor was given a more respectable job with greater responsibility but with
a much bigger salary plus the reward money that he received from the owner of the returned money which quite
sizeable.

STATUS SYMBOLS
Certain things are considered indicators of the social class to which one belongs. A palatial house
means that social class to which one belongs. A palatial house means that owner is rich and that he belongs to
the upper class. A car owner belongs to the upper class or middle class depending upon the expensiveness of the
car. Jewelry is another status symbol. If one wears very expensive jewelry, it means he or she belongs to the
upper class. Even the place where one lives is associated with social status. One who lives in Forbes Park
belongs to the upper class while one who lives in a teachers’ village belongs to the middle class. One who lives
in slum area of course belongs to the lower class. The association or club to whom one belongs also indicates
his social status. A rotation is considered belonging to the upper class. The member of a labor union belongs to
the working class. Any member of the Philippine Association for Graduate Education (PAGE) is a graduate
degree holder.

ROLE
Role is a function or duty that an individual has to perform on account of his position in society. A role
may be obligatory or cultural. An obligatory role is assign to a person because of the nature of his position. For
instance, a teacher’s role is to teach because that is what he is employed for. His position can be taken away
from him and he is no longer a teacher. A driver has to drive. An office clerk to do the clerical work in the office
 27

otherwise, he is not a driver. An office clerk has to do the clerical work in the office otherwise his position as
clerk may be taken away from him.

A cultural role is a function or duty assigned to an individual by culture or custom. For instance, it is
customary that keeper. But there are cases where the father becomes jobless. In such cases, the mother becomes
the breadwinner and the father becomes the housekeeper. But the position of the man as a father cannot be taken
away from him. And so with the mother. It is the duty of a brother to help another bother when the latter, he is
still a brother to the latter. His position as brother cannot be taken away from him.

The main difference between the two terms is that in the obligatory role, position and role, position and
role or function are inseparable, one cannot exist without the other whereas in the cultural or customary role, the
individual may not perform his role, the individual may not perform his role or function associated with his
position but his position cannot be taken away from him.

A person may behave differently in different roles. A person may be an aggressive labor leader but he
may be a submissive husband at home. A boy may be submissively obedient at home but a very aggressive
leader in school. A person may also have many roles under one position. A mother, for instance, prepares the
meals, batches the children and prepares them house, washes clothes, goes to market, etc.

EFFECT OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN LEARNING

Social stratification has certain effects upon learning. These are as follows: (Bustos and Espiritu, p. 51)

1. Children belonging to a poor disadvantaged family do not aspire much for higher education. This is due
to the belief of the family that since it cannot afford to send its children to higher institutions of learning,
it is enough that the children are able to read and write. This is the effect of the low socio-economic
status of the family.

2. Children coming from lower class families have very little exposure to the influence of mass media such
as newspapers, magazines, books and other learning materials, radio and television. Hence, their
learning experiences are confined within the classroom only. It is believed that because of his situation,
students coming from the less privileged areas like the rural areas have lower ratings in national ratings
in national survey tests like the NCEE than the students coming from the more affluent areas. Students
coming from prestigious schools also achieve higher than those coming from disadvantaged or
underprivileged schools.

3. In most cases, the educational attainment of a child matches the socio-economic status of his family.
However, in the Philippines, more and more children coming from lower class families are attaining
higher education. This is due to the desire of the parents to save their children from undergoing the same
hardships that the former have experienced. Since education is an important means of achieving social
and occupational mobility, parents utilize every possible means to institutions learning.

SOCIAL GROUPS

The presence of social groupings in any society is unavoidable. It is the nature of men to live in groups. People
often group themselves in many different occasions and circumstances. There are two principal reasons why
men tend to group themselves. They do so (1) because of gregariousness and (2) because of necessity.
Gregariousness is the tendency of men to be in the company of other men. They simply love to be together and
do things together. They love to eat, play, travel, work, laugh together, etc. Necessity force men to group
themselves to do things which one man alone cannot do. For example, in fighting a common enemy or in
building a dam, a bridge, or a house, men have to work in groups, work side by side.

TWO GENERAL TYPES OF GROUPS

 28

There are two general types of groups as far as joining a group is concerned: (1) involuntary groups and
(2) voluntary groups.

1. Involuntary groups. Involuntary groups are those groups into which the members are born. The members
have no other choice but to be members of the group they are born into whether they like it or not.
Among the involuntary groups are the following:

a) Family
The family is the basic unit of society, composed of the father, mother, and children.

b) Neighborhood
This is the immediate vicinity of a family and composed to households which are close
together.

c) Barangay or barrio
The barangay is the smallest political unit composed of neighborhoods.

d) Towns or municipality
This is the next larger political unit composed of barangays or barrios.

e) Province
This is larger political entity composed of towns or municipalities.

f) Nation
This is the whole country, the Philippines, whose people, the Filipinos, occupy a portion
of territory called their own, and who are conscious that they are one and under the same
government.
There are ethnic groups each of which has a district culture of its own. Examples are the igorots, the
ilocanos, the tagalogs, visayans, etc.

There are also larger international groupings such as the Asian region, Middle East, Pacific region, south
American countries, etc.

2. Voluntary associations or groups. These are called voluntary groups or associations because the
individual can choose the group to which he wants to belong. Of course, the individual is under different
kinds of pressures when making his choice but the final decision is his. Some of the voluntary
associations or groups are the following:

a) Play groups

b) Peer groups

c) Work groups

d) Schools groups

e) Church groups

f) Purposive voluntary associations

GENERAL FUNCTION AND ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL GROUPS

There are certain functions that are inherent in groups. Some of the general functions of groups that
make them very advantageous are the following:

1. Education. Education is acquired not only from a formal school system but from the community as well.
The community as a group is a big school by itself. Any member of the group is a teacher and learner at
the same time. Knowledge, skills, language, values, attributes, habits, practices, etc. are transmitted one
 29

person to another by observation, imitation, participation, or by personal instruction. But of course,

education is best acquired from school. The school is the best dispenser of learning.
2. Protection. This is especially true among tribal groups. People of a tribe usually unite or join together to
ward of the instructions of other tribes or to fight off fierces animals. Even in civilized societies, people
of a small community usually unite to fight off evil intruders. Sometimes, too, conflicts between nations
and the combatants usually fight in groups.
3. Perpetuation of the race. This is the function of the family by sexual reproduction and rearing of the
youth, the perpetuation of the race insured. This is a very important and indispensable function of the
family. The family also provides love, affection, sympathy, and understanding for the children.
4. Social control. The group is a very potent power for social control. Social approval for a good act is
generally a strong motivation for individuals to act properly while a social disapproval for a bad act
improperly. A man performs good acts because he wants to look to the other members of the group and
he avoids bad acts because he does not like to look bad to other people.
5. Ideology. Some people may believes in some kind of governmental structure or administration and they
group together to fight for their ideology. They form a political party and work for the election of their
candidates. Sometimes they use violent means to attain their goal. This is why the country has an
insurgency problem.
6. Redness of grievances. Some people may feel that they have been deprived of certain rights and
privileges and they gather together and stage rally or rallies. Students marching down the streets and
rallying against the increase in tuition fees is one example. A labor union staging a strike is another.
7. Charity. There are people who have a soft heart for the disadvantaged and underprivileged. They
organized and pool their resources to be able to help those in distress.
They organized social welfare clubs, orphanages, rehabilitation centers, and the like. They cater to the
needs of extremely distressed people who are victims of catastrophic events such as floods, typhoons,
volcanic eruption, earthquakes and other tragedies.
8. Recreation. People who feel the drudgery of their work or life itself may from recreational clubs, tennis
clubs, chess clubs, travel clubs, swimming clubs, and the like.
9. Religion. The most important function of the church is the salvation of the soul. But the church also
serves as a means of social control. With the spiritual and mortal values being learning in the church
adherents are good members of society.
10. Expression of talents. Groups and events are often organized to provide channel for the expression of
special talents. Athletics meets like SEA Games and Olympics are very good channel for the exhibition
of athletic prowess. Beauty contest are good opportunities for showing the magic power of the beauty
and brain. Public speaking contests, singing contests, quiz bees, and the like are good channels for the
expression of special talents.
11. Professional Enhancement. Those in the professions form association for the purpose of professional
enhancement; otherwise, they remain stagnant in their respective professions the professionals have to
gather together once in a while in form of conferences, seminars workshops, and the like to exchange
ideas in a new trends of the profession. There is at least one association for every profession in the
country. Examples are the Philippine Association for Teacher Education, Philippine Nursing
Association, Integrated Bar of the Philippines, Philippine Medical Association, and many others.
12. Purely social interaction. There are gatherings the only purpose of which is purely social interaction.
Birthday parties, baptismal parties, and wedding anniversaries are of this kind.

KINDS OF VOLUNTARY GROUPS (Further Elaboration)

There are several kinds of voluntary groups. Some of these are the following: (1) peer group (2) idolized
group (3) we-and-they-group and (4) formal voluntary association.
1. Peer group. Peer group has two connotations. One refers to age level peer group and other to the
professional peer group. An age level peer group is composed of a young boys and girls or young men
and young women of the same sex of the same age. A professional peer group is composed of persons of
the same professional work. For instance, teachers belong to the same peer group, lawyers to the same
lawyer peer group, congressmen belong to the same congressmen peer group, etc. hence, a teacher ia a
peer of other teachers, a doctor is a peer of other doctors, a congressmen is a peer of other Congressmen,
etc.

The age level peer group has more important implications. The members of an age level peer
group are usually of the same socio-economic status aside from having the same age and the same sex.
The peer group is further subdivided into the play group, gang, and the clique.
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a) The play group

The play is the most common peer group. Because of propinquity,
The member children because very intimate with one another and their play is very informal and
spontaneous without adult supervision. Oftentimes, they develop and follow their own rules of
play. The children play very happily because they are not yet aware of the serious problems of
life.

b) Gang

Usually, young people start forming their gangs at the teenage period but membership in
a gang may continue until adulthood. The local term for the gang is barkada which is more
common among boys than among the girls. The members recognize a leader and sometimes
developed their own subculture by developing a kind of language somewhat different from the
ordinary usage, a mode of behavior of their own, and passwords which only they understand.
They have a meeting place where they plan their activities.
Some gangs are notoriously antisocial. They thrive on conflicts. They hate being advised by
adult and by school authorities and do not tolerate interference from the latter. They love creating
trouble, fighting, bullying, loafing, gambling, drinking liquor, and other antisocial activities. They often
have a target to inflict harm upon – a policeman, an individual, a store, a family, or an enemy, many
gang members end up in jail or death inflicted by the police, an individual, or by an enemy.

c) The clique
The clique is a small peer within a bigger peer group. A few
members of group may have the same feeling or attitude towards a
certain issue, a common sentiment, a common sympathy and understanding, a common
grievance. They come together to form a group but not separating from their original group.
Because of the strong attachment among the clique members due to the strength of a common
belief or feeling, they may defy the norms of their families or school or society in general.
Because if this, cliques are usually considered undesirable. Cliques are not confined to the
young. They also exist among teachers, among the members of congress, and among members of
other big groups.
2. Idolized group. In some other sources, this is called reference group. This is simply a group. This is
simply a group. This is simply a group of professionals whom an individual idolizes. For instance, if an
individual admires lawyers, he tries to observe how lawyers behave in the courtroom and in social
circles. He tries to conform to the behavior, attitude and values of lawyers and aspires to be one. He now
works toward that end, to be a member of the lawyer’s group. Idolized groups are important because
they exert they strong influence upon an individual in the information of his habits, values, conduct, and
in the pursuit of his life aspiration, or ambition.

3. The we-group and the they-group. These are groups mainly characterized by belonging to a group and
not belonging to the group.

a) The we-group
This is termed by some sources as in-group. This is a group where one feels he belonging to this
group have a feeling of solidarity or oneness, camaraderie, sympathetic attitude, protectiveness,
and loyalty toward the other members. One may even accept responsibility for the other
members. A slur orb harm on one he also considered done to the other members. They know each
other usually and enjoy doing things together. The we-group can be as small as a family but it
can be as big as a nation or international region like the feeling being an Asian. When the we-
group feeling involves the family, neighbor, barrio, town province, region or nation, it is an
involuntary group.

There are certain functions of the we-group feeling. Such function are (1) it contributes to group
loyalty and promotes group solidarity, (2) it promotes conformity and therefore becomes a form
of social control, (3) it promotes nationalism (Hederson, bustos and Espiritu, p. 47), and it
promotes protectiveness among its members.

When the we-group is excessive, however, it becomes destructive. The wars or conflicts between
fraternities, barangays, tribes or even between nations are the results of an excessive we-group
feeling.
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b) The they-group
This is called an out-group by other sources. This is a group toward which one has a feeling of
indifference, strangeness, avoidance, dislike, antagonism and even hatred. (Biertedt, Bustos and
Espiritu, p. 47). When the members of a we-group speak about themselves they say “we” or “our
group.” But when they speak about people who are not members of the group they say “they.”
The members of the we-group deal with those of the they-group only because of necessity

4. Formal voluntary associations. There are many kinds and types of voluntary associations but they have
some common characteristics which are the following.

a) They are formally organized in the sense that they elect a set of officers that would run to
associate.
b) Entrance have the associations is voluntary;
c) They have a constitution and Bu-laws or a set of rules and regulations to guide their activities;
d) They conct regular and/or special meetings in a definite designated place;
e) They collect membership and annual fees;
f) They conduct regular and/or special activities to attain their goals;
g) They are non-profit;
h) They have special provisions for helping co-members in distress especially in times of sickness
of death; and
i) A member may or can get out of or resign from the association of which he is a member without
any legal implications or obligations.

In addition, while most associations have local membership, some have provincial, regional,
national, and even international membership like the Rotary Club and the Lions International.

The kinds or types of formal voluntary associations are the following:

a) Recreation group. Those interested in recreational activities form themselves into associations
to give fuller fulfillment of their desire for recreation. And so there are tennis clubs, golf clubs,
chess clubs, travel clubs, dance clubs, etc.
b) Social Service groups. Those who have a soft heart for the underprivileged, disadvantaged,
and handicapped form themselves into groups to be able to render better service of those who
are in need. These groups render a free medical and dental services, construct waiting sheds,
put up orphanages, rehabilitation centers, give aid to victim of calamities, and the like. The
Red cross is a good example.

c) Ideology or political action groups. These who have the same belief or idea in some kind of
governmental structures or administration form themselves into groups and works as team for
their ideological goals. They form or join political parties and work for the election of
candidates that espouse their cause. In some instances, they resort to violence to achieve their
cause.

d) Professional groups. Professionals form themselves into association for the purpose of
enhancing and improving their professional knowledge and skills. They hold conventions,
conferences, seminars, workshop, demonstration, and the like to update themselves in the new
trends in their respective professions. Example of professional associations are the Philippine
Association for Graduate Education (PAGE) for graduate educators, Philippine Association for
Teachers Education (PAFTE) for teachers, Philippine Medical Association for doctors of
medicine, and the Integrated Bar of the Philippines (IBP) for Lawyers.

e) Fraternity groups. The main pupose of fraternities is to promote brotherhood among the
members. It is here where the we-group feeling is keenly felt. Examples are the Free and
Accepted masonry in the Philippines and the fraternities and sororities in the colleges and
universities. Sororities are for women while fraternities are for men.

f) Religious groups. Members of religious groups or church aspire for the salvation of their
souls. They also promote brotherhood among men. Religious services are held every Sunday
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or Saturday and in some special days and occasions. Churches are very effective instruments
for social control because they stress the teaching of spiritual and social values, especially
peace and goodwill among men.

g) The activist groups. Activism is a new phenomenon in the social and political fields. People
who feel deprived of certain rights and privileges group themselves and stage rallies and
marches and make demands that are sometimes impossible to grant. Sometimes the rallyists,
carried emotionally by the fiery speeches of their leaders become violent damaging some
stores, turning cars, trucks, and buses upside down and sometimes burning them that the
police have to intervene resulting in the death and wounding of some of the rallyists and arrest
of the leaders. In some other cases, people leave their positions of responsibility and join
rallies violating some employment laws of the land. Generally, though, rallies and marches are
conducted peacefully and in orderly fashion and demands are presented with sobriety.

h) The union groups. It is now common practice that workers in factories and other establishment
and even in the government forge themselves into unions to enable them to have a stronger
bargaining power. Labor unions usually work for better wages, working conditions and some
other benefits. Labor unions usually forge collection bargaining agreement with their
employers. The strongest weapon of labor unions is the strike. Because of the strike, weapon
of labors union usually win a major portion of their demands or at least get some concessions.

i) The syndicates. The list of groups is not complete unless the syndicates are included.
Syndicates are groups that are organized purposely to commit criminal acts to enable the
members to get what they want. Syndicates engage in many illegal activities such as kidnap-
for-ransom, bank robberies, smuggling, drug trafficking, illegal gambling, keeping prostitution
dens, robbing commercial establishments and rich people, car napping, graft and corruption,
raping, killing, and terrorizing people to be able to get what they want. It is sad to note that
some members and protectors of some syndicates are law enforcers or public officials.

It is needless to say that all educative agencies of the land must pool their resources and work
together very hard in cooperation with the government’s efforts to minimize if not entirely eradicate
the existence of syndicates. Strong guidance and counseling program must be established in all
schools. There be should be a heavy emphasis in the teaching of spiritual and values education. The
church denominations, instead of debating and fighting against one onother must work hard
cooperatively in intensifying the inculcation of spiritual values in the minds of the young and old
people as well.

INSTITUTIONAL GROUP AGENCIES FOR EDUCATION

As far as education is concerned, there are three very important institutional groups that serve as agencies for
learning: the family, the school, and the church.

THE FAMILY
The family is the smallest social institution. Bertrand defines family as a “socially sanctioned group of
persons united by kinship, marriage or adoption, who share a common habitat generally and interact according
to well-defined social roles that maintain and protect its members and perpetuate the society.” (Lardizabal, p.
91-92). In similar terms a family is composed a father, a mother, and their children.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FAMILY

The family may be classified as follows:

1. According to Structure
a. Conjugal or nuclear family- consisting of husband,
wife, and children.
b. Consanguine or Extended family – consisting of married couple, children, and
relatives
2. According to the Number of Spouses
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a. Monogamy- consisting of only one husband and one wife married at a time. This means that a
widower or a widow can marry again.
b. Polygamy – plural marriage. There are three classes.
1) Polyandry – one woman married to two or more men at the same time
2) Polygamy – one man married to two or more women at the same time.
3) Cenogamy – group sex. Two or more men and two or more women having sex together
at the same time one after the other.

3. According to line of Descent

a. Patrilineal – descent is through the father’s line
b. Matrilineal – descent – is though the mother’s line
c. Bilineal – descent is through the father’s and mother’s line.

4. According to Residence
a. Patrilocal – when the newlyweds live with the parents of the husband.
b. Matrilocal – when the newlyweds live with the parents of the wife.
c. Neolocal – when the new couples live by themselves and have a separate household.

5. According to Dominance
a. Patriarchal – when the father is the head and makes the major decisions and dominant.
b. Matriarchal – when the mother is the head and makes the major decisions and is dominant.
c. Equalitarian – when the father and mother share in making major decisions and have equal
authority.

General Function of the Family

The general functions of the family are
1. Perpetuation of the human race. The most important function of the family is sexual reproduction to
perpetuate the human race. Without sexual reproduction, humanity would face extinction. But human
reproduction should be tempered to suit the needs of society, particularly economic in nature. Family
planning is now a necessity in the socio-economic life of the people..
2. Rearing of the young. Children are helpless when they are born. They need to be taken cared of. They
need to be properly fed, clothed, and sheltered and given all the necessary comforts. Then they are sent
to school. All these things are done until the children are capable of leading an independent life.
3. Providing psychological needs of the young. Psychological needs are as important as the material needs
of children. They need love, affection, and sense of security. Embracing, kissing, praising, giving them
touches and taps of tenderness, playing with them, admonishing them gently to do good and avoid bad
things, and many other similaracts signs of love and affection mean a lot to the children for their growth
and personality development. A good environment should be provided for the growth and personality
development of the children. A good aspiration in life must also be inculcated in the minds of children.

Education Function of the Family (Home)

What are the educative functions of the family? What do the children learn from it? Some of the things
that children generally learn from their respective families are:

1. Healthful living. Children are taught what proper foods to eat, and to eat regularly; to brush their teeth
regularly; to take a bath regularly; to keep themselves always neat and clean, properly dressed, and well-
groomed; how to use toilet properly; to keep the house always clean including the surroundings for
sanitation, and keep things in their proper order. They are taught to have proper rest and sleep and avoid
things that are harmful to health such as sleeping too late, drinking liquor, smoking and many others that
would make the body unhealthy.

2. Ethical standards. The rudiments of ethical standards are already learned by the children at home.
Spiritual, moral, and desirable social values are taught to them in simple ways so that will have some
ideas about what is right and what is wrong. For instance, parents or elder brothers and sisters would
say, “Do not steal, that is bad; do not snatch the food or toy of your playmate, that is bad; do not gamble,
 34

that is bad.” Parents usually emphasize the don’ts rather than the do’s. Children are also taught good
manners and right conduct for almost all occasions. Respect for and obedience to elders are emphasized:
Answering or talking back to elders is taboo. Many aspects in connection to proper behavior are taught
to children.

3. Socialization. The children are taught about their roles and status in society, their roles as children, as
students or pupils, as parents in the future and as workers or professionals, etc. This is good because the
children are taught to be good and dutiful in their respective responsibilities.

4. Psychomotor and manipulative skills. Children are also learning at home some important psychomotor
and manipulative skills. They are taught how to dance, walk, run and sit gracefully. They are taught how
to use properly kitchen tools, appliances, and utensils, especially for girls, and carpentry tools for boys.
In the farm, the boys are taught how to use the scythe, bolo, plow, harrow, and how to sow and plant rice
and vegetables.

5. Resourcefulness, industry, and thrift. Training the children to be resourceful, industrious, and thrifty is
an important concern of most parents. Having gone through life them, parents know how important
these traits are and they want to transmit them to their own children.

6. Recreational skills. Recreation is important to all people and they engage in recreational activities in one
form or another knowingly or unknowingly. Even chatting is a form of recreation to some. But many
good recreational activities have been developed from the early childhood experiences. Many have
developed the love for tennis, chess, drama, basketball, volleyball, badminton, cycling, and others
because their fathers taught them how to play these in their childhood or boyhood days. Many good
hobbies have also been developed from the experiences of boyhood or girlhood days such as gardening,
hog or fowl raising, fishing, and orchard keeping.

7. Better performance in school. Usually parents help their children develop better skills in reading and
writing, and arithmetic by teaching them how to read and write properly and how to solve exercises and
verbal problems in arithmetic. This is especially true in the lower grades. The older children in the
family who have already reached the higher grades usually help their younger brothers and sisters in
their school work.

Summing up, all educative functions mentioned above belong to the culture transmission or
enculturation function of the family, that of transmitting the knowledge, beliefs, and practices of the old
generation to the young generation.
THE SCHOOL

What is a school? A school is an institution established by society in which the accumulated experiences
of the past generations are passed on the incoming generation by means of systematized programs of
instruction. The school is the center of learning as far as formal education is concerned. There are three
elements of school: the teachers, the pupils, students or learners, and the place where the teaching-learning
activities take place. If one is non-existent, there is no school.

Functions of a School
The functions of the schools are as follows:

1. Conservation function. The school conserves and preserves thought its libraries and other devices
recorded accumulated experiences of the past generations such as knowledge, inventions, mathematics,
science, historical facts, skills, customs, traditions language, literature, music, writing, and the arts. All
these are preserved for the future generations.

2. Instructional function. This function, the main concerns of the school, is to pass on the accumulated
experiences of the past generations. This is performed by individuals trained for the purpose, called
teachers, mentors, instructors or professors. The recipients of such instruction are the young learners
called pupils or the student. Some call such as instruction enculturation when things of the local culture
are taught, and acculturation, when things of a foreign culture are taught of the students. In the
 35

performances of the function, the deavor; politics, education, trade industry, science, especially in
medicine, and the like.

3. Research function. This is also an important function of the school. The school conducts research to
improve the old way of doing things or to discover hitherto unknown facts of systems to improve the
quality of human life. In the performance of this function, for instance, some schools are said to have
discovered a kind of fuel for machinery that is said to be inexhaustible if made operational or functional.

4. Social service function. One justification for a particular school to exist is to render some kind of social
service in the place where is to located. This maybe done through some kind of outreach programs that
may help improve the literacy level of the community people, their health, means of livelihood,
recreational activities, enjoyment of modern conveniences, and beautification of the place.

Relationship between the School and the Community

The term community as used here refers to the whole society.

1. The community supplies the school with the facts about new inventions, discoveries, or new ways of
doing things which are necessary to transmit to the young learners. The school in turn returns in the
community the usefulness and practically of such inventions, discoveries, or new knowledge through the
work of its graduates to improve the quality human life.
2. The community makes available and accessible to the school instructional resources that are available in
the place such us farms, rivers, lakes, mountains and forests, museums, libraries, industrial and
commercial firms, shop laboratories, offices of different kinds, and many others. The schools will
returns the service by means of the graduates applying the skills and knowledge acquired in schools
when they are employed in the community after graduation.

3. The community or society makes possible the existence of the schools by financing its operation and
formulating policies. The school will return such service by improving or enhancing the social,
economic, educational, and scientific endeavors of society through the work of its graduates.

4. The school may help the community through an outreach community programs to improve the economic
life of the people, improve their health, raise their literacy level, and beautify the place and the like. The
community may return the service by patronizing the school, give protection to it, and cooperating with
the school in accomplishing its community projects.

Evaluation of a school

The school may be evaluated in terms of the following: (the question asked should be answered in the
positive if the item referred to ranges from good to excellent)

1. Faculty. Are the faculty member’s fully qualified education? Do they have mastery of the subject
matters they teach? The medium of instruction? The method and tools of teaching? Methods and tools of
communication? The psychology of learning? Guidance and counseling? Are they punctual and
industrious in teaching? Are they healthy physical and mentally? In short, are they rendering high
quality of instruction?

2. Students. Does the school select its students so that only those with adequate ability are allowed to take
the higher and more difficult courses? Are the students studious and resourceful? Are the standards of
passing high enough so that when the students graduate they posses the knowledge and skills required of
the course they have finished?

3. Social climate. Is the school atmosphere democratic? Quite, peaceful, and orderly? Are all
administrators, teachers and students, going about their business dutifully and efficiently? Are there
good human relation existing between administrators and teachers? Between teachers and students?
Between administrators and students satisfied with the conditions existing in the school? Do the teachers
seem to be satisfied too?
 36

4. Facilities. Are the buildings and classrooms adequate for classroom instruction? Are the library
references adequate for the learners? Are the pupils of students adequately supplied with textbooks and
other learning materials? Are the science laboratory and equipment adequate? Are lighting and
ventilation and cooling devices good? Are the pupils or student free from danger when there is fire?
Earthquake? Typhoon? Flood?

5. Campus. Is the campus located in a place that is free from too many distractions from moving vehicles?
From noisy people? From blaring music? Is the campus wide enough for the enjoyable movement of the
learners? Is it clean and sanitary? Is it free from floods because it has a good drainage system?

6. Relevance. Are the courses offered by the school relevant to the need of the community? Are the skills
developed by the school badly needed by the community? (Otherwise, the school might be contributing
to the widening mismatch between the skill needed by the community and the skills required by the
graduates. This is an important factor to consider.)

7. Social Services. Does the school render some kind of social services to the community where it is
located? Does it have a community outreach program? Does the school help in raising the literary level
of the people? Improving their health conditions? Improving their means of livelihood? Beautifying that
place? Improving the recreational facilities of the place?

8. Accreditation. Are the courses offered by school accredited and recognized by the government? Has the
school submitted some of its courses to voluntary accreditation by a duly recognized and authorized
accrediting agency in which the standards are higher than those required by the government?

THE CHURCH

The church is a lifetime school of learning for a church goer, from livelihood to death. The beauty of it is
that although there is only one book to study like the bible for the Christians, or the Koran for the Muslims,
class sessions are usually lively and rarely dull because there are always new things to learn. The Bible does not
run of interesting topics to discuss.

How Teaching is done

Teaching in the Christian Church is done through the following:

1. Sermon or preaching. The sermon is the main parts of the devine services. Among the Protestants, it is
delivered usually by a minister or pastor and among the Catholics, by a priest. The sermon is equivalent
to the lecture in the secular school.

2. Sunday School. This is a regular class held every Sunday in which the bible is studied. The class session
usually lasts for one hour. There are separate classes for adult males, adult females, young adults, young
people, and children.

3. Bible studies. Bible studies are held at designated times and places usually in houses of church members.
Some Bible studies are held regularly during week days or Sunday afternoons but some are held
irregularly.

4. Sermons on special occasions. Occasionally, sermons are delivered by a minister during special
occasions such as birthday parties, wedding anniversaries, thanksgiving services, blessing a house, a car,
or any appliance, and necrological services.

5. Christmas and summer institutes. Usually, young people hold institutes during the Christmas and
summer vacations lasting one week each. During these periods, they study the bible and also invite
speakers to deliver sermons.
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6. Rallies and spiritual retreats. These are gatherings of church members during which the bible is studied
and some speakers are invited to expound on certain religious topics. These are very similar to the
seminars and workshops held in schools.

7. Evangelistic meeting. These are held for the purpose of proselyting people to join the church. Some
speakers expound on some parts of the bible to convince the hearers to join the church. There are many
things learned about salvation during these meetings.

8. Daily vacation Church school. This is held during the long vacation. These are Bible studies but the
participants are children only. They are held in many places outside the church.

9. Conferences. The Church also holds conferences during which many of the church activities, the
doctrines of the Church, and the Bible are discussed. Many things are learned from these discussions.

What are learned in the Church?

1. History. The Bible contains many facts of history. Many facts about the ancient histories of Persia, now
Iran, Mesopotamia, now Iraq, and Israel are contained in the bible.
2. Prophecies. There are many prophecies in the Bible some of which already happened. One Example is
the birth of Christ. The birth of Christ was prophesied about five hundred years before he was born.
Many of the Biblical prophecies are still to happen according to many Biblical scholars.
3. Divine Values. Divine values deal with the right relationship between God and men and the right
relationship among men themselves. These are prerequisites to the salvation of the soul. Some examples
of divine values are faith in God, love for fellowmen, the Ten Commandments, faith in Christ, good
works, charity, etc..

Characteristics of Divine Values

Some characteristics of divine values are the following:
a. Devine values are given and mandated by God.
The Ten Commandments are given and mandated by God to be obeyed. “Love thy neighbor as thyself”
is given by Jesus Christ. And so with the other divine values which are too many to be enumerated here.

Human values, on the other hand, are developed by men themselves. Human values are also
cultural in the sense that a value in one locality may not be a value in another locality. Take the case of
kissing the hands by the young to show their respect of their elders. This is practiced in some localities.
Shaking hands as a sign of goodwill is practiced in the Philippines and in the United States but this is not
a common practice in Japan and in other countries.
b. Divine values are universally intended.
Divine values are mandated by god to be applied to all. The Ten Commandments mean to be applicable
to all and so with the other divine values.

Human values are cultural. The kissing and shaking of hands are practiced only in some localities but
they are not in others. In some tribes in India and in New Guinea, women can have two or more
husbands and among the Muslims a man may take two or more wives. These are Muslims a man may
take two or more wives. These are already violations of the monogamous marriage mandated by God.
c. Divine values are eternal.
Divine values are eternal in the sense that they do not change. They remain the same for all time. The
Ten Commandments are the same and still in effect as when they given by God thousands of years ago.
Divine values are the same now and forever as when they were originally given.

Human values are not so. They changes, through slowly and gradually. Some years ago, kissing in the
movies was taboo. Now, it is a common practice. Some years ago, seldom if all could one hear about a
girl being pregnant before her wedding day. Now, premarital sex and pregnancy are becoming more and
more common.

d. Violators of divine values are punished.

Violators of divine values are always punished by God. The only escape is for them to be truly repentant
and ask forgiveness God. If God forgives them, then they escape punishment, otherwise they surely
suffer for their deeds.
 38

Not all violators of human values are punished. One may lie to another and he will get away with it
punished.

HUMAN RELATIONS AND LEADERSHIP

As long as people live in groups, they have to maintain some kind of relationships to enable them to
carry on their daily activities cooperatively, peacefully, and according to schedule. Accordingly, they
have to have good human relations and some have to be leaders to lead the groups in the
accomplishment of their ends.

HUMAN RELATIONS
A good human relation is getting along well with other people. The basis of good human relations is
good character. One must posses important divine values as well as socially accepted human values to enable
him to live well with others.

Ten Commandments of human Relations

The National Production Center formulated the following commandment of human relations:
1. Speak graciously to people. There is nothing as nice as a cheerful word of greeting.
2. Smile at people. It takes 65 muscles to frown, only 15 to smile.
3. Call people by first name. the sweetest music to anyone’s ears is the sound of greeting.
4. Be friendly and helpful. If you would have friends, be friendly and helpful.
5. Be cordial. Speak and act as if everything that you do is a genuine pleasure.
6. Be genuinely interested in people. You can like people if you try.
7. Be generous with praise, be cautious with criticism. You make friends with praise, enemies with
criticism.
8. Be considerate of the feelings of other. It will be appreciated.
9. Be thoughtful of he opinion of others. There are three sides to controversy: yours, the other fellow’s and
the right one.
10. Be alert to give services. What counts most in life in what we do for others?

Short Courses in Human Relations

There is going a short course in human relations designed by the same center, as follows:

Six most important words:

“I admit I made a mistake.”

Five most important words:

“you did a good job.”
Four most important words:
“what is your opinion?”
third most important words:
“If you please.”
Two most important words:
“thank you.”
Least important words:
“I.”

in additional to the techniques of human relation mentioned above, then following are suggested to maintain
good human relations:

1. Give compliments and praises freely. Always give compliments or praises to deserving people whenever
occasions for such arise.
2. Be fair always. Treat everyone as you would want to be treated by others.
3. Keep secrets. Keep secrets unless it is necessary to reveal them for the administration of justice. Do not
gossip. Be as trustworthy as possible.
 39

4. Criticize or argue tactfully. As possible, avoid criticizing people but if it becomes necessary to criticize
or argue, do it very tactfully. People admit they are wrong of their mistakes or wrong ideas are pointed
out with valid reasons. This should be done politely, sincerely, and courteously. Avoid sarcastic remarks.
5. Admit your mistakes. Admit your mistakes if you find out you are really wrong. Be willing to
subordinate your ideas to much more superiors’ ideas of others. Say “I am sorry if you make a mistake.”
6. Recognized the merits of others’ opinions. If you disagree, say “I beg to disagree” and then state your
disagreement as courteously and politely as possible.
7. Be grateful always. Say “Thank you” for every favor you receive no matter how small the favor is.
8. Give credit to whom credit is due. Avoid credit grabbing. This is unethical.
9. Be honest. Never cheat. Cheating gets its returns sooner or later. Do not steal either.
10. Maintain a moderate level of humility. Do not boast nor show off. Boasting and showing off are usually
disliked by people.
11. Be kind, generous, and helpful. Help all people you can, in all places you can, and at all times you can.
12. Be friendly. Do not bully. You make friends if you are friendly, and enemies, if you are a bully.
13. be dependable, responsible, and keep promises. People hate those who are irresponsible and who do not
keep their promises.
14. Be punctual. Keep dates and appointments on or before time.
15. Be resourceful, hardworking, and frugal. People treat with indifference those who are lazy and
spendthrift.
16. Be cooperative in group undertakings. People usually hate others who are not cooperative in group
undertakings.
17. Be firm with reasoned convictions. People usually admire those who are firm in their reasoned
convictions.
18. Shun vices. Avoid evil vices such as drug addiction, drunkenness, and execessive gambling. People
engaged in these vices kake trouble without any valid cause.
19. Respect the convictions, beliefs, and practices of others. Respect the convictions, beliefs, and practices
of other people that are against the law, especially religious convictions, beliefs, and practices. Do not
cast aspersions upon such convictions, beliefs, and practices. In a friendly exchange of ideas, however,
you can point out the validity of your beliefs and falsity of the other fellow’s beliefs but without being
offensive.
20. Maintain A decent and socialy approved love life. Avoid being involved in extra-marital relations which
often lead to serious family problems, broken homes, or even death.
21. Be good, law-abiding citizen. Violators of the law are usually dislike by people.

Summarizing, acquire and maintain divine and usually and socially approved values to be able have good
human relations.

LEADERSHIP
Whenever and whenever people live groups, there always arises a leader in each group. This is a natural
phenomenon. But what is a leader? According to Lardizabal, a leader is a person who influences the group to
follow the course of action advocates. Hence, leadership is the act of influencing a group to follow a certain
course of action.

Quality of a Leader
According to Kagan and Havemann, leadership traits consist of persistence, dependability, self-
confedence, popularity, food speech, and participation in the activities of the group.

According to Ruch, a person with leadership qualities is (1) physically healthy, (2) greatly energized, (3)
easily predictable, (4) aloof from the masses , (5) not too far above the crowd, (6) knowledgeable on human
motives, (7) consistent in unifying his follower.

According to Morgan, a leader must participate actively in the group. He must be dependable,
persistence, verbally facile, self-confident, and socially popular.

In addition to the qualities of leadership mentioned above, some Filipino leaders advocate that the
following should be among the qualities of a leader: high mental ability, honesty (very important), credibility,
experience, firmness in his conviction, righteousness, self-sacrifices, knowlegeability, willingness to take risk,
and vision (the ability to see what will happen in the future through the analysis of evens), with good human
relations and with technical skill.
 40

Leadership Foundation Defines Leadership

L – Leadership is loyalty to God, country, and People.
E – It is enthusiasm, energy to help and serve others.
A – It is action, accomplishment, achievement.
D – It is dedication, discipline, Dignity, Dependability, devotion to duty, daring, determination, decisiveness for
the general welfare.
E – It is Excellence, exemplary work for others to follow and emulate.
R – it is reliability, responsibility, respect for the law and the rights of others, reconciliation for peace and unity,
fairness in rewarding.
S – it is sincerity, service, self-sacrifice, social justice to make life better for mankind, self-confidence, oral
proficiency.
H – It is humility, honesty, honor, helpfulness, hard work.
I – it is integrity, interest, initiative, idealism.
P – it is patience, perseverance, beyond partisanship, religion or creed, love for peace, progress and prosperity
for mankind and predictability.

Theories About the Emergence of leaders

1. Situation theory. The qualities of a person are those needed to deal with the situation and so, he is
selected as a leader.
2. Personal behavior theory. A person behaves according to the demands of the situation and so, he is
selected to lead.
3. Supportive or participatory theory. A prospective leader supports or helps his prospective followers,
supporting the letter in his quest for leadership.
4. Social theory. An individual facilitates the activities of the members of a group and resolves their
conflicts and because he is good facilitators, he is selected as the leader of the group.
5. Psychological theory. The individual who motivates the members of a group to engage in activities that
would satisfy their personal needs is selected as a leader. This is true with labor leaders.
6. Autocratic theory. An individual uses coercion and duress to attain his leadership status.
7. Supernatural powers theory. An individual may have an “agimat,””taliman ” or magic power that
enables him to attain his leadership status.
8. Inheritance theory. When a king or emperor dies, his heir, usually a son inherits the throne of his father.
9. Accident theory. When an elected president dies of resign, his vice-president takes over the position.
10. Prestige theory. Usually the most prestigious member of a group is selected as the leader of the group.
11. Personality traits theory. When a person has good traits such as high mental ability, integrity and
honesty, willingness to serve, high education attainment, good character, etc., is selected as a leader.

Kinds or Types of Leaders

1. According to Status
A. Formal leader – one who officially occupies a position of leadership as president, vice president,
king, etc.
B. Informal or contributing leader – one who has no official position but who provides or
contributes bright ideas for the group.
2. According to Managerial Grid
a. Autocrat – one with high regard for work but very little regard or care for workers.
b. Missionary – one with the highest concern for people.
c. Compromiser – one with equal concern for work and people.
d. Deserter – one with very little concern for service and people.
e. Executive - one with the highest regard for service or work as well as for workers or
people. This is the highest type of leadership.

3. According to Manner of Participation

a. Autocratic – there is practically no participation of the group in decision-making.
b. Participatory – authority is decentralized. The group is involved in decision-making.
c. Free rein – the leader depends upon the group for decision- making.
4. According to Democratic Practices
a. Authoritarian – decision –making is in the hands of one man.
b. Democratic – decision-making is in the hands of the group. The group itself is self-
governing.
 41

Function and roles of a Leader in an Organization

The leader:
1. Establishes well-defined patterns of organization, channel of communication, and ways of getting jobs
done.
2. Serves as spokesman and representative of the group.
3. Helps the group determined procedure in decision-making and in carrying out plans.
4. Initiates plan.
5. Settles conflicts and difficulties in the group. Helps establish a social climate, esprit de corp.
6. Clarifies duties and help the group organize itself.
7. Serves as guidance counselor.
8. Maintains membership, cohesiveness, cooperation; develop the feeling that to stay is pleasant.
9. Work for the attainment of goals and objectives.
10. Delegates’ responsibility and authority to maximize participation and performance.

How a leader Deals with His Subordinates

In dealing with his subordinates, a leader must assume the following roles:
1. Supporter and friend, especially for promotion.
2. Provider of necessary information and facilities.
3. trainer, helps group learn from experience or otherwise.
4. counselor, counsels subordinates who have problems.
5. Practices democratic ways with subordinates.
6. he should maximize subordinates’ ideas and participation. He should not grab ideas as his own but
should give credit to whom it is due.

Methods a Leader May Use in Influencing the Group in Decision-Making

1. Telling. The leader identifies the problem, considers alternatives solutions and selects one and informs
the group of his decision. The leader makes the decision without consulting the group.
2. Selling. The leader makes the decision and conveniences the group to accept the decision by citing its
advantages.
3. testing. The leader presents the problem and necessary information. Then the members of the group,
including himself, give proposals to solve the problem. Then they test the proposals to see which is the
best and the most relevant.
4. Consulting. The leader presents the problem with background information. Then he asks the members to
give their ideas and alternative solutions. Then he selects the best proposal according to his judgement.
5. Joining. The leaders joins and participates in the discussion and agrees to abide by whatever decision the
group makes.

The Problem-Solving Process a Leader may Use

1. Identify, state, and define or clarity the problem (project).

2. If the problem or project is complicated, it may be divided into sub-problems. Committees are assigned
to gather facts about each sub-problem.
3. In plenary session, all available facts should be utilized in discussing all the ramifications of the problem
or project.
4. This is now the ideas-getting process. The members are enjoined to give their proposed or alternative
solutions to the problem or project.
5. This is now the idea-evaluation process. The advantages or disadvantages of each proposed or
alternatives solution are presented.
6. Choice of the final proposed or alternatives solution is achieved by voting or by other means.
7. Implementation.

Salesmanship
 42

The leader ia a salesmanship. However, he does not sell material goods for personal profit. What he sells
are ideas or sometimes material goods to answer the needs of the group. He sells ideas in the sense that he uses
his persuasive powers to convince his group to adopt his ideas for the good of the group. Following are some
suggestion for an effective selling technique:
S- sell an important idea. Be sure the idea benefits those it is intended for. An instance is the setting up of a
cooperative.
A – Advertise the idea. Inform all the people involved. In the example above, it is the putting up of a
cooperative.
L – Let the people learn all the essential aspects of the idea. A seminar or a meeting may be held where
everything is explained.
E – Be enthusiastic and eloquent. Enthusiasm begets enthusiasm.
S – select points that appeal most to the people. It is credit cooperative?
M – Let one move for the adoption or approval of the idea.
A – Apply the idea if it is approved. This is implementation.
N – If the idea is not approved, the extreme necessary of its adoption must be pointed out more emphatically.
S – Be sincere. If the people see the sincerity of the leader in pushing through the idea, they may relent.
H – Hear the people talk about their objections. The objections may be overcome by an impassioned appe*****
I – Interest the people more. Motivate them and use all kinds of motivation.
P – Persidt in pushing through the idea. Do not give up so easily. If the session is to closed slam the door shut
for good. Instead, give the people enough time to think and study the idea further and make a hint that the issue
may be reopened in some opportune time in the fortune.

General Function of a Leader

Summarizing, the general function of a leader are:

1. Planning – making plans for the activities of the organizations.
2. Organizing – putting up to structure of the organization
3. Staffing – assigning personnel to the different positions.
4. Directing – guiding the activities of the organization.
5. Coordinating – systematizing the activities of the group.
6. Budgeting – estimating the income and Expenses of the organization.

These general functions are acronymed POSDCORB. These functions are not performed alone by the leader but
they are usually done his direction and supervision.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

There are many social problems that beset the country which may adversely affect its progress. The school has
an important obligation to help minimize such problems if not entirely eradicate them. Some of the more serious
problems are the following:

DRUG ADDICTION
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
LACK OF PEACE AND ORDER
SEX PROBLEMS
POPULATION EXPLOSION
POVERTY
GAMBLING
ALCOHOLISM
TRAFFIC CONGESTION
BROWNOUTS
DEFORESTATION
POLLUTION
UNEMPLOYMENT

Anthropological Foundations of Education

 43

Anthropology was derived from the Greek word anthrope meaning man and logy meaning science. The
literal meaning of anthropology then is science of man. It is the study of mankind. The dictionary defines
anthropology as the science that treats of the origin, development (physical, intellectual, moral, etc.) and
specially the cultural development, customs, beliefs, etc. of man. Briefly, Herskovitz defines anthropology as
“the science of man and his works.” According to Jacobs and Stern, anthropology is the scientific study of the
physical, social and cultural development and behavior of human beings since their appearance on earth.

Actually, anthropology studies man as a member of the animal kingdom and studies his behavior as a member
of society. Man is unique in the animal kingdom because (1) he walks erect, (2) he uses his hands for handling,
and (3) he has a more complex brain. (4) He is also unique in the field of behavior for the following reasons:

1. He possesses tools and other material artifacts.

2. He has complex techniques for getting and preparing food.
3. He has social and political organization.
4. He has a system of religious beliefs and rituals.
5. He communicates by means of language.

Divisions of Anthropology

Anthropology may be classified as physical and cultural. Physical anthropology deals with the study of
man as a product of the evolutionary process. It is connected with man’s bodily structures. It studies and
analyzes human population. Cultural anthropology deals with man’s behavior and with ways human beings
carry out the activities of daily living. The diversity of human behavior is seen in: food habits, ways food is
cooked, habits of dress and ornaments and relations with in-laws. Cultural anthropology has the following sub-
divisions:

1. Archaeology which deals with ancient cultures and past phases of modern civilization based on
documents, paintings, stone carvings, etc. It is the study of antiquity by the excavation and description of
remains. Through diggings and fossils remains, the age of man has been established. In 1654, according
to Archbishop Ussher of Ireland, the first man as well as the universe, was created 4004 B.C.
Archaeology has also established different eras or periods of the earth when living things appeared,
more than 1,500 million years ago. In geology, these eras are: (1) the Archezoic when primitive forms of
life appeared, (2) the Protozoic when early life forms increased, and (3) Paleozoic when fish,
amphibians, and other marine forms appeared, and (4) the Mesozoic when huge reptiles predominated.
This was also called the Age of Reptiles. (5) The Cenozoic era followed in which there were more
advanced forms of animals.

The Cenozoic era is divided into two periods: (1) the Tertiary or Age of Mammals and the Quartenary, or
age when modern forms of man first appeared. The Quartenary is divided into (1) Pleistocene (Ice Age)
period when man first appeared and culture began and (2) Holocene period. Discovery of stone tools,
implements and houses has held to the period known as Stone Age.

2. Ethnology treats of and describes diverse cultures and explains similarities and differences. It deals with
the sub-divisions of mankind, their origins, relations, speech, institutions, etc. Mankind is divided into
five races – white, black, yellow, red and brown. Within each race, there are subdivisions. For example
the Americans, German, French, Spanish, Scandinavians, etc. all belong to the white race, but they have
their own culture and physical characteristics, and they have different levels of civilization. As to the
origin of man, there are several versions. There are also many different places where the bones of pre-
historic man were found.
3. Linguistics, which is concerned with man’s language, non-literate or literate, past and present. It takes
up interrelation between language of a people and other aspects of culture. As a science, it includes
phonetics, phonemics, morphology, and syntax. The sub-divisions are descriptive linguistics and
comparative or historical linguistics. It is obvious that every country has its language and dialects, for all
people whether civilized or not, have a means of communication. This means of communication is
language, which differentiates man from animals. There are several characteristics of language,
however, that may change, improve, add, subtract, or enrich its meaning, such as intonation and
emphasis or stress. The study of language is called linguistics who has two sub-divisions as stated
above.
 44

Descriptive linguistics deals with the classification, arrangement and study of the features language which
will be taken up later. Comparative or historical linguistics takes up the changes in language, the borrowings
from other languages, and the comparison of languages.

The diagram on p. 156 may make the sub-divisions of anthropology clearer.

Anthropology

Physical Anthropology
Cultural Anthropology
Man as biological animal

Ethnology Linguistics
Archaeology
People’s Cultures & behaviors Analysis of Language

Social Anthropology
Ethnology
(Development of scientific
(scientific description &
generalizations about a culture,
classification of racial
society or personality in a universal
groups of mankind
sense
 45

Relation of Anthropology to Other Sciences

Physical Anthropology is related to the biological sciences - anatomy, physiology, embryology and genetics.
Social Anthropology is related to sociology, psychology, geography, and economics and political science.
Cultural anthropology is related to humanistic disciplines such as history, literature, arts and music.

Practical Applications of anthropology

The questions may will be asked. Of what use is anthropology? Anthropology has practical uses. Anthropology
reduces ethnocentrism by instilling appreciation of other cultures through study of other societies and cultures,
it contributes to education. It suggest the potential and general value of anthropology in inspiring government
action. Research on all aspects of culture is undertaken by anthropologists. Through anthropological studies,
programs of aid in the military, economic, and political fields are assessed and evaluated. Not only is there
evaluation, but also inspiration of economic development and technical assistant programs. Through what is
termed “Participant interference,” anthropology acts catalyzer and instigates action.

CULTURE AND SOCIETY

How are culture and society related? What are the kinds, forms, and components of culture?

Meaning of Culture
Different meanings come to mind with the word culture. A person who is refined in manners and speech
is said to be a “cultured” individual. A descendant of a line of “ladies” and “gentlemen” or of nobility who has
wealth and do not need to work is “cultured.” One who observes the rules of etiquette is “cultured”. Knowledge
about a wide range of subjects is designated as “culture.” “Culture” also means esthetic interest and
sophisticated understanding of arts and humanities. High level of perfection in art, science, etc. is also deemed
“culture”.
Sociologically, culture has a different meaning from those given above. According to Dressler, “culture
is a social heritage, transmitted from one generation to another and shared. It consists of the sum total of skill,
beliefs, knowledges, and products that are commonly shared by a number of people and transmitted to their
children.” Through culture, therefore, people learn to communicate with each other and to think and behave in
certain ways approved by the group. According to Smith, Stanley, and Shores, “culture is the fabric of ideas,
beliefs, skills, tools, esthetic objects, methods of thinking, customs, and institutions into which each member of
society is born. Culture is that part of the environment which man himself has made.” Bertrand defines culture
as “the complex whole which includes knowledges, beliefs, arts, morals, law, costumes, and other capabilities
gained by man as a member of society.” Other definitions of culture are:

1. Clyde Kluckhon – Historically created designs for living, explicit and implicit, rational, irrational, and
non-rational, which exist at any given time as potential guides for behavior.
2. American College Dictionary – Particular stage or state of civilization of a nation or period, such as
Greek culture, sum total ways of living built up by a group of human beings and transmitted from
generation to generation.
3. Way people have learned to live together; behavior learned as a result of living in groups which tend to
be patterned and to be transmitted from generation to generation.
4. Ragan – the environment man has made consisting of artifacts, ideas, language, attitudes, beliefs,
customs, etc. existing at a particular time and place.

Classification of Culture
Culture may be classified as static or dynamic. It is static when it emphasizes cultural transmission; i.e.,
the same culture is passed on from generation to generation. It is dynamic when it emphasizes change; i.e., it
goes thru revision with each generation.
 46

Culture may also be classified as stable or unstable. The culture is stable where folkways and mores are
satisfying New elements and traits are incorporated smoothly and without conflict. In a stable culture, the more
educated the individual, the more conservative he becomes. Where the group does not have satisfying solutions
to most of its problems and conflicts, the culture is usually unstable. Conflict exists between the traditional and
radical groups and their values. The more educated the individual, the more he sees the inadequacy of the
culture. In unstable culture the school should pay attention to developing worthwhile values and provide for
change.

How would you classify our culture?

Forms of Culture
Culture may be material or non-material. Material culture consists of tangible things houses, clothing,
tools, utensils, automobiles, TV, etc. Non-material culture refers to what is symbolic or intangible such as
sentiments, folkways, mores, systems, and beliefs and knowledge. What form of Philippine culture is becoming
more prevalent among the youth in the Philippines today?
Examples of non-material culture follow:
Folkways are traditional ways of doing things in a certain culture. An example of a folkway in the Philippines is
pamanhikan where the parents of the boy ask for the girl’s hand in marriage. Mores are heavily sanctioned
folkways for group survival and are accepted without question as they embody moral views of the group. An
Igorot folkway is for a boy to sleep in the ulog with the girl he is courting. If she becomes pregnant and he does
not marry her, he is ostracized by the whole group, according to the mores of the tribe.
Costum means habitual practice. It is a custom in the Philippines to invite a guest to partake of a meal if
he happens to b in the house at meal time. Another custom is for children to kiss the hand of their grandparents.
Beliefs are also part of non-material culture. In India, some walk on live coals or lie a bed of nails and come out
unscathed according to their belief. In Pampanga, every Good Friday, a man himself nailed to the Cross in the
belief that no harm would come to him and nothing does.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE

Culture is made of material or non-material triats. A combination of related traits form a culture complex, such
as a football complex which is made up of football and the rules of the game. A culture complex has traits
patterned around another important trait. Examples are the horse and buggy complex, automobile complex,
television complex, and superiority complex. In a superiority complex, the central traits to which others are
related is the thought that over-confidence, condescencion toward all others, self-pride, boastfulness, over-
bearing manner, swaggering attitude, affectation in manner, etc. A culture pattern is a combination of culture
complexes, as for instance, a sports pattern made up of football, basketball, and track cultures. “Pattern” refers
to a specific way of behaving that is part of a given culture. For example, the way of greeting:

Americans – shake hands

Latin Americans – embrace
Eskimos – touch noses
Thai – put hands together and bow
Japanese – bow deeply
Filipino young or old – kiss hands

Functions of Culture
Culture is important and useful in many ways. Through culture, communication is possible by means of
an language that is learned. People belonging to the same culture can anticipate how others may respond to their
actions. The culture provides standards for differentiating right and wrong, beautiful and ugly, tragic and
 47

humorous, safe and dangerous, reasonable and unreasonable. Among Christians, pre-marital sex is considered
immoral, but not among the Igorots. To the Moslems, it is all right to have more than one wife, but not to the
Christians. A tattooed body is considered beautiful by some African tribes, but it is ugly in the eyes of others.
Children are trained to behave in ways approved by the group. Every culture provides the knowledge and skills
needed for its survival. Through their culture, people identify with others and feel a sense of belonging.

Characteristics of Culture
What are the characteristics of a culture?
They are:
1. Only human society possess culture.
2. Human cultures vary considerably although they resemble each other in some respects.
3. Culture tends to persist, once learned and accepted.
4. Culture changes gradually and continuously.
5. Culture exists in the minds of men who learned it from previous generations and who use it to guide
their conduct with others.
6. There is a tendency to borrow from other cultures.
7. Members of a culture may behave differently as in the case of those who belong to sub-cultures.
Ex. Ilokanos may behave differently from the Visayans although they are both Filipinos.
8. No person can escape entirely from his culture.

Another authority gives the following set of characteristics:

1. Culture is concerned with actions, ideas, and artifacts which individual learn, share and value.
Others call this organized group behavior an institution.
Ex. English taking afternoon tea.
“Misa de gallo” (dawn masses) before Christmas
2. Culture may be regarded as a historical phenomenon, originating through innovation and spread by
diffusion.
Ex. Association of candles with religion.
Carrying candles during processions.
3. Culture may be regarded as a regional phenomenon
- geographic or locality distribution.
Ex. drinking coffee; smoking which originated with American Indians an spread throughout the
world.
4. Culture tends to be patterned – repetition of similar approved behavior so that it has a form or structure.
Specific way of behaving in a certain culture.
Ex. making the sign of the cross when passing a church
5. Cultural elements have a function.
Ex. social status enhanced by owning a car
6. Culture tends to be integrated – unity of premises, values, goals.
Ex. meaning of fiesta or patron saint
7. Culture is subject to change.
Individual conduct varies, innovations occur, etc.
Ex. change in form and function of candles.
8. Culture is valid to the extent that the local way of life is well-defined, homogenous, stable.
Yet variations may occur, such as sub-cultures. Certain wedding practices may exist only in certain regions.
In Lucban, Quezon, after the wedding, there is a dance where bride and groom take partners who pin money
on them. This is repeated with several partners until quite a sum is accumulated.
 48

9. Culture is sometimes designated as a system where interrelated elements are treated as a whole.
Ex. American culture has specific cultural systems which may be termed sub-cultures.
10. Culture is a “continuum” – passed on from individual to individual, from generation to generation.
11. Culture is “symbolic” – meanings attached to artifacts and personal motivations.
Ex. We have to know the meaning of certain wedding ceremonies or they would seem foolish to us.
What is the meaning of pinning the veil and cord around the bride and groom?

Concept of Society
Culture is created by society which approves its system of values. It also includes a system of
intermediate values that implements the ultimate values. Society, however, does not mean just the total
sum of its people. To survive, society needs to perform certain basic needs, suh as law and order,
transporation, agriculture, and industrial systems.

Meaning of Society
What constitute a society? To Keesing, it is an organized group or population. To Linton, it is
human beings and institutions by which they live together in their culture. According to Dressler, “a
society consists of all the people who share a distinct and continuous way of life. (that is, a culture) and
think of themselves as one united people.” Bertrand defines society as “a social group that occupies
territory, recruit its members by intergroup sexual reproduction, has a shared comprehensive culture.” To
Smith, Stanley, and Shores, a society is a group of organized individuals who think of themselves as a
distinct group, who have something in common, a set of loyalties and sentiments, an esprit de corps
which makes the individual under certain circumstances to sacrifice himself for the good of the group.”
From the above definitions, it follows that a group of people does not constitute a society unless it has
the characteristics mentioned above.
How are society and culture related?

Relation Between Culture and Society

There can be no culture without society and there can be no society without culture. Both society and
culture have common elements, but the two are not identical. Society is composed of people; culture
consists of things people have learned to do, to behave, and to enjoy.

Personality and Characteristics in Relation to Culture

Each individual is unique. heredity and environment (education, training, etc.) give him/his
individuality. He is not a passive recipient of culture; he is active, creative, and reacts actively to his
culture; he may add innovations to culture.
Development of his personality is influenced by his capacity to learn, need to interact with others, ability
to select, to create, to make individual decisions in relation to cultural and social milieu. Character is
sometimes used interchangeably with personality. Character, however, refers more to moral qualities or
ethical standards. Character influences behavior. Behavior of individuals influences the culture and
culture influences individuals. Socialization is becoming a member of society – assumption of place
within a social system.

Educational Implications
1. Cultures differ and one should not judge another culture by using his own culture as basis.
2. To avoid prejudices, there should be more contact between cultures.
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3. Travel, education, and reading about other societies are ways of bringing about tolerance and
understanding between nations.
4. With more diffusion between cultures, one global society may result.
5. With the U.S as the best example of people getting along in spite of different sub-cultures, perhaps a
one world concept may be brought about some day. Unity in spite of diversity.
6. Society can be improve by improving the culture.
7. Since culture is made by man himself, he should develop worthwhile values and weed out those beliefs,
mores, superstitions, etc. that are detrimental to progress.
8. Since culture is learned, the school should inculcate in the young, good aspects of the culture.
9. Since culture changes, the change should be for the better and society should decide what those changes
should be.
10. The home, the school and the church should guard against borrowing from other cultures things that are
against the Philippine way of life.

Can you name what is good in Philippine culture and what is not?

LANGUAGE AND WRITING

Why is language important? What is the function of writing?

A man’s language is a reflection of the kind person he is, the family he comes from, the level of education he
has attained, and an index to the behavior that may be expected from him. What is language?

Definition of Language
According to Keesing, language is “a vocal symbolism of speech, with its related bodily gestures and
mechanical signals which give precision and finesse to communication.”

Beals and Hoijer define language as “a way of speaking, distinct in every culture.”

To Herskovitz, language is “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which members of social group cooperate
and interact by which the learning process is effectuated and a given of way of life achieved both through
continuity and change.”

Antiquity of Language

Just exactly when language began is not known, but it must be very old. It probably is as old man’s artifacts and
perhaps began with culture as language is part of culture. All human societies, primitive or civilized have
languages. Today, there are numerous, different languages. The universality and diversity of language prove that
it is very old, for language develops slowly. Similarities in vocabulary and grammar show a common origin.
The differences in the modern languages must have taken a long time to develop.
Language grows and changes. For example, take the original Latin that was spoken in Rome. This
spread to other countries where changes took place independently. Out of Latin evolved the Romance languages
– Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, and Romanian.
Linguistics is an important subdivision of anthropology. The anthropologist first studies the language of
a group whose culture he wants to know. Language is needed to understand a society and its people and the role
of language in their lives.
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Significance and Function of Language

Language is very important. Without language, knowledge could have been maintained and accumulated. man
has able to devise, continue, and change a great variety of cultural institutions of material and non-material
nature through language. Language is a form of learned behavior by which people communicate with each
other; this function is probably one of the most important, if not the most important function of language.
According to Herskovitz, language is a vehicle of culture by which the culture is passed on from one generation
to generation. Language is a means of cooperation through which people learn to play together and to work
together. Problems are solved, not through physical activities alone, but through thought and discussion; and
therefore problem solving becomes continuous through language, according to Shapiro. He also states that
language enables man to share the experiences and thoughts of others and to pass on knowledge to succeeding
generations.

From the anthropological point of view, language is a way of making people close to one another, of fostering
the feeling of belongingness. There are as many words as there are languages. Therefore, to cement people of
the world together, they should speak one language. All nations of the earth should learn one language and
English seems to be it. Many countries studies English as a second language.

Elements of Language

According to Herskovitz, every language has three parts which are:

1. Phonemic system consisting of sounds

2. Combination of sounds into units that have distinct significance – vocabulary
3. Combination and recombination of number 2 into large units - grammar

According to Kessing, the parts of language are:

1. Set of sound signals, the articulatory of phonetic system phonology

2. Structural principles that put sounds signals in customary form – grammar or morphology (structure)
3. Set of meaning for signals and forms – (semantics); words embodying all 3 aspects of language in significant
interrelation – vocabulary.

Kottak gives the following parts:

1. Phonology – study of sounds in human speech
2. Grammar – arrangement of sounds into longer sequence of speech or longer utterances
3. Lexicon – vocabulary or the meaning system of language

Summing up, then, all languages have a:

1. Well-defined system of speech sounds
2. Grammar – way of putting together words, phrases, sentences according to definite rules. (All societies,
whether pre-litertae pygmies or advanced European groups, have grammar)
3. Vocabulary which increases with every new culture item.

Linguistic Structure

Analysis of the language shows that it is composed of:

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1. Phonemes – similar sounds contrasting and mutually exclusive; the same sounds, but different in
meaning ass the word strike
Phonemes – distinctive sounds, such as:
cat and pat – alike except in initial phonemes
cat and cot – alike except in middle phonemes
cat and cap – alike except in final phonemes
2. Morphemes – minimum significant unit forming a word or part of a word.
Ex. income from in and come.

Morphemes – composed of distinctive sounds, called phonemes. cat is a morpheme made up of

phonemes c,a,t. Phonemes p,a,t make up the morpheme pat.

3. Morphology – combinations of words into linguistic forms. The combination of words into sentences
following grammatical rules, such as subject (noun), predicate, (verb) and modifier (adverb or
adjective).

Importance of the Study of Language

Language should be studied as it is an aspect of culture that differentiates man form animals. It should be
used correctly as it is criterion that differences the educated from the uneducated.

Writing
A confusion arises with regard to language and writing as if the later is a special language. This may be
explained by the fact that in school, children learn to read and write almost at the same time. Also , when we
speak of literacy, we think of ability to read and write. Written language, however, is different from spoken
language.
Writing, according to Beals and Hoijer, is “a set of techniques for the graphic representation of speech.”
Herskovitz defines writing as “round-about speech or mechanical gesture; a series of graphic symbols (or
symbol of symbols) which hold and store information more or less permanently according to the medium,
apart from the individuals who are in communication.

Invention of Writing
Writing is a more recent invention than language. While language appeared more than a million years
ago, that is, when man first acquired the rudiments of culture, the first written records in English were dated
A.D. 900.
Writing was invented more than once in several places. The earliest invention was in Egypt, probably in
the Bronze Age. This spread to Europe and Asia, and underwent many changes. The Chinese also developed
their own system of writing, and so did the Indians of Central America at a much later date. The Aztecs of
Mexico also had writing which was probably derived from the Central American Indian.

Development of Writing
Writing perhaps originated from drawing, which was as much part of culture as language Conventionalized
pictographs may be regarded as the earliest form of writing. In fact, the life style of primitive people was
gleaned from the pictures drawn on the walls of their cave dwellings. With time, the pictorial symbols
became more and more abbreviated. This kind of writing was called pictograph or picture writing.
True writing perhaps began when conventionalized graphic symbols became associated with the sounds
of a language. Symbols stood for words or particular combinations of speech sounds. This was called
logographic writing and the symbols that represented words were called logograms. Logographs or
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logograms appeared in the Near East, in Chinese, and in Maya Writing. The problem of logographic writing
was the difficulty of representing abstract ideas.
China continued the above trend and developed the traditional ideographic writing – a distinctive
symbol for each idea. In modern Chinese writing, symbols are reduced to 214 basic characters which may
be combined. To read and write Chinese fluently, it is necessary to memorize all these symbols. Most
Chinese words are one syllable, but in English where long words have several syllables, this system of
writing would be difficult.
Recognition of the phonetic factor made words that are the same in sound but different in meaning,
represented by the same character. Phonetic characters that have a constant phonographic value are called
phonograms. Phonograms came to be associated with syllables rather than whole words and were called
syllabaries. Syllabaries became widespread. Mesopotamia (Iraq), Babylonia, and Sumeria wrote their
ancient languages by means of a syllabary. They wrote on clay tablets with a stylus having a wedge-shaped
edge end. The writing was called cuneiform from the Latin word cuneus meaning “wedge”. Old Persian and
Greek were also written in syllabic characters. Syllabic writing is still used in Japan today where the
Japanese syllabary has about 65 characters.
The alphabetic system of writing developed around 1800 B.C. when Semitic – speaking peoples took the
Egyptian syllabary of 24 characters and transformed these into consonant symbols. Alphabetic writing is
further refinement of phonographic symbolism whereby a character becomes attached to a phoneme that
conveys appropriate meanings.
Ex.: pear, pair, pare
The Phonenicians are credited with the invention of the alphabet where they substituted consonants for the
24 characters. The Greeks added vowels in place of the consonants they did not need. From the Greeks, the
complete alphabet spread to Rome and to other European countries. This is the alphabet that we are using
now.

Relation of Writing to Language

Writing has a history of its own and developed separately from language. They are not the same although
they are related. There are two different aspects of culture. Language is a complex of patterns that govern or
control speech while writing is the written symbol of speech. Writing is a recent invention compared to
language. All societies having more or less the same level of development possess language, but not writing.
Writing is found in advanced societies but may be lacking in primitive tribes.
Importance of Writing
Writing is essential to the highly complex civilization today. It makes possible long distance
communication. It is a means of keeping records and preserving them for posterity. It is vital to the system
of education, research, and to world culture. That is why scientists consider the invention of writing as the
beginning of true civilization. However, learning, literacy, and education became widely spread only with
the invention of the printing press.

Educational Implications
1. Since language is an aspect of culture, one should study the language well and speak it correctly.
2. The more languages a person knows, the better educated he is and the easier he can adjust to other
peoples.
3. To understand people, it is necessary to know their language.
4. Knowing a people’s language is a means of fostering good public relations.
5. Since English is the language spoken throughout most of the world, one should study it well.
6. Reading books and magazines is one way of increasing one’s vocabulary.
7. A person should learn to write legibly and clearly as this is a mark of the well-educated.
8. Fluency in speaking and writing comes with practice; so one should take every opportunity to speak and
write well.
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What other implications can be made regarding language and writing?

THE ARTS

Why is art important? What are its functions?

Nature and Definition of Art

If religion stems from a psychological need in the individual, perhaps the same thing may be said of the arts. Art
is a part of culture and dates back to antiquity. It is present in all societies although not at the same rate of
development. That art is universal is probably the best proof that it satisfies a deep psychological need common
to all people.

What is art? The dictionary defines art as a production or expression of what is beautiful or appealing; an
esthetic expression. According to Beals, art is “an activity that over and above its utilitarian values brings
satisfaction both to the artist and to those who participate in his work as beholders, audience, or collaborators.”
This esthetic exponent differentiates art from other aspects of culture.

The earliest stages of art were realistic or representative of expression. Later, art became geometric, symbolic,
and decorative in expression. The tendency is to change toward progressive simplification and
conventionalization. Painting is a good example. In the beginning, paintings were made to appear as close as
possible to the original as shown by landscapes and portraits of people. Now, modern painting has become
symbolic and representational ass shown by cubistic painting. The works of Picazzo and Edades illustrate this.
The trend now is toward impressionistic painting.

Functions of Art

Of what use is art? The following are the functions of art:

1. Art gives esthetic satisfaction to artists, performers, audience or participants. A person sings for the mere
pleasure it gives him. People dance because they enjoy doing it. Watching a ballet performance or
listening to a symphonic concert gives pleasure. Looking at a painting may evoke pleasant emotions.
2. Art serves as a medium for the communication of ideas, attitudes and values. The degree of
communication depends on how much the conventions and symbols use are understood by the audience.
For instance, in our society, a halo or a ring over the head of a figure symbolizes a saint. Some primitive
groups may not understand this. In Chinese and Japanese plays, the actors and actresses wear masks.
The audience should know which mask represents the hero, the heroine, and the villain. A room in a
stage drama has only three walls. Sometimes, all walls are dispensed with in the arena style of drama.
3. Art conserves and reinforces beliefs, customs, attitudes and values. This function is possessed by all arts,
but it is more evident in literary and pictorial arts. The religious art in the architecture of churches, the
religious scenes, and the images of saints create emotional and intellectual atmosphere needed for
religious exercises; serve to remind one in what he should believe in; and when in drama form, serve for
instructional purpose (or propaganda).
4. As stated above, Art may be used for instructional purpose (or propaganda). Examples of these are the
mystery plays and the religious dramas coupled with dance that were given in Europe during the Middle
Ages. In the Philippines, the “Moro-moro” plays where Christians vanquished the Mohammedans, were
 54

used to spread Christianity. Schools made use of Christmas plays, pageants, myths and folk tales to
develop certain attitudes and values. Today, mass media like the motion picture, is a very good vehicle
for changing attitudes, instilling values, and solving social problems.
5. Art reveals its relationship to society and shows how art forms are transmitted through time and space.
The state of the art in a society is a reflection of the attitude of that society toward art and its stage of
progress. The collection of art works in the group will not only give a history of art development but
also show how this has been transmitted from generation to generation.

Art is a cultural tradition. The techniques used, the choice of subject matter, the preferences or emphasis on
certain art, the functions of art, the attitudes toward art take the attitude toward paintings of nude. There are
many of these in the art galleries of Europe. Some conservative societies may frown on paintings of nudes
and this may influence painters.

Music

Music is the art that best shows the effect of cultural tradition in deciding what is approved and desirable,
both socially and individually. However, what is pleasing I one society may not be so in another. Chinese
music sounds queer to Western eras and so does music of primitive tribes.

Music probably originated in song rather than in devised instruments. The earliest forms of rhythmical
activity that were accompanied by singing were probably rocking infants, walking, or repeated regular work
movements. Music did away with the monotony of labor and acted as stimulant.
Occassions for music among non-literate people are:
1. Lullabies composed by mothers which are learned by children and sung while playing.
2. Songs by young men to amuse and entertain their sweethearts.
3. Serenades outside the tipi (tent) to the loved one.
4. Sacred songs in time of personal crisis, ceremonies, and rituals.
5. Martial songs before and after war.
6. Songs of praise and mourning songs.
The evolution of music passed through two stages. The first stage was singing which went through the range of
the human voice. The second stage was musical expression by fashioned instruments.

The history of music shows that what was considered “barbaric” in one era may be accepted later. An example
is jazz music which was not accepted when it first appeared. Now, it is very popular. Primitive music has
rhythm, but lacks melody.

Today some modern music seems to revert to rhythm, but lacks melody.

Musical instruments developed much later than singing. The flute and piccolo-like instruments made of wood,
bamboo or bone were found in most regions. There were also a few percussion instruments like rattle,
tambourine, and drums. Later, xylophone – like instrument of wood and bamboo were also developed. In the
Old World, complex instruments capable of various effects and musical styles, were invented. Stringed
instruments like the multistringed lyre and cithara spread from the Near East to the Old World.

The major factors in the history of modern European music were:

1. Writing, symbolic representation, and analysis of music.

2. Cumulative advances in the technology of string instruments.
3. Development of harmony.
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Dance

The dance is a universal feature of human society. It is found in all groups as the human body has the same
nervous system and muscle equipment no matter what race. Hence, dance styles can be as complex and
beautiful among the primitives as among the civilized. The dance which may display superb esthetic quality is
not a rarity primitive society.

The different forms of the dance are religious or magico-ceremonial dancing, play dancing, dramatic and
symbolic dancing. The dance has a social and cultural function.

The dance originated far back in time. In primitive society, the dancer’s body was not confined. Now, the higher
the economic level the more progressive and intriguing the dance regalia because recently, dance themes
became more entertaining rather than religious or magico-ceremonial.

Poetry and Pose

Although prose and poetry are related, they are not the same. Prose is ordinary, matter of fact language. Poetry
is beautiful thought in beautiful language, rhythmically expressed. Poetry is difficult to separate from song. The
poems of primitive people were short and chanted.

Prose, oral and written, is found among all peoples. The types of prose found are:

1. Narratives, which, like songs, are universal and are composed of –

Myths – stories of another world that deal with gods, spirits and other supernaturals; usually concerned
with origins of the universe and its aspects such as fire, food, animals, plants, death, illness, society,
ceremonials, and rituals.

Legends – events in the present world or an earlier time with men as actors; more worldly in content
although they may include what is wonderful, awesome, and supernatural.

Proverbs and riddles – contains wisdom of the group. These are not as universal in non-literate societies.

Rhymes which are found only in literary productions.

Dramas and oratory.

How did oral literature come about? With the development of language, events were described and
narrated. Natural phenomena such as the seasons, phases of the moon, path of the sun, comets, shooting stars,
tides, storms, lightning, thunder, floods, forest, fires, and fogs were treated allegorically and became the origin
of folk tales.

Folktales perform certain functions, such as:

1. To entertain
2. To know the rationale behind customs and geographical features.
3. To teach moral lessons.
4. To direct minor educational functions.

Art in the Individual

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The production of art involves two factors:

1. The Culture and the period in history in which the artist participates.
2. The people with whom he lives and works – critics, collaborators, friends and relatives.

Art is produced by individuals although many may collaborate a in a dramatic production, a ballet, a symphonic
concert, a movie production, etc. Many forms, actions, and patterns may make up a completed production, but
the act of creating can be traced to an individual. It is erroneous to think that a work of art is the exclusive
production of one person or that a movie is the sum of individual contributions. In a painting, there is the painter
and the model. A poem is composed by the poet after being inspired by some one. The artist gives expression to
sentiments, and ideas that arise through his interaction with others. Hence, social and cultural setting is
important.

The artist may work in strict isolation, but he is always subject to influences from his culture, historical period,
and people with whom he lives. An example is the narration of myths and legends wherein the story teller
adapts his tale to reactions of the audience. This is also true in singing.

In primitive society, the individual is not given ass much prominence as a modern society where the painter or
novelist may become famous. Hence, in primitive society, art is designated as folk art.

Educational Implications

1. Art should be included in the curriculum of the elementary, secondary, and tertiary levels.
2. The second should try to find out the kind of artistic inclination of the child and try to develop this.
3. In order to give outlets for different individual talents, the school should offer varied extra-curricular
activities, such as Glee Club, Dramatics, Dance Troupe, Rondalla, etc.
4. Field trips to museums, libraries, etc. should be sponsored by the school.
5. Artists may be invited by the school to give demonstrated lectures so that children and youth may have
first hand experience with different art forms.
6. Participation in singing contests, declamation and oratorical contest and other contests should be
encouraged by the school.

Give other educational implications.

Historical Foundations of Education

Education denotes the methods by which a society hands down from one generation to the next its
knowledge, culture, and values. The individual being educated develops physically, mentally, emotionally,
morally, and socially. The work of education may be accomplished by an individual teacher, the family, a
church, or any other group in society. Formal education is usually carried out by a school, an agency that
employs men and women who are professionally trained for this task.

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION

Marked Differences Between the Primitive and Civilized Culture

1. Primitive culture was relatively simple.

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2. Primitive man had relatively narrow social and cultural contacts.

3. The organization of primitive life was tribal.
4. The most significant feature is the absence of reading and writing.

AIMS

1. Security and survival- to prepare the young to secure himself and his family and to appease the gods or
spirits which they believed to control their existence.
2. Conformity- to teach the next generation how to act in accordance with the tribe’s prevailing social
standards, attitudes, beliefs, and traditions.

- Leader of the dominant tribe became king or priest who organized complex government which demanded
obedience from the people.
- A longer period of training was given to the members of the tribe to provide them with skills necessary for
complex living.

CHINESE EDUCATION

- Chinese civilization originated in the Huang He (Hwang Ho or Yellow River) valley.

- A standardized system of written characters was adopted, and its use was made compulsory (Qin Dynasty
221-206 B.C.).

Aim- to select and train people for public service

HINDU EDUCATION
- Uses a system of writing known as Sanskrit
- Agent: Brahmans/Brahmins- priestly class (priest)
Aims
- to be able to live according to the demands of your specific social class in the caste system

JEWISH EDUCATION
- the English word Jew is derived directly from the Latin Judaeus, meaning an inhabitant of
Judaea/Judea.
Aim- to prepare men to know God and to live peacefully among their fellows

EGYPTIAN EDUCATION

- The principles of life was taught from treatises known as Books of Instruction which emphasized the
importance of wisdom, justice, obedience, piety, fairness, truthfulness, and above all, humanity.
- They have devised a system of picture writing known as hieroglyphics around 3100 B.C.

hieroglyphics- system of writing using pictures to represent a sound or group of sounds.

Education Depended on Social Class

Lower Class
- children of low-status families or fellahin learn their skills from their parents
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Boys - help in fields with simple farm tasks

- apprentice in certain crafts/profession of their father
Girls - confide in doing domestic tasks e.g. weaving, brewing, and bread making

Royalty and Elite/Rich

- literacy remained to be their privilege
- girls were tutored
- young boys were trained by scribes how to read and write
- court schools were set up by court officials to teach boys the duties of royalty through
apprenticeship
scribe – a prestigious profession, usually hereditary having the duty of teaching royal and elite children

Aims- cultural and utilitarian/function

GREEK EDUCATION

- Greek education gives the transition period between primitive and classical era a higher culture and
enlightenment.
- Since cities are small, for each evolved from a clan or a large family that recognized a common ancestor all
the citizens of a polis participated directly in all civic and military affairs serving as soldiers, judges,
members of the assembly, or as state officials.
- It is from the Greeks that we could trace the beginning of creative activity and logical thinking that have
made for genuine intellectual progress.
- Through their cities rise the three most popular thinkers that the world have known they were Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle.
- Their alphabet evolves from Phoenician symbols.
- Greek Alphabet- The modern Greek alphabet has 24 characters and is written from
left to right

Spartan
Education
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SPARTAN EDUCATION
Aim
- Their education aimed to develop a nation of unequalled military skill with citizens absolutely devoted to
the state.
- It is focused in developing the capacities of men only for war.
- The aim of education was in accordance with the aim of their constitution, which was to train
powerful body of soldiers that should be capable of conformity, endurance, strength, cunning, and patriotic
efficiency.

ATHENIAN EDUCATION
Aims
- “Men sana en corpore sano”, a Latin expression which means “sound mind in a sound body” was the
ultimate aim of their educational system.
- They also aim to develop individual excellence which meant a full rounded development of mind and body
and public usefulness, the ability to take active part in the business of the state.
- Athenians also sought beauty and grace of body, knowledge and things of the spirit.
- Their idea of manhood embraced external and internal beauty, physical and mental harmony.

The Sophists (wondering scholars or well-traveled men)

- Greek sophistes, “expert, master craftsman, man of wisdom”, originally, name applied by the ancient Greeks
to learned men, such as the Seven Wise Men of Greece also known as the Seven Sages, Greek sages of the
7th and 6th centuries B.C. who were active in science, philosophy, and politics. Although their identities
differ in some accounts, the seven sages usually appear as Bias of Priene, Chilon of Sparta, Cleobulus of
Lindus, Periander of Corinth, Pittacus of Mitylene, Solon of Athens, and Thales of Miletus.
- In the 5th century B.C. the name sophists was applied to itinerant teachers that were mostly non-citizen of
Athens who provided instruction in several higher branches of learning for a fee.
- Because they believe that man is the measure of all things, they stressed individual development.
- Most of them concluded that truth and morality were essentially matters of opinion. Thus, in their own
teaching, they tended to emphasize forms of persuasive expression, such as the art of rhetoric, which
provided pupils with skills useful for achieving success in life, particularly public life.
- The sophists were of minor importance in the development of Western philosophical thought. They were,
however, the first to systematize education. Leading 5th-century sophists included Protagoras, Gorgias,
Hippias of Elis, and Prodicus of Ceos.
- The sophists were popular for a time, especially in Athens; however, their sceptical view on absolute truth
and morality eventually provoked sharp criticism. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle challenged the philosophical
basis of the Sophists' teaching, and Plato and Aristotle further condemned them for taking money.
- Later, they were accused by the state of lacking morality. As a result, the word sophist acquired a derogatory
meaning, as in the modern term sophistry, which can be defined as subtle and deceptive or false
argumentation or reasoning.

Reasons Why Conservative Athenians were Against Sophists

1. They collected teachers’ fee from their students.

2. Since they were aliens, the Athenians believed they posed grave threats to Athenian society for they led
their students to deviate from their moral, ethical, social, political, and religious traditions.
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3. Because the Sophists’ strong emphasis on individualism, the Athenians were fearful that they may be
tempted to put self-aggrandizement and personal glory above love for fellowmen and country, leading to
the downfall of the very foundation of Athenian society.

The Three Great Educational Theorists

- Due to the multifarious scope of the Sophists’ teachings, the Athenians were confronted with the problem of
reconciling individual liberty with social stability.
- The greatest among the philosophers who focused much of their time and attention in resolving the above-
mentioned dilemma were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

SOCRATES

- Though he accepted the fundamental principle of the chief of the sophists’, Protagoras, that man is the
measure of all things he declared that before using a measure of any kind, one must fully understand it. He
postulated the concept Gnothi Seauton or “Know thyself”.
- To him knowledge is a virtue and all virtuous actions are based on one’s knowledge. Likewise, whoever is
enlightened must be virtuous.
- The aims of Socratic education were to show that knowledge is the basis of all right actions, including the
art of living, and develop the power of correct thinking in the individual.
- His method of teaching was known as ironic (destructive element) and maieutic (constructive element).
*Ironic- after posing a thought-provoking question to his students, which are at times unanswerable he would
ask series of questions if the opinion given was against his own leading the individual to think critically about
his original statement to the point that he finally contradicts it.
*Maieutic- the first set of questions would be reinforced by another series of questions in the mind of the
student that would lead him to conceive the correct idea concerning the arguments.

PLATO would decide whether a child should live or not. A child was nursed not necessarily by his/her
own mother.

- According to his beliefs educational system should be designed to accommodate both sexes and should be
used as a determiner of an individual’s social class.

Plato’s Educational System

- Children should be physically trained by their guardians through play form birth until age seven. They were
also required to have lessons on morals and religion.
- From seven to sixteen children should be sent to a state school to be given humanistic training (literature,
music, gymnastics)
- When they turned sixteen those who had shown that they were chiefly govern by their passions were drafted
into the artisan class. The rest could continue their education in physical training and military discipline
until the age of 20.
- The second classification should consist of those who showed their ability in warfare. The rest of the
students should continue their education in science, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, and rhetorics,
among others.
- At the age 30 the students should be reclassified depending upon their intellectual ability. Those who would
fail to show extraordinary talents would be given subordinate positions in society. On the other hand, those
who excelled were given the highest level of education or philosophical training; they will continue their
education for five more years in philosophy, law, logic, and dialectics as well as in the art of leadership.
 61

- When they reach 35 years of age these students will enter public service as administrators of the state, they
will hold the position until they reach 50.
- After retirement from active service, they should devote their time to study and reflection, and in teaching
the younger generation.

ARISTOTLE

- (384-322 B.C.), Greek philosopher and scientist, who shares with Plato and Socrates the distinction of being
the most famous of the ancient philosophers.
- Born at Stagira, in Macedonia, the son of a physician to the royal court, Aristotle moved at the age of 17 to
Athens to study at Plato’s Academy. He remained there for about 20 years (from age 17 –37), first as a
student and then as a teacher.
- Also, he stated that one of the responsibilities of a democratic state is to provide quality education to the
citizenry, which in return is the chief means of securing the welfare of the state.
- Unlike Plato, he believed that the family should be strengthened as it is the basic foundation of the state and
provides the first educational experience of the individual.
- Man according to him is composed of two distinct but united entities- soul and body. The soul is made up
of irrational elements (appetites, desires, passion) and a rational element (intellect). Thus for him
educational of the individual should therefore attend to the development of the physical, moral, and
intellectual aspects of his/her life.
- He denied Plato and Socrates’ basic tenet that knowledge is virtue insisting that virtue is brought about by
doing and not by knowing.
- He further advocated that man is a social animal who must use and live according to his reason to attain his
ultimate end: the summum bonum or the supreme good.
- Although he shared his teacher’s reverence for human knowledge he revised many of Plato’s ideas by
emphasizing methods rooted in observation and experience.
- Aristotle surveyed and systematized nearly all the extant branches of knowledge and provided the first
ordered accounts of biology, psychology, physics, and literary theory.
- In addition, Aristotle invented the field known as formal logic, pioneered zoology, and addressed virtually
every major philosophical problem known during his time.
- Known to medieval intellectuals simply as “the Philosopher”, Aristotle is possibly the greatest thinker in
Western history, and, historically, had perhaps the single greatest influence on Western intellectual
development.
- He is considered as the Father of Modern Sciences due to his ideas and countless contributions to the field
of science.
Aristotle’s Educational System

- The individual must be given basic education at home from birth up to seven years of age, in preparation for
formal schooling.
- At seven he/she should started formal schooling which was devoted primarily to the training of the rational
and irrational aspects of the soul. This should continue until he reaches 21 years of age. At this point,
attention should be to the development of the body and self-restraint. Moral education, or the training of the
soul’s irrational element, was primarily attained through music and literature.
- For students 21 years old and above, the emphasis of education should be on scientific and philosophical
training.
ROMAN
EDUCATION
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- Ancient Rome, the homeland of Roman civilization, which, from its beginnings as a settlement of Latin
peasants on the banks of the River Tiber around 1000 B.C., grew to be the center of the greatest empire of
the ancient world.
- From about 500 to 300 B.C., Roman ways quickly began to dominate the whole of Italy and the
Mediterranean fringe and, from about 200 B.C. to the late 5th century A.D., Rome controlled vast territories
in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
- The economic prosperity of Rome, coupled with military successes that led to the formation of the Roman
Empire, created a fertile seedbed for the development of Roman culture and allowed the development of
specialist artists, craftsmen, lawyers, and administrators as well as providing the financial resources to
support what was, for many, a rich and diverse way of life.
- About the time the Roman Republic was getting to be known as a mighty empire dominating the known
world, the Roman educational system become more organized and complete.
- The Romans were practical, pragmatic people who absorbed themselves in the successful management of
their everyday affairs.
- Their language become the instrument of commerce, the coins were circulated far and near, their civil
service was honorable and the law elevated to the dignity of science.
- Before Rome’s decline, women were admitted to all schools in all levels and were allowed to function in
some of the professions.

Five Great Periods in the History of Roman Education

1. From 753 B.C. (traditional founding of the city) to 275 B.C. Children were taught principally at home
by their parents and servants (usually educated captured slaves). Entry to public life was by participation
in civic, religious and military affairs. Schools were only on the elementary level.
2. From 275 B.C. until 132 B.C. the Romans developed a literary culture and a system of higher education
patterned after the Greeks.
3. From 132 B.C. to 100 A.D. Latin literature and grammar were perfected. Medicine and law were taught
on a systematic basis. Roman treatises on architecture and oratory were produced. Schools were private
but a beginning was made of public subsidies to education. The government became an empire. Jesus
Christ was born, lived and was crucified, and Christian Church was established.
4. From 100 A.D. to 275 A.D. law became a university subject. Medicine took form and it kept this for 1
400 years. Government increased its subsidy for learning.
5. From 275 A.D. to 529 A.D. The government established a monopoly of education. Teachers were
required to be licensed. Christianity became first tolerated, then it became official religion of the
Empire. Textbooks were written. The ancient world went to pieces and the Middle Ages were ushered
in.

Aims
- The development of vir bonus- the good citizen, the good soldier, the good worker. The vir bonus was the
man possessed of all the virtues essential for the exercise of his rights and the discharge of his duties and
obligations.
- Romans judged everything y its serviceability and effectiveness.
- In the later period of the Roman Empire, Roman education aimed for linguistic facility and perfection in
public speaking and debate.
- The orator, who was considered the ideally educated man, was to be the first vir bonus. The true orator
used his learning by putting it to practical use in public service.

*Three Educational Levels Under the Greco-Roman Schools*

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1. Elementary level- reading and writing were taught by the ludi magister/litterator (teacher of letters) to
children when they reached seven years of age until they turned to ten years old.
2. Grammar school
- students entered this school when they are ten years of age and have finished elementary level;
they stayed until they were at the age of 16.
- The grammar school became a definite educational institution with well-defined methods of
teaching, a fixed curriculum, and public support.
- Grammar was the chief subject of study, but other subjects were literature, language, oration, and
declamation.
- The two types of this school are: the one that teaches Greek while the other was that for Latin
instruction.
- The aim of grammar schools was to equip students with mastery of expression in reading,
writing, and speaking, and prepare them for work in the rhetorical school.
- The teacher, called grammaticus/literatus, not only gave lectures; he also imposed severe
discipline on errant and nonconformist students (this discipline included flogging with a whip
made of leather tongs).
3. Rhetoric school
- Unless a young boy belonged to a patrician or wealthy family or was destined for a career in
government, his education was considered finished upon his completion of grammar school.
Otherwise, a boy of 16 years of age entered the rhetorical school and stay there for two or three
years depending upon his ability, intelligence, and interests.
- This school prepared young boys for public service.
- It was a predecessor of our modern colleges and universities.
- The training under the teacher rhetor was rigorous and effective.
- To be a good orator the students exercised oratory, declamation, and debate. He also practiced
posturing and pronunciation.
- To add melody to their voice, students studied music.
- To prepare for debate they studied logic, law, and literary criticism and to defend the right, they
tackled ethics.
- To equip them with general knowledge, they reviewed grammar and literature, arithmetic and
geometry, philosophy, and astronomy.

 At first, there was no institution beyond the schools of the rhetor and, for a Roman to obtain university
education, he had to study abroad at Athens, Alexandria, or Rhodes.
 Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus also known as Vespasian/Vespasia (A.D. 9-79), Roman emperor (A.D.
69-79), born in Sabine Reate, near Rome, who put up a library and developed a school of learning called
Athenaeum which would constitute higher education.
 (Latin, Marcus Ulpius Trajanus) Emperor Trajan (c. 53-117), Roman emperor (A.D. 98-117) who awarded
scholarship to poor but deserving youth.
 (Latin, Publius Aelius Hadrianus) Hadrian (A.D. 76-138), an emperor of Rome (A.D. 117-138) who
provided retired teachers with pensions and gave more attention law and medicine than philosophy.
 Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus/Antoninus Pius (86-161), Roman emperor (A.D. 138-161), born in
Lanuvium (now Lanuvio, Italy), of a distinguished Roman family. He exempted all Roman teachers from
taxation and military services to allow them to devote more time and attention to education.
 Constantine the Great (c. A.D. 274-337), Roman emperor (A.D. 306-337) who continued to give teachers
the privileges that were awarded by his predecessors and with the legalization of Christianity in 313 A.D. he
extended these privileges to the clergy. He was also the first Roman ruler to be converted to Christianity.
 Flavius Claudius Julianus/Julian the Apostate (c. 331-363) was the first Roman emperor (A.D. 361-363)
who required teachers to be licensed or certified.
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 Emperor Flavius Gratianus/Gratian (359-383) he gave subsidy to all schools from the public funds. Also,
he created salary scale or schedule for teachers throughout the empire.
 Flavius Theodosius called Theodosius the Great (c. 346-395), Roman emperor of the East (379-395) and of
the West (394-395), the last ruler of a united Roman Empire. He considered the establishment of private
schools a grave crime punishable by law.

Methods
 Elementary level - memorization and imitation
- Pupils sat on the floor and school hours were form sunrise to sunset.
- Writing was done with a stylus on a wax tablet.
- Punishment was severe.
 Secondary level – exercise in good literary discourse and moral habits
 Rhetoric/Rhetorical school – emphasized declamation and all types of public speaking were perfected
(eulogies, exhortations, funeral orations and lectures).

The Most Influential Teachers and Thinkers in Roman Education

1. Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.),

- Born in Arpinum (now Arpino, Italy), as a youth he was also known as Tully.
- Rome's greatest orator and man of letters (writer).
- His writings provided the ideal for the education of the Middle ages.
- His educational ideas were put in his The Orator
- According to him the ability to speak and to persuade people was of greatest importance in
professional and public life.
- For him an orator should have a well-rounded education and be exposed to a wide practical
experience in order to have a sound basis for his philosophy.
- To him the whole focus of education was on the art of leadership in public life.
2. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (c. 35-c. 95)
- Roman rhetorician, born in Calagurris (now Calahorra), Spain.
- He was educated in Rome, where he at first practiced law, but he was more distinguished as a
teacher of rhetoric. He was appointed public professor of the subject, with his salary paid by state
funds
- After 20 years as an advocate and a teacher, he retired to concentrate on writing.
- He wrote Institution Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory), a book which combines discussions on
education with a study on the principles, scope, and style of oratory.
- Also, he advocated that an orator must be a well-rounded man of affairs coupled with integrity
and good memory and should know the practical application of his arguments.
- Furthermore, he recommended the use of games and play in learning as well as in considering
individual differences.
- In addition, he suggested competition and awards as basis for motivation in place of corporal
punishment. He also felt that group instruction was preferable to individual tutoring.

MEDIEVAL EDUCATION

FACTORS THAT CAUSED ROME’S RISE AND

FALL
1. Birth of Christianity
2. Barbarian infiltration
3. Failing appreciation of the vir bonus
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4. Moral decay
5. Lack of an orderly law of succession
6. Transfer of the seat of government from Rome to Constantinople (Istanbul Turkey)
7. Defeat of Romulus Augustus by the Gothic chief Odoacer in 476 A.D. (this marked the end of the
Roman Empire in the West and consequently the passage from ancient to medieval time).

EDUCATIONAL ATTITUDES AND

PRACTICES OF JESUS CHRIST

 Jesus Christ (between 8 and 4 B.C.-c 29 A.D.), the central figure of Christianity, born in Bethlehem in
Judaea.
 The chronology of the Christian era is reckoned from a 6th-century dating of the year of his birth, which is
now recognized as being from four to eight years in error. Jesus is believed by the great majority of
Christians to be the incarnate Son of God, and to have been divinely conceived by Mary, the wife of Joseph,
a carpenter of Nazareth.
 The name Jesus is derived from a Greek rendering of the Hebrew name Joshua, or in full Yehoshuah
(“Jehovah is deliverance”). The title Christ is derived from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew
mashiakh (“anointed one”), or Messiah. “Christ” was used by Jesus' early followers, who regarded him as
the promised deliverer of Israel and later was made part of Jesus' proper name by the Church, which regards
him as the redeemer of all humanity.
 Christianity came from Christ, which was derived from the Greek word christos.
 Christianity tried to harmonize individual freedom, the personal desires and aspirations of pagan
civilization, with social stability to preserve the nation.
 Christianity offered new hope, new ethical force- humanitarianism- that provided the basis for the education
of all
 After the death of Christ his disciples teach the Gospels to the world. As a result, the entire Roman kingdom
and the rest of the world heard the Gospels, many were converted to Christian faith.
 Christians suffered all kinds of persecution in the hands of Roman emperors such as Nero, Vespasian, and
Julian the Apostate as well as the religious leaders of both Jews and pagan religions (St. Paul was beheaded
during Nero’s reign; Peter was crucified upside down; and John the beloved was submerged in boiling oil).

Aims
- Seek ye first the kingdom of God and His righteousness and all these things shall be added unto you.
- Christ aimed at the highest type of ethical education
- Jesus taught His followers to renounce the personal privileges and advantages that come from riches and
selfishness of private ambition
- Christ taught not only a moral revolution in the individual but also a revolution in society as well
- Christ was also concerned with religious training- the development of the right relationship between man
and his God

Resemblance of Jesus and Socrates’ Teaching Style

1. Simple and direct
2. Their use of ordinary situations to explain their ideas
3. Their aim: to lift man’s way of living and thinking
4. Their practice of teaching something new.

Marked Differences of Jesus and Socrates’ Teaching Style

Socrates
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- Always critical and analytic; he sued the dialectic (by which the truth of a theory or opinion is
arrived at logically; art or practice of debate or conversation) and inductive methods of research.
- He promoted independent thought by arousing intellectual curiosity and critical judgment.

Jesus Christ
- His appeal was to the heart, the conscience, the will, and to the spiritual center of man. He
sought to quicken man’s ethical sensibilities.

Constantine
I
- Also known as Constantine the Great
- Constantine I was the first emperor of Rome to convert to Christianity.
- He converted to Christianity because he attributed his victory over the eastern emperor Maxentius to his
dream. In 312, on the eve of a battle against Maxentius, his rival in Italy, Constantine is reported to have
dreamt that Christ appeared to him and told him to inscribe the first two letters of His name (“XP” in Greek)
on the shields of his troops. The next day he is said to have seen a
cross superimposed on the Sun with the words “in this sign you will be the victor /in this
sign conquer” (usually given in Latin, In hoc signo vinces).
- He proclaimed Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire and called it as Roman Catholic.
The word “catholic” came from Greek word “katholikos” which means “universal”.
- During his reign, Christians, previously persecuted, gained freedom of worship and was given equal rights
with the citizen of Rome due to the Edict of Milan that he issued in 313 A.D.
- He gave huge estates and other gifts to the Christian church, which gave way to the establishment of
Christian based schools.

Aim
Moral regeneration of the individual

Agencies and Organization

 By the Virtue of Constantine’s Support to the Roman Catholic Church the Following Schools were
Established:
1. Catechumenal or Neophyte Schools
– for the new convert; it teaches religious discipline, moral values, and Christian doctrine to
prepare them for baptism
– probationers were called catechumens
– boys and girls were admitted and was given the sacrament of baptism and communion after
several years of training
2. Catechetical or Question-and-Answer Schools
- for leadership training
3. Episcopal or Cathedral Schools
- for clergy and priests
- usually located in cathedrals
- under the direct supervision of the bishop
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- the only educational institution after the collapse of the Roman Empire

Note: The home is second only to the church; the church was the sole dominant agency of education.

RENAISSANCE TO THE AGE OF NATURALISM IN EDUCATION

The General Historical Background of The Renaissance (16th Century)

a. European politics were dominated by Charles the V and Philip II of the Holy Roman Empire
b. The predominant philosophy of the period was Humanism, a philosophy away from the medieval
theology and towards man’s interest on earth
c. The Renaissance spirit is clearly manifest in the arts and in literature
d. In painting some of the greatest artist belong to this century Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519),
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), Titian (c. 1485-1576), Albrecht Durer (1471-1528), and Hans
Holbein (the Younger/Jr.) (c. 1497-1543)
e. Literature claims the following great names: Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) in Italy, François
Rabelais (c. 1493-1553), Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592), and Pierre de Ronsard (1524-
1585) in France, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547-1616) in Spain, and William Shakespeare (1564-
1616), Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), Francis Bacon -1st Baron Verulam and Viscount St. Albans-
(1561-1626), and Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) in England
f. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) lead the field of Science
g. Religion was dominated by Martin Luther (1483-1546), the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic
Center

Humanism
- derived from studia humanitatis which means “study of humanity”
- a movement started in the early part of the 14th century during the Renaissance
- aimed for the development of the intellectual, spiritual and physical capacities of a person through
education
- content of education includes the 7 liberal arts (trivium -grammar, rhetoric, and logic- and the quadrivium
-arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music-), History, physical games and exercises, and Greek language.
- two types of humanism were 1. Italian/Individualistic Humanism and 2. Northern/Social Humanism

ITALIAN/INDIVIDUALISTIC HUMANISM
- stressed personal culture, individual freedom and development toward full and rich lives
- for them education was to be happy, exciting, and fun experience
- produced a revival of learning and paganism
- essentially autocratic and was limited to few elite
- characterized by freedom of thought, self-expression and creative activity
- patterned after the Greek ideal of liberal education, the harmonious development of mind and morals

Aims
1. To develop individual personality through nature, art, music, literature, and architecture
2. To get the most possible out of life; to live a full, excellent, and rich existence
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NORTHERN/SOCIAL HUMANISM
- Hieronymians or Brethren of the Common Life was an organization of pious and socially minded men who
facilitated the spread of humanistic spirit in northern Europe
- Hieronymians aimed at combating ignorance, especially of the lower class, by instruction in the Scriptures
- Social humanism’s proponents attempted to establish an educational system based on democratic principles.
They believed that this would be possible if all levels of education would undergo reforms and be made
available not only to the elite but to the masses as well

Aim
- Education aimed at social reform and improvement of human relationships. It aimed at eliminating
ignorance of the common people and hypocrisy of social leaders

*Well Known Humanists and Their Methods

1. Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466-1536)
- a Dutch scholar, was one of the greatest humanists of his age, and a figure of major importance in the
northern European Renaissance.
- born on October 26 or 27, in about 1466, in Rotterdam, the illegitimate son of a priest, Roger Gerard, and a
doctor's daughter.
- He went to strict monastic schools in Deventer and 's-Hertogenbosch and, after his father's death, became an
Augustinian canon at Steyn.
- He was ordained a priest in 1492 and, while employed by the Bishop of Cambrai, studied
Scholastic philosophy and Greek at the University of Paris.
- Finding religious life uncongenial, he sought secular employment, and later received papal
dispensation to live and dress as a secular scholar.
- He believed that women should enjoy the same educational rights enjoyed by men
- Edited many of the Greek and Latin authors including the New Testament which he also
translated in Greek and later in Latin (his translation of the new Testament became the basis of
the King James version in English)
- Denounced Ciceronianism (a narrow and formal practice of putting emphasis upon style and
construction of Latin grammar rather than ideas) and wanted the study of the classics for the
purpose of broadening knowledge and refining taste, and for gaining ability to make decisions
- He expounded the following:
a. the need to study the child carefully for individualized instruction
b. the importance of game and exercise in education
c. keeping education in close touch with the social needs and life of the times
d. value of repetition and mastery of small units of work art at time
e. motivation and the use of praises and rewards
f. emphasis on gentleness as opposed to physical punishment
2. Johann/Johannes Strum/Sturm (1507-1589)
- a German scholar and educator who founded a gymnasium, a school attended by a large number
of students, mostly from the noble families
- his influence spread rapidly in Germany as an outcome of his published textbooks and method of
training teachers in the gymnasium

- His methods involved the following:

a. stressed imitation and memorization
b. the use of vernacular in the lower grade
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c. the use of pupil monitors

d. careful grading of instruction

3. Roger Ascham (1515-1568)

- Born in Kirby Wiske, Yorkshire, and educated at St John’s College, University of Cambridge.
- English scholar and author, a major intellectual figure in Tudor England,
- In 1540 he became the first Professor of Greek at Cambridge.
- English humanist who became the private tutor of Queen Elizabeth
- He wrote the book The Schoolmaster which was published in 1571 after his death. In this book
he condemned brutal corporal punishment and other “inhuman” practices prevalent in English
schools during his time
- Known for his double translation method, where a pupils is required to translate a passage into
English and then retranslate it into the original
- He was the first Englishman who write educational treatises in the vernacular

4. Juan Luis Vives

- a humanist and philosopher, who interpreted new ideas on education and, in particular, advocated
the education of women
- as part of his methods he emphasized the following:
a. the use of vernacular
b. broadening of curriculum and the education of women

Reformation
Protestants

- a term used to refer to those who made protest against the Roman Catholic Church (Calvinists,
Presbyterians, Baptist, etc.,)
- now one of the leading Christian Churches which was separated from the Roman Catholic Church

*Protestants During Renaissance Agreed on the Following Fundamental Concepts:

1. The interpretation of the Bible was substituted for the authority of the church as basis of faith
2. Individual responsibility for salvation was substituted for collective responsibility.
3. God’s mercy was the means of salvation.
4. Penance and works of charity as deliverance’s from sin could be dispensed with.
Aim
- living a worthy life on earth will guarantee a glorious life hereafter
* therefore education must provide adequate training in the duties of the home, occupation, church and state

Well Known Reformists:

1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)

- a German member of the Catholic clergy and a university professor

- tried several times to achieve reform from within the church but was not successful
- in October 31, 1517 he nailed on the doors of the All Saints Church Wittenberg a set of Ninety-Five Theses
denouncing the malpractice’s of the church (concentration of wealth in the churches, monastic, and
 70

ecclesiastical courts- based on a doctrine that salvation came from good works, donations, and sale of
indulgences)
- was threaten to be excommunicated by the Pope if he did not withdraw his attacks ; he did not and he left
the Catholic Church

2. Philip Melanchton (1497-1560)

- German scholar and religious reformer
- he wrote “Book of Visitation” or “The Report” which was regarded as the first school survey
report in the history

3. Sturm of Strassberg
- proposed a 10-class organization- a class year plan which has become the pattern of a graded
system of school organization

John Calvin (1509-1564)

- French theologian, Church reformer, humanist, and pastor, who said that the state should be considered the
political and social arm of the church and should carry out its injunctions.
- the statement above was based in a theory called Theocracy which says that “since God cannot be present to
rule on earth, the church must rule according to the God’s laws
- in practice of the said theory the church strictly control all the affairs of man – economic, political, social,
religious, and educational.
- in Geneva he head a school with seven classes under the supervision of the city; but finance by tuition fees

Methods
1. Reading (routine pronunciation of voice)
2. Memorization of answers to questions from the gospels, hymns, and psalms
- in secondary, students had to learn rules and passages by memory
3. Religious indoctrination (chief method)
* Methods of teaching were rigid and discipline was strict

Catholic Counter Reformation

- movement within the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th and 17th centuries that sought to revitalize the
Church and to oppose Protestantism
- if most of the countries in Northern Europe adhered to Protestantinism, the Southern European countries
like Italy, Spain, Portugal and France remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church
- Under Pope Paul III the Roman Catholic Church convened the Council of Trent for the purpose of
instituting reforms in the church thereby preventing breakaways like the one initiated by Martin Luther
- realizing that the Protestants are using education to further their ends, the Catholics used education to win
back dissenters. Thus, teaching orders and teaching congregations were founded, parish schools were
reorganized and seminaries were opened to train church leaders
- in order to carry out reforms, the church authorized the establishments of several priestly orders
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The Most Important Priestly/Teaching Orders/Congregations

1. Jesuits (Society of Jesus)

- established by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), a Spanish noble soldier in 1540/1534
- this teaching order abolished corporal punishment
- designated to train church leaders
- concentrate on tertiary education fro the rigid training of the leaders of both the church and the
state

Aims
- its aim was expressed in its motto: Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam (Everything for the Greater Glory of God)
- to fulfill whatever is judged the most urgent need of the Church at the time.
Contributions
- doing a small amount of work at a time, doing it well and making sure it is retained
- two steps in the teaching method- prelection and repetition
- adapting the lesson to the interest and abilities of students
- participation by question and answer
- repetition for mastery
- review
- motivation by rivalry and emulation

Ratio Studiorum – published by the Jesuits that contain the plan for the administration of schools, the program
and courses of study, selection and training of teachers, methods of teaching, and
supervision of instruction and methods of discipline.

2. Jansenites/Jansenists
- founded by Cornelius Jansen in 1598, a Flemish theologian and bishop of Ypres
- the Jansenites of Port-Royal was founded in 1635/1637 by Jansen’s friend, Jean Duvergier de
Hauranne/Jean Duvegier de Haurame more popularly known as Abbe de Saint-Cyran/ Abbé of St-Cyran
- these groups (the one lead by Jansen and that of Haurame) emphasized French language, logic, and the
study of other foreign languages

Aim
- to develop the moral and religious character of the child in line with the philosophy of Rene Descartes that
human nature is essentially bad.

3. Christian Brothers
- Institute of the Brethren of Christian Schools (De La Salle Schools) was established in 1684 by Jean
Baptiste dela/De La Salle (1651-1719)
- teachers were known as the Christian Brothers
- teachers enforced complete silence and used signals to communicate instead of commands
- used corporal punishment

Aim
- to teach the poor

Realistic Movement
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- in line with Realism, a philosophy which holds that education should be concerned with the actualities of
life.
- While the realist agreed that anew type of education should be developed to prepare the youth for the
concrete duties or practical living, they differ as to the methods by which such could be achieved. This gave
rise to realists groups.

3 Groups of Realists with Different Methods

1. Humanistic/Literary/Verbal Realists
2. Social Realists
3. Sense Realists

Literary Realism
- earliest realists
- they agreed with the humanist that classical language and literature were the ideal means to liberal education

Aim
- To secure a knowledge of human society and its institutions of nature and man’s reactions to
nature, chiefly through a study of the content and not the form of the classics

3 Verbal Realists

1. Juan Luis Vives (Spanish)

- aim: education should develop personality
- the teacher should study each pupil individually
- adapt school work to the abilities and interests of pupils
- quarterly conferences with teachers to assess the pupil’s progress

2. Francois Rabelais
- a French who lived from 1483-1553
- education should AIM at the development of a whole man
- all learning is to be made pleasant
- learning should be facilitated through natural activities
- reasoning substituted for rote learning
- make use of reference books

3. John Milton (1608-1674)

- English educator and poet who believed that the AIM of education was to prepare the youth for actual living
- reading is done for content and not for syntax (patterns/rules for the formation of grammatical sentence)
- use of resource person in the classroom
- discussions and lectures by academic authorities

Sense Realism
- knowledge comes primarily through the senses
- education is founded on the training of sense perception rather than on pure memory activities
- condemns the use of excessive and harsh discipline
- introduced a new teaching method – inductive
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- comprehensive curriculum for all levels are based on their tenet: Know all things, do all things, say all
things
- organized school system for both boys and girls regardless of economic status

Aim
- to develop harmonious society, working in accordance with natural and universal laws.

Sense Realists’ Methods and Principles

1. John Amos Comenius (1592-1670)
- Latin name for Jan Komensky, Czech educational reformer and religious leader, born in Moravia
(now part of the Czech Republic), and educated at the University of Heidelberg.
- Moravian bishop who became a teacher and rector in the Moravian towns of Prerov and Fulnek
- considered as the first educator who advocated the use of visual aids
- author of the Orbis Sensualium Pictus (The Visible World in Pictures), the first illustrated book
for children
- his AIM was to achieve eternal happiness with God, and for him education should prepare for the
activities of life through knowledge
- His methods and principles are:
a. education should appeal to the child’s natural interest
b. learning starts from the senses
c. whatever learned must be of practical value
d. general principles, first, then details follow (deductive method)
e. things should be taught in succession and one at a time
f. subject must not be left unless thoroughly mastered
g. learning should proceed from the known to the unknown (Principle of Apperception)
h. children learn to do by doing
i. words must not be repeated
j. instruction should be fitted to the child’s understanding
k. learning to be effective must be first in vernacular
l. sense, memory, imagination, and understanding should be excised daily
m. Comenius recognized the value of textbook, and the uniformity of texts
n. Recognize the importance of the teacher who had to be properly trained

In the Internal School Organization, Comenius Made the Following Recommendations:

1. All schools should begin the same date each year and students should not be admitted except on the
opening date.
2. There should be a systematic organization of the schedule of class work.
3. Each class should have a separate room, a separate teacher with separate tests.
4. School day should be organized in agreement with the child’s nature. Older children should stay about 6
hours in school while younger ones should study only 4 hours a day.
5. There was to be no homework.
6. A half hour relaxation should follow each study period.
7. Morning hours to be devoted to intellectual subjects and the afternoon to physical and aesthetic subjects.

2. Wolfgang Ratke(1571-1635)
- German
- His contributions are the following:
a. all learning should follow the course of nature
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b. learning should only be one thing at a time

c. repetition must be done as often as possible
d. everything must be learned first in the mother tongue
e. learning must be without compulsion
f. nothing is to be learned by rote
g. similar subjects must be taught in the same way
h. learning by sense, first, then, learning by exploration
i. learning should be through induction and experimentation

3. Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611)

- school head of Merchant Taylor’s School and St. Paul’s School (Two of the famous excellent
humanistic schools in England)
- author of Elementaries and Positions (contains his view that education must be in accordance
with nature)
- AIM : to secure the expression and development of childish tendencies and not suppress them.
For him education should not repress the natural tendencies of man but help “nature to her perfection”.
- Type and Content learning should be adapted to the needs of the students and should include
reading and writing
- Agencies and Organizations 6 year elementary school for boys and girls; and training colleges
for teachers (Later known as Normal Colleges)
- Methods included the following:
a. children must be studied thoroughly and their innate abilities respected
b. make use of games, play, and exercise for learning purposes
c. vernacular should be used to instruct pupils aged 6-12

4. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

- English statesman, philosopher, and educator
- the most influential and versatile English writer of the 17th century
- author of “New Atlantis” (contains description of his ideal society)
- wrote on a broad range of topics, including ethics, philosophy, science, law, history, and politics
- the AIM of education was to give man dominance over things, to utilize knowledge for a practical and useful
life
- Type and Content he stressed the study of nature and was more
interested in content than in method
- helped usher in the era of modern scientific thought by developing a reasoning process called
induction. Induction is the process by which general conclusions are drawn from particular situations.
(Methodinductive)
Disciplinism

- this philosophy is known as Formal Discipline

- maintained that it was not the thing learned but the process of learning that was important in education
- adherents to the theory of Locke that mathematics (because of the universality of its principles) and
linguistics (because of the orderly arrangement of its parts) should be given emphasis. These subjects are
considered well adapted to the training of all the powers of the mind like memory and reasoning.
Aims
- formation of character
- to promote exercises of mind, body and self-control
- to increase the powers of the mind and not to accumulate knowledge
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John Locke (1632-1704)

- thought that our knowledge of the world should rely on everyday experience, scientific observation, and
common sense.
- his Essay Concerning Human Understanding portrays each individual as a blank slate, similarly in his book
Some Thoughts Concerning Education he stressed that at birth a child’s mind can be compared to a tabula
rasa, or a blank tablet. Each person’s experiences become notations on the slate and make him or her
distinct from other people.
- for him education was a discipline
- he believed that the aim of intellectual endeavor was truth but the attainment of truth in every human
activity should be guided by reason and the mind is only capable of obtaining and formulating reason if it is
educated to this end.
- education should follow rigid discipline for the mind to attain its goal
- moral development and the formation of desirable habits should be the chief aims of education. To realize
this, education should be composed of three separate but equally important components: 1.physical
education, 2.moral education, and 3.intellectual education.
- He believed in the use of praise and censure (a comment expressing fault); corporal punishment was to be
used in case of obstinacy (hardheadedness)

Rationalism

- educational philosophy prevalent in Europe in the latter part of the 17th century
- took its roots during the period known as the Age of Reason/Enlightenment
- claimed that human reason was the sole source of knowledge and the sole determiner of whether a thing or
action is acceptable or not. Anything that did not conform to human reasoning was to be rejected
- The aim of the movement was to develop the individual by means of restraints based upon reason.
- Rationalism lead to the creation of the enlightened class among the aristocrats known as the illuminati. The
illuminati formulated the so-called natural religion based on skepticism (the philosophical doctrine that the
truth of all knowledge must be always question and that inquiry must be a process of doubting) and atheism.
This class, represented by a French philosopher named Francois Marie Arouet, popularly known as
Voltaire.

Voltaire (1694-1778)
- French writer and philosopher Voltaire is considered one of the central figures of the Age of Enlightenment
of the 1700s, a period which emphasized the power of human reason, science, and respect for humanity.
- believed that literature should serve as a vehicle for social change. His biting satires and philosophical
writings demonstrated his aversion to intolerance, tyranny, and the hypocrisy of Christianity, and brought
him into frequent conflict with the religious and political communities.
- The expression captured in this portrait of Voltaire in 1718 hints at the sharp sense of humor with which he
won the favor of 18th-century French and English society.
- His ideas about education are the following:
a. education should be free from religiosity
b. stressed the creation of a polished intellectual society with strict implementation of laws- no rights and
sympathy should be given to the populace.
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NATURALISM TO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Naturalism

- the most influential movement of the 18th century

- advocated that education should be in accordance with the nature of the child. This means that all
educational practices are focused toward the natural development of the innate talents and abilities of the
child
- one should understand the nature of growth if one is to teach effectively
Aim
- to preserve the natural goodness and virtue of the individual and the formation of a society based
upon the recognition of the natural individual rights.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

- Swiss-born French philosopher, social and political theorist, musician, botanist, and one of the most
eloquent writers of the Age of Enlightenment.
- He took the view that man, as he came from nature, was good but he became evil through contact with
society
- believed that educators should concern themselves primarily with the mental and physical development of
their pupils and only secondarily with subject matter.
- His educational aim was to free man from the artificialities and restraints of human society
- his educational views were contained in his book Emile which became an educational classic
- despite Rousseau’s great influence, his works-particularly Social Contract and Emile- were burned by both
Catholic Paris and Protestant Geneva
- he was compelled to leave Paris in 1755 . However he managed to return in 1770 staying there until his
death
- finished his final work “Confessions”, while leading a half-insane and morbid life
- established the three modern principles of teaching:
1. Principle of Growth
2. Principle of Pupil Activity
3. Principle of Individualization
Emile
- it is not about the schooling but about the upbringing of a rich man’s son by a tutor who is given
unlimited authority over him.
- his education consisted of for periods starting from birth and ending at the age 20 ( Infancy, Childhood,
Age/Stage of Reason, and Social Stage)
- the last part of this book was devoted to the education of Sophie whom Emile married. In it Rousseau
showed how Sophie was trained physically in order to bear strong children; how to sing, dance, and
embroider, and design in order to please men; and also receive an early education in morals and religion
in order to provide a good home for her family.
* Women had inferior education. Rousseau’s model Sophie had no individuality and was trained never to
think for herself.

Nationalism
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- this movement stimulated the development of the state-controlled and state supported public school systems.
The aim of nationalism – preservation and glorification of the state.
- National sovereignty was the central focus of the nationalism ideology
- The aim of education was to develop responsible citizenship and national feeling
- Nationalists systems emphasized secular and civic instruction. These types developed loyalty and
patriotism.
- There was no time in the American history when the teachers were given a higher status than during this
time. Provisions were made for the careful training and selection of teachers. Teacher-training institutions
were under state control and a system of examination and certificate of teachers was developed.

DEVELOPMENTALISTS
- also known as the Psychological Movement
- Education aimed to unfold the natural capacities of the child

1. Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827)

- Swiss educational reformer, whose theories laid the groundwork for modern elementary education.
- he agreed with Rousseau’s idea that human beings were naturally good but spoiled by a corrupt society.
- Believed that the aim of education was the social regeneration of humanity

Characteristics of Pestalozzi’s School

1. the atmosphere was generally permissive
2. the content was made up of physical exercises, play activities, and nature studies.
3. Learning came through the senses
4. He used the object lesson – a special method consisting of three basic sorts of learning: form, number,
and sound
5. Teaching should proceed from the known to unknown (now called Principle of Apperception)
6. Teachers should be warm and emotionally secure
7. All learning was based on pupil activity
8. Children should learn in a slow precise manner
9. Home environment was necessary for successful teaching

2. Friedrick /Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852)

- German educator, the originator of the kindergarten.
- Believed that the aim of education was the development of the child
Characteristics of Froebel’s Idea
1. Reliance on nature was the chief educator
2. Schools must have a primitive atmosphere
3. The object lesson meant that concrete objects were used to stimulate recall of a corresponding idea in
the child’s mind
4. Children must not be taught what they don’t understand
5. The teacher must be an active instructor instead of hearer of memorized facts
6. Emphasis was placed on names, play songs, stories and crafts
7. The teacher should be a moral and cultural model worthy of the child’s love and trust
8. Teacher should be approachable and open person

3. Jonathan Herbart/Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841)

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- German philosopher and educator.

- for him the chief aim of education was moral development, to produce a good person with varied
interest.

Herbartian Education was Characterized By:

1. Foundation of moral character
a. The idea of inner freedom meant that actions were based on one’s personal convictions.
b. The idea of perfection meant harmony and integration of behavior.
c. The idea of benevolence meant a person had to be concerned with the social welfare of others.
d. The idea of justice meant that a person reconciled his individual behavior with that of the social
group
e. The idea of retribution indicated that reward or punishment accrued certain kinds of behavior.
2. Herbartian formal steps of instruction:
a. preparation- teacher motivates students
b. presentation- teacher presented the lesson
c. association- new lesson was deliberately related to past lessons
d. generalization- used examples to illustrate principles taken
e. application- tested whether students understood the lesson presented
3. Theories of interest, concentration, apperception were used

4. Maria Montessori (1870-1952)

- an Italian educator who introduced the method of Early Childhood Education. In her Casa de Bambini,
students who attend were described as disadvantaged
- In 1907 Maria Montessori introduced a method of teaching children that encouraged their initiative and
sense of self-reliance. Schools dedicated to her teaching techniques are found throughout the world. (The
picture shows students at a kindergarten in Berlin demonstrate their dancing skills.)

The Following Concepts Characterized Her Method of Education;

1. Learning was spontaneous
2. Curricula had three types:
a. activities and experiences
b. practical skills- serving a meal; tying buttons; washing dishes
c. formal skills- reading, writing, arithmetic
3. Activities were primarily individualized rather than group centered
4. Method of instruction was carefully pre-planned and followed patterns of human growth and
development

5. Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Swiss psychologist who was known for his contribution to early childhood education in the filed of
cognitive development. His ideas are:
1. Human intelligence developed in sequential manner
a. sensory motor
b. pre-operational
c. concrete operation
d. formal operations
2. A Piagetian school environment stressed the following:
a. teachers encourage children to explore and experiment
b. instruction is individualized
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c. children are provided with concrete material to touch, manipulate and use

6. Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)

- American psychologist and educator, born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, and
educated at Wesleyan, Harvard, and Columbia universities.
- A scientific educator who formulated the following laws:
a. Law of readiness
b. Law of exercise
c. Law of effect
d.

7. John Dewey (1859-1952)

- American philosopher, psychologist, and educator. Born in Burlington, Vermont
- John Dewey emphasized practical ideas in both his philosophical and educational theories, always striving
to show how abstract concepts applied to everyday life.
- He emphasized “hands-on” learning, and opposed authoritarian teaching methods. His ideas prompted a
drastic change in United States education beginning in the 20th century.
- Well known for his philosophy of pragmatism and his synthesis of Darwinian evolutionary theory.

Contributions:
1. Children are socially active human beings and they wanted to explore their environment and gain
control over it
2. Children used their collective knowledge to solve problems both personal and social
3. Education is a process by which the young were introduced to their cultural heritage
4. Dewey believed in democratic education- learners must be free to test all ideas, beliefs and values
Sociological Movement

This movement is attributed to John Dewey. He focused on the contributions of education to the preservation
and progress of society
-
- In the discussions of social implications of education, there are two points of view:

Social Traditionalism
 Aim- gives pupils an insight into their traditions, arousing interest and sympathy toward social
service, and developing efficiency in adapting the individual to society

Social Experimentation
 Aim- the school should direct pupils in learning to meet the needs of a changing society, not only for
immediate needs, but also for future needs under changing social conditions
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Philosophical Foundations of Education

What is Philosophy?

Etymologically speaking, philosophy is derived from the Greek word philo meaning “love” and sophos
or sophia meaning “wise” or “wisdom”. Philosophy therefore is a love for wisdom. For our purpose, we shall
define philosophy as the quest for truth based on logical reasoning and factual observation of nature’s
multifarious phenomena. Its purpose is to seek and prove the ultimate and absolute truth. For this, it is
considered the mother of all sciences.

Branches of Philosophy

The different branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic (the divisions
under each branch are illustrated below).

PHILOSOPHY

Metaphysics Epistemology Axiology Logic

Agnosticism
Skepticism Induction
A Posteriori Deduction
A Prioi Syllogism
Dialectics

Philosophies Related to Education

IDEALISM
Plato is the forefather of all Idealists. Plato talked about ultimate ideas. It is
from this concept that we get the word "Idealism." Technically it should be
"idea-ism." Plato was not talking about ideal in the sense of valued ends or
goals to reach. He referred only to ideas and to the fact that ideas in their
ultimate form are the "figures" behind us, which cast their shadows in the form
of things; we experience in our world.

In his book, The Republic, Plato used the allegory of The Cave. He would have his readers imagine
seeing a group of people sitting in a dark cave chained down in such a way that they can look in only one
direction. They look toward the expanse of wall on one side of the cave.
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Behind them is an open fire providing light, and between the fire and where they are sitting is a raised
runway along which figures move, casting their shadows upon the wall. The individuals, chained so they face
the wall, cannot see the fire or the figures, but only the shadows. If we can imagine them confined to this
position for their entire lives, we must expect them to consider the shadows as real, genuinely existent beings.
Not knowing anything else, having no three dimensional being to use for comparison, these prisoners in the
cave would come to believe that what they saw before them represented true reality.
Unchain the prisoners and let them turn around to see the fire and the figures, which have produced the
shadows. Plato believed they would re-adjust their conception of reality, altering it to fit new perceptual data
that their eyes are now able to collect. As they move about the cave they get a sense of the three-dimensional
character of their environment They conclude they have been fooled all along. What if they are led from the
cave into the blinding brilliance of the noonday sun. Plato believed they would be struck dumb by the complete
impossibility of it. They would turn away in complete bewilderment, not wishing to see the real truth of their
world.
Plato said that we humans are in our own cave - the world as we see it with our five senses. It looks real
enough - rocks, trees, birds and men. But it is a world of images, three-dimensional "shadows" of another more
genuinely real world - a world of pure ideas. This realm of pure ideas or pure mind is absolute in its perfection.
It has an intensity that is so far past the human mind that we are blinded from it. Like the sun that blinds our
eyes, the "Absolute Mind" completely overwhelms our feeble intellects.
We turn our eyes from the brilliance and retreat to a more comfortable existence, even if less genuinely
real. We retreat to our "cave," the world of sense perception, permitting our intellects an occasion brief or
fleeting glimpse of ultimate reality.
Plato's world was a two-world concept. Everything we see in our experience - trees, chairs, books,
circles, men - is only a limited and imperfect expression of an underlying idea. Every tree we see is different,
but there is an Idea to tree-ness which all trees share.

Question: What is tree-ness? Trees, whether they be oak or pine, have trunks, limbs, and either leaves or
needles. They do the same job. They take carbon dioxide and turn it into oxygen.
The idea of a tree is different from a bush, which is squatty.

Another Illustration: Chairs we can see and sit in; but what is really real is not this chair or that one, but the Idea
of "chair," the idea which actually supports and sustains all the individual objects we call chairs; for without this
idea no chair would come into being for us to use.

Another Illustration: Men can draw circles, but only imperfect ones: a perfect circle is only an idea in our minds
which we try to copy. It is the Idea of circularity which is truly and genuinely real, for it is eternal and
unchanging.

The Ontology of Idealism

The real world is a world of "Ideas." The world of experience is just a transient and fleeting replica or
"shadow" of the real world. The real world is "Ideas" which have an eternal quality. All reality is divided into
two major divisions: the apparent realm and the real world.

1. The apparent realm

hiTs realm represents the day-to-day experiences of life such as being born, growing, aging, dying. It is
the realm of change, imperfection, irregularity, disorder, suffering, evil, and sin.

2. The real world

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The real world represents the home of eternal qualities, permanence, order, absolute truth and value. It is
the home of the mind, the realm of ideas. It is of higher rank than the apparent world because it represents
perfection.
The real world is the realm of perfect things and perfect things do not change - they are eternal. Eternal
ideas are in the mind. Ultimate reality is of the nature of the mind, or "self."
The real world is seen as the manifestation of a super intelligence at work in the cosmos. This super
intelligence represents the universal Self or the Absolute Mind. The super-intelligence can be thought of as a
human mind infinitely extended in macrocosm across the measureless reaches of all creation. In its infinite
capacity, this Ultimate Mind is capable of thinking ultimate thoughts and, hence, of authoring final and ultimate
truths.
We may generalize by saying that the Universal Mind can be thought of as the Infinite or Universal Self.
However, this does not necessitate a theistic interpretation but is equivalent to deity.

The Epistemology of Idealism

The epistemology of Idealism would say that truth is idea. Several ideas help us to understand truth in
this view.

1. The Absolute Mind

The Idealism's ontology is composed primarily of "mental stuff." Epistemology harmonizes in grasping
mental ideas and concepts. Men are but prisoners in a "3" dimension and physical sensation. The dimensional
cave; a world of physical real world lies beyond the physical. Knowing is more than "sensing" something;
knowing is taking hold of the idea of something and retaining it in the mind.
Illustration: Knowing trees really knows the idea behind trees. A tree individually and imperfectly
expresses the "idea" of trees. We are interested in "tree-ness." That is what is really true.

If we could conceive the absolute sum of all ideas - treeness, circularity, man, love, democracy, etc. - we
would understand absolute and ultimate reality. Ideas require a mind to think them. Thus, behind this idea is the
Absolute Mind which is constantly thinking these thoughts and ideas. This thinking is beyond the sensory and is
free of error.

2. Microcosm and Macrocosm

Epistemology is primarily a description of how the human mind, with all its limitations, can be brought
into communication with the Absolute Mind. The human mind is a microcosm (a little world) of the Absolute
Mind (macrocosm). The qualities are all present but in a limited form. Our limited human minds are capable of
communicating with and sharing in the Absolute Mind. They have a rapport but the gap between them is wide.
Thus, there is a basic compatibility between a knowable reality and a capable knower.

Note for Christian Education:

In Theology we say that we are created in the image of God. We have some of the same attributes as
God but on a very limited basis. For instance, we can think as God thinks. We can't quite think on His level. For
the Christian, if he or she were an Idealist, the Ultimate Mind would really be God.

3. The Absolute Self

Self is hard to define, but we think of it as "person." The person is really a vehicle for what we call
personality. This comes closer to the idea of "self."
The Idealist is a self; this is an affirmation of his own selfhood as a real quality in the world. There is a
concentric progression of selfhood. At the center is a person conscious of himself. As he or she matures, he or
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she expands his or her reach of selfhood larger and larger. The person has more experiences, more feelings, and
more understanding. Those who are more mature are known as "larger selves." If he or she expands far enough,
he or she reaches Absolute Self.
This is just a possibility; not a probability.

4. Minds, Self, and Knowing

The Idealist believes an individual may discover the universal Mind and Self - in microcosm, to be sure
- in his own thoughts and feelings. We can look within and find a tiny
replica of the Ultimate Mind. Introspection becomes important.

Learning is a process of "remembering," of "recognition." Our senses give us only the surface of things;
we must turn from them to know again what the mind knows. To remember perfectly, the intellect must
rigorously close the windows of the body to the external world and open only the windows of the intellect, so
that it may look upon and contemplate eternal truth.
We never know the world directly. We must have a theory of knowledge which explains how it is that
we achieve true knowledge through a more dependable means than sensation. The Idealists calls this the
"Consistency Theory of Knowledge." Our observations must be consistent with our thoughts.

Illustration: Immanuel Kant, an Idealist, saw a connection between percepts (the data we receive
through the senses) and concepts (the ideas which arise in our minds). "Concepts depend upon percepts for the
raw data of thought; percepts must terminate in concepts. Concept without percept is empty, percept without
concept is blind."

Idealists presuppose the existence of mind itself. The mind is not dependent for its existence on sense
data. The mind is preexistent to all sensing, all experiencing. It is the ultimate explainer of what happens to it
and hence the ultimate explainer of the world.
The mind's task is to receive data from many sources, to associate the data with other sense data
received earlier or in other circumstances and finally to locate consistencies among them. When this point is
reached, the mind can be said to have attained truth.

Illustration: What is duty? How do I determine duty? I read the stories of men and women who have
been involved in serving their country in perilous times under all sorts of circumstances. It then dawns upon me
that there is one big idea trying to express itself in the lives of these people. I say I have my hand (my mind) on
the idea of Duty. This idea is revealed in my perceptions as I study the data. Finally I take hold of the idea and it
is mine, not in tiny pieces, like my perceptions, but whole and complete in my mind.

The mind is the organizer and systematizer of sense data. Sense data provides the "food for thought," the
stimulus to conceptualization, but it is the mind that does the knowing.

Axiology and Idealism: The Imitation of the Absolute Self

Individual selfhoods participate in an Ultimate Selfhood. We perceive order in the cosmos. This is an
extension of the Absolute Self. Values fall in with order; moral and otherwise.
Axiology is rooted in existence. Values are what they are because there are individuals who possess and
enjoy them. Yet values become more meaningful when seen in their wholeness.

1. Ethics
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An example of Idealist ethics is seen in the teachings of Immanuel Kant. In regards to persons, men and
women are ends not means. Persons are minds with potentiality.
The moral imperative: In every person there is an imperative to "do good." This imperative is innate. It
is a part of every person just as are sensation, perception and thought. Reason tells us there are certain universal
binding laws.

Other values include:

a. Obedience to universal moral laws
b. The good will - right is necessary
c. The society of ends - the blessed community
d. Immortality - eternal life begins now. The only way to attain complete Idea is by obtaining eternal
life.

Kant taught that one should obey the moral law. "Act so that in your own person as well as in the person
of every other, you are treating mankind as an end, never merely as a means."

2. Aesthetics
The beauty of an object is judged by the extent to which it penetrates through the crudity and ugliness of
everyday experience to those symmetrical, harmonious patterns of nature that resemble the worship of the
logical.
The function of the artist is not to represent, literally "re-present," the world to our sensibilities, but to
portray the world as the infinite Person sees it, that is, in its perfect form.

3. Religious Value
William Hocking, an Idealist, in presenting his Theology said that there is a God-idea. This is a function
of our thinking. The idea of God becomes the hub of all value experience. This leads to an enrichment of self
and others.

The Educative Process of Idealism

1. The Learner
The learner is a microcosm of the Ultimate or Absolute Mind. Learning is the process of the learner
gradually becoming aware of larger and larger expressions of mental awareness, and this is done through books.
The learner's ultimate aim is not just a mastery of factual content, but a broad understanding of the world
in which he or she lives. The learner is attempting to expand, both quantitatively and qualitatively, to imitate the
fullness of the absolute and Universal Mind as much as his or her mental capacity permits.
The learner will respond to his or her world as well as learn about it. He or she will be involved in
expansion of his microcosmic selfhood in imitation of the macrocosmic Absolute Self, attempting to
approximate the fullness of the Universal Person.
One of the ways to expand one's self is to attach oneself to other "selves" and to identify with a self
larger than one's own - to join a club, some group. An emphasis is placed upon the group spirit – the
"communion-of-selves," the psychological climate, etc.

2. The Teacher
The teacher is central in the educative process because he or she is the key to that process. The teacher is
in the position of determining what the student's opportunities for learning and growing shall be. He or she sets
the character of the environment in which learning takes place. The following characteristics of the teacher are
necessary:
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a. The teacher is the personification of reality for the child. It is in the teacher the universe
is made personal.
b. The teacher should be a specialist in the knowledge of pupils. He or she must know his
or her pupils.
c. The teacher should be an excellent technician.
d. The teacher should be the kind of person who commands the respect of the pupil by
virtue of what he or she is. The teacher wins respect.
e. The teacher should be a personal friend of the individual student.
f. The teacher should be a person who awakens in the pupil the desire to learn. He or she does this by
making learning attractive. The teacher evokes enthusiasm, enlists pupil affection and is a life sharer
who enters into and takes upon him/her self the lives of pupils that they may become one with the
teacher.
g. The teacher should be a master of the art of living. This is the result of greater maturity
and wider experience.
h. The teacher should be a co-worker with God in perfecting man. The teacher becomes the father or
mother of the pupil's soul. He or she is concerned in developing his or her students.
i. The teacher should be one who capably communicates his or her subject. He or she must know his or
her subject and his or her students.
j. The teacher must be one who appreciates the subject he or she teaches.
k. The teacher who really teaches is always learning at the same time that he or she teaches.
l. The teacher is an apostle of progress. He or she is giving birth to a new generation.
m. The teacher should also be a maker of democracies. Dictatorships tend to suppress learning.
n. The teacher ought to be a study in self-elimination. He or she must lose him or her self in his or her
students. His or her purpose is not to glorify him or her self.

Another way of describing the teacher in Idealism is by "What the Teacher Is," and by "What the
Teacher Does."

What the Teacher Is:

An interactor
A worker with God
A sacrificer
A submissive being
A determiner
A specialist
A model
A completer
What a Teacher Does:
Communicates between minds and nature
Controller of the environment
Considers techniques and orderliness
Concerned with relationships that develop the spiritual life of the learner

3. The Curriculum
Children must be given something positive. They must conceive early the ideal character of man and the
characteristics of an ideal society. The classroom must include the equivalents of the three aspects of human
achievement: intellect, emotion, and will. There must be some science, some art, and some volition.
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The curriculum must not just be limited to content of instruction, but must include: occupations,
productions, achievements, exercise, and activity. The curriculum must include whatever helps us to understand
life. Information becomes knowledge, books become tools, and the best ideas will become ideals.

According to Bogoslovsky, the four divisions of an Idealist curriculum are:

a. Universe division (science)
b. Civilization division (social sciences, how do we obtain our humanity)
c. Culture division (philosophy, art, literature, religious interpretation)
d. Personality division (physical, physiological, emotional, and intellectual factors)

Where these four divisions cross is the personality building, the coordination of all four.

Civilization

Personality
Culture Universe
Building

Personality

4. The Educative Method

Idealists claim to be creators of methods, not wed to any one method. They believe in experimentation,
activity, and project, but not these as the method.
Informal dialectic must be in progress at all times in the classroom. The student must be constantly
confronted by decision and selection. Some methods used:

a. Thought provoking questions

Questions that suggest alternatives which provoke judgment are used. The teacher does not use
questions to find out what the pupil knows but to cultivate the student's judgment. Students will create their own
dialectic and the teacher will let the conflict of their thinking have free course. The pooling of ignorance is a
danger, but it is up to the skilled teacher to keep the discussion moving toward the truth.

b. Lecture
Lecture is also a method used by the teacher. The danger is that the lecture can become a phonographic
recitation of facts or ideas as an autocratic institution rather than that which stimulates student questioning and
response.

c. The Project
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Excursions and projects beyond the walls to supplement book learning is a good method of Idealism. It
must stimulate thinking.

d. Symbolism
Whatever else education is, it must be first of all a symbolic activity. Symbols take on a higher rank than
mere tools of learning - they are the instruments of the mind itself, the medium through which the mind
operates. Symbols furnish a medium for access to reality. Ideas have no existential expression except through
symbols. The Idealist makes symbols the very medium of the pupil's educational life. Learning is primarily a
continuous activity in symbols - primarily reading books, listening to the teacher, but also writing and reciting.
It is a systematic introduction to the life of words; for words are the keys to truth and reality.

5. The Social Outcome

The moral problem in education is met by the Idealist by viewing the ethical conduct of men growing
out of a social tradition. The ethical and moral conduct is stressed through examples from our moral tradition.
The emphasis is upon preserving the traditions of society.

Ancient Philosophers of Idealism

1. Plato
The world is a mere shadow of the real existence with objects merely representing the realness of the
world in the mind.

2. Descartes
Dealt with the self as prime reality and the existence of God indicating that the self is an
imperfection of God.

Contemporary Philosophers of Idealism

1. Emerson
2. Mann
3. Hocking
4. Horne
Other Philosophers of Idealism
1. Spinoza
2. Kant
3. Hegel
4. Frobel
Contribution of Idealism to Christian Education
The real contribution of Idealism to Christian Education is that Idealism recognizes an ultimate being
and an immutable eternal existence. Christian Education teaches belief in the true God and an eternal existence.

EXISTENTIALISM

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard

(1813-1855)
Existentialism is a way of viewing and thinking about life in the world so that priority is given to
individualism and subjectivity. Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine which emphasizes the freedom of
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human beings to make choices in a world where there are no absolute values outside the individual,
existentialism is a doctrine primarily attributed to Søren Aabye Kierkegaard, who adamantly argued that human
existence was marked off from all other kinds by a person’s power to choose.
The decisions that a person makes will enable him to realize what kind of person he will be and will
make him distinct from other people. And if a person has developed and is aware of his own identity, he will be
able to find meaning and purpose for existence.
For these and other arguments, existentialists have no concrete concept to support the existence of God
or any absolute value. They believed that one molds his own destiny. For them, truth is never absolute but
always relative to each individual who is the sole determiner of the truth for himself, and every value is always
dependent upon the free choice of a person. They advocated that the existence is the basic value for every
person and the significance of every vale lies upon the circumstances pertaining to this person’s existence.

Other Features of Existentialism

1. Each individual is viewed as being unique and solely responsible for his fate
2. Human being is the creator of his own values; the creator of his own essence through freedom of choice
or individual preference
3. Aim of Education- Education should cultivate and intensify the awareness and responsibility of the
learner. The goal of education cannot be specified in advance nor can they be imposed by the teacher of
the school system. Each man has the responsibility of his own education. Students should learn to
recognize that as individuals they are constantly, freely, baselessly and creatively choosing.
Education to the existentialists should enable a person to make choices for his life. It should be a
means to open his very eyes to the naked truth of existence and make him aware of his decisions and
wise actions.
4. Curriculum and Method- There is no generally prescribed curriculum, but literature, humanities and
arts are important subjects for introspection and reflection. History is important in finding out how men
in the past have faced and answered recurrent human questions. Humanistic studies are rich sources of
ethical values. These subjects stimulate aesthetic expression and imitate styles of selected models.

5. Role of the Teacher

a. to guide the questions
b. he submits the subject for discussion
c. existentialists insists not that the teacher to be successful but that the teacher be honest
d. the teacher has the right to teach his students how to think but not what to think

6. Role of the School- The existentialists believed that the classroom should be a market of free ideas that
would guarantee complete individual freedom. The students must be allowed to decide for themselves
and undertake activities which they believe are significant and beneficial to their lives, whereas the
teacher should only act as a guide, and must not interfere in the decisions of the students. School,
therefore is a place where teachers and learners discuss human life and where they are given
opportunities to choose solutions.

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard

- an existentialists who believed that the central problem humanity is facing is the ability to cope with its
own existence. He further argued that human existence was marked off from all other kinds by a
person’s power to choose. That decisions that a person makes will make him distinct from other people.
Other Existentialists

1. Martin Heidegger
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- German philosopher Martin Heidegger greatly influenced the modern philosophy movements of
phenomenology and existentialism. According to Heidegger, humankind has fallen into a crisis by taking a
narrow, technological approach to the world and by ignoring the larger question of existence. People, if they
wish to live authentically, must broaden their perspectives. Instead of taking their existence for granted,
people should view themselves as part of being (Heidegger’s term for that which underlies all existence).

2. Jean-Paul Sartre
- The 20th-century French intellectual Jean-Paul Sartre expounded existentialist philosophy in his writings,
novels, and plays. His works focused on the dilemma of choice faced by free individuals and on the
challenge of creating meaning by acting responsibly in an indifferent world. In Sartre’s view, “man is
condemned to be free”.

PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism, philosophical doctrine, developed by the 19th-century American philosophers Charles
Sanders Peirce, William James, and others, according to which the test of the truth of a proposition is its
practical utility; the purpose of thought is to guide action; and the effect of an idea is more important than its
origin. Pragmatism was the first independently developed American philosophy. It opposes speculation on
questions that have no practical application. It asserts that truth is relative to the time, place, and purpose of
investigation and that value is as inherent in means as in ends. Pragmatism was the dominant approach to
philosophy in the United States during the first quarter of the 20th century.

Charles Sanders Pierce -According to his pragmatic philosophy, no object or concept possesses inherent validity
or importance. Its significance lies only in the practical effects resulting from its use or
application. The “truth” of an idea or object, therefore, can be measured by empirical
investigation of its usefulness.

William James- He maintained that the meaning of ideas is found only in terms of their possible consequences.
If consequences are lacking, ideas are meaningless. James contended that this is the method
used by scientists to define their terms and to test their hypotheses, which, if meaningful, entail
predictions. The hypotheses can be considered true if the predicted events take place. On the
other hand, most metaphysical theories are meaningless, because they entail no testable
predictions. Meaningful theories, James argued, are instruments for dealing with problems that
arise in experience.
According to James's pragmatism, then, truth is that which works. One determines what
works by testing propositions in experience. In so doing, one finds that certain propositions
become true. As James put it, “truth is something that happens to an idea” in the process of its
verification; it is not a static property. This does not mean, however, that anything can be true.
“The true is only the expedient in the way of our thinking, just as 'the right' is only the
expedient in the way of our behaving”, James maintained. One cannot believe whatever one
wants to believe, because such self-centered beliefs would not work out.

Other Features of Pragmatism

1. Education has been in vain if it does not perform the social functions assigned to it, and unless it is
considered as a social institution in itself
2. Society cannot fulfill an educational task without an institution designed for this purpose
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3. The learner must be made the center of all educative processes

4. Aim of Education- The total development of the child either through experience, self-activity, or
learning by doing
5. Curriculum and Method- The curriculum must offer subjects that will provide opportunities for
various projects and activities that are relevant to the needs, abilities, and interests as well as the socio-
economic conditions of the learners
6. Role of the School- The school must maintain intimate relations with society if its role is to be played
well
The school should aim to be a specialized institution with three features:
a. designed to present a society to the child in simplified forms
b. selective in a qualitative, if not ethical, manner as it represents the society to the young
c. responsible in giving the child a balanced and genuinely representative acquaintance with the society

PROGRESSIVISM
This movement often associated with John Dewey’s pragmatism or experimentalism, stressed the view
that all learning should center on the child’s interests and needs rather than on the subject matter. Dewey
expounded that a truly progressive education needed a philosophy based upon experience, the interaction of the
person with his environment. Such an experiential philosophy should have no set of external aims, but, rather,
the end product of education was growth- an ongoing experience which led to the direction and control of
subsequent experience. Truly progressive education should not ignore the past but use it to direct future
experiences.

Other Features of Progressivism

1. Thinking and reasoning should be emphasized
2. Recognizes the principle of individual differences
3. Aim- To meet the needs of a growing child and to make the school a pleasant place for learning.
Though progressivists different in many of their theories and practices, they were united in their
opposition to the following:
a. Extreme reliance on bookish methods of instruction
b. Obtaining learning by memorization of factual data
c. The use of fear as a from of discipline
d. The four–walled philosophy of education that isolated the school from the realities of life
4. Curriculum- Progressivists generally were not interested in prepared, prescribed curriculum to transmit
knowledge to students. Rather, the curriculum was to come from the child so that learning would be
active, exciting and varied. The content of subject matter was done by the teacher and the students as a
group project or cooperative effort. Student’s projects were based on their common shared experiences
therefore rejecting barriers of class, race, or creed. The teacher served as a facilitator while the students
worked on their projects and suggested other ways of pursuing the project.

Legal Bases of Philippine Education

Historical Influences on Philippine Education

Education in the Philippines has undergone several stages of development from the pre-Spanish times to
the present. In meeting the needs of the society, education serves as focus of emphases/priorities of the
leadership of certain periods/epochs in our national struggle as a race.
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As early as in pre-Magellanic times, education was informal, unstructured, and devoid of methods.
Children were provided more vocational training and less academics (3 R’s) by their parents and in the houses
of tribal tutors.
The pre-Spanish system of education underwent major changes during the Spanish colonization. The
tribal tutors were replaced by Spanish Missionaries. Education was religion oriented. It was for the elite,
especially in the early years of Spanish colonization. Access to education by the Filipinos was later liberalized
through the enactment of the Educational Decree of 1863 which provided for the establishment of at least one
primary school for boys and girls in each town under the responsibility of the municipal government; and the
establishment of a normal school for male teachers under the supervision of the Jesuits. Primary instruction was
free and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory. Education during that period was inadequate, suppressed, and
controlled.
The defeat of Spain by American forces paved the way for Aguinaldo’s Republic under a Revolutionary
Government. The schools maintained by Spain for more than three centuries were closed for the time being but
were reopened on August 29, 1898 by the Secretary of Interior. The Burgos Institute in Malolos, the Military
Academy of Malolos, and the Literary University of the Philippines were established. A system of free and
compulsory elementary education was established by the Malolos Constitution.
An adequate secularized and free public school system during the first decade of American rule was
established upon the recommendation of the Schurman Commission. Free primary instruction that trained the
people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of
President McKinley. Chaplains and non-commissioned officers were assigned to teach using English as the
medium of instruction.
A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901 by the Philippine Commission by the
virtue of Act No. 74. the implementation of this Act created a heavy shortage of teachers so the Philippine
Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the
U.S.A. They were the Thomasites.

OFFICIAL
OFFICIAL NAME OF DECS LEGAL BASES
YEAR TITULAR HEAD
Superior Commission of Primary
1863 Chairman Educational Decree of 1863
Instruction
General Act. No. 74 of the Philippine
1901-1916 Department of Public Instruction
Superintendent Commission, Jan. 21, 1901
Organic Act Law of 1916
1916-1942 Department of Public Instruction Secretary
(Jones Law)
Renamed by the Japanese
Department of Education, Health
1942-1944 Commissioner Executive Commission, June
and Public Welfare
11, 1942
Department of Education, Health Renamed by Japanese
1944 Minister
and Public Welfare Sponsored Philippine Republic
Renamed by Japanese
1944 Department of Public Instruction Secretary
Sponsored Philippine Republic
Department of Public Instruction Renamed by the
1945-1946 Secretary
and Information Commonwealth Government
Renamed by the
1946-1947 Department of Instruction Secretary
Commonwealth Government
E.O. No.94 October 1947
1947-1975 Department of Education Secretary
(Reorganization Act of 1947)
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Department of Education and Proc. No. 1081, September 24,

1975-1978 Secretary
Culture 1972
Ministry of Education and
1978-1984 Minister P.D. No. 1397, June 2, 1978
Culture
Ministry of Education, Culture
1984-1986 Minister Education Act of 1982
and Sports
Department of Education,
1987-1994 Secretary E.O. No. 117, January 30, 1987
Culture and Sports
R.A. 7722 and R.A. 7796, 1994
Department of Education,
1994-2001 Secretary Trifocalization of Education
Culture and Sports
Management
R.A. 7722 and R.A. 7796, 1994
Department of Education,
1994-2001 Secretary Trifocalization of Education
Culture and Sports
Management
R.A. 9155, August 2001
2001-
Department of Education Secretary (Governance of Basic
present
Education Act)

Article XIV of The 1987 Constitution

- is on Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports

Section 1
- ensures the rights of all citizens to quality education at al levels. The state shall take appropriate steps to
make such education accessible to all

Section 2
- this section of the Article XIV stipulates the following:

Section 2 A (Complete, Adequate, and Integrated System)

The Constitution mandates that the State shall establish, maintain, and support a complete, adequate, and
integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and society.
This includes early instruction for young children-nursery and kindergarten, elementary and secondary
education, and higher education in the arts, sciences, and the professions.
Section 2 B (Free Public Elementary and Secondary Education)
The Constitution obligates the State to establish and maintain a system of free public education in the
elementary and high school levels without limiting the natural right and duty of parents to rear their children for
civic efficiency and the development of moral character. Elementary education is compulsory for all children of
school age.

Section 2 C (Scholarship Grants and Incentives)

A system of scholarship grants, student loan program, subsidies, and other incentives shall be
established and maintained. These are to be available to deserving students in both public and private schools,
especially to underprivileged.
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Section 2 D (Non-formal, Informal and Indigenous Learning Systems)

The Constitution encourages non-formal, informal and indigenous learning systems as well as self-
learning, independent, and out-of-school study programs, especially those that respond to community needs
Training in civics, vocational efficiency and other skills is to be provided to adult citizens, disabled, and
out-of-school youth.

Section 3
- General curricular provisions are stated in this section of Article XIV
- This section also states that all educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part
of the curricula.
- Optional Religious Instruction shall be allowed to be taught to children in the public elementary and
high school within the regular class hours by instructors designated by religious authorities of the
religion to which the children or wards belong, without additional cost to the Government.

Section 4
Complementary Roles of Public and Private Institutions
- It states that the State recognizes the complementary roles of public and private institutions in the
educational system and the exercise of reasonable supervision and regulation of all educational
institutions.

Ownership, Control and Administration of Educational Institutions

Educational institutions, other than those established by religious groups and mission boards, shall be
owned solely by citizens of the Philippines or corporations or association of which at least sixty percent (60%)
of the capital is owned by such citizens.
The control and the administration of educational institutions shall be vested in the citizens of the
Philippines.
No educational institution shall be established exclusively for aliens and no groups shall comprise more
than one third of the enrollment in any school. This provision does not apply to schools established for foreign
diplomatic personnel and their dependents unless otherwise provided by law.
All assets of non-stock, non-profit educational institutions used actually, directly and exclusively for
education purposes shall be exempt form taxes and duties.

Proprietory educational institutions, including those cooperatively owned may likewise be entitled to
such exemptions subject to the limitations provided by law.

Section 5, Article XIV states the following provisions:

Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning.
Every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to fair, reasonable and
equitable admission and academic requirements.

Budgetary Priority –The highest budgetary priority shall be assigned by the State to education and
ensure that teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the best available talents through adequate
remuneration (compensation) and other means of job satisfaction and fulfillment.
Section 6 (National Language)
The National Language of the Philippines is Filipino and shall be the medium of communication and
language of instruction in the educational system.
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Section 10 (research and Development)

The State shall give priority to research and development, invention, innovation, and their utilization and
to science and technology education, training and services.

Section 14 (Free Artistic and Intellectual Expression)

The State shall foster the preservation, enrichment, and dynamic evolution of a Filipino culture based on
the principle of unity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual expression.

Section 17 and 18 (Cultural Opportunities)

The State shall recognize, respect and protect the rights of indigenous cultural communities to preserve
and develop their culture, traditions and institutions.
The State shall ensure equal access to cultural opportunities through the educational system, public or
private cultural entities, scholarship grants and other incentives, and through community cultural centers and
other public venues.

Section 19 (Physical Education)

The State shall promote Physical Education and encourage sports program, league competitions and
amateur sports, including training for international competition, to foster discipline, teamwork and excellence
for the development of a healthy and alert citizenry. All educational institutions shall undertake regular sports
activities throughout the country.

Educational Act of 1982

(Natural Rights and Duties of Parents in the Education of Children)

Section 5
The State shall aid and support the natural right and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth through
the educational system.

Section 11
Additional Compensation to Teachers. The Act prohibits the giving of compulsory assignments not
related to teacher duties as defined in employment contracts without the teachers being paid additional
compensation under existing laws. It also prohibits involuntary contributions except those imposed by their own
organizations.
Government Financial Support. The Act also specifies government commitment to extend financial
support and assistance to public and private schools.

Section 11 and 12 (Special Rights of Teachers)

Teachers and school administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the discharge of
lawful duties and responsibilities and shall, therefore, be accorded due respect and protection.

Section 13 (Rights of School)

In addition to other rights provided for by law, institutions of the higher learning have been granted by
the Act (of 1982) to determine on academic grounds who shall be admitted to study, who may teach and what
the subjects of the study and research shall be.
 95

Section 16 and 17
Another safe guard to maintain quality education is the report mechanism which the Act requires of
teachers (Section 16) and administrators (Section 17). These reports provide a basis for assessment of
performance.
The Act also guarantees free legal assistance in the event that teachers are charged with civil, criminal,
or administrative cases for actions committed directly in the lawful discharge of professional duties.

Section 29 (Maintenance of Quality Education)

The Act has provided alternatives to maintain quality education. One of them is voluntary
accreditation for those institutions desiring to meet standards of quality over and above the minimum required
for state recognition.

Other Legal Bases

Philippine Commission Act No. 74

This Act laid the foundations of the Philippine public school system and English the language of
instruction. It also established the present organization of public schools into school divisions and school
districts. Section 16 of the Act laid the legal basis for optional religious instruction in public schools and set the
limitations on the teachers’ religious activities.
(Philippine Normal School and Trade School) Act No. 74 also provided the legal basis for the
establishment of the Philippine Normal School and Trade School in Manila, and an Agricultural School in
Negros.

Republic Act No. 416 which was approved on June 18, 1949 converted the Philippine Normal School into a
teachers college which would offer courses leading to Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education and Master
of Arts in Education. This act also served as the Charter of the College. The Philippine Normal College since
then has been governed by a Board of Trustees which is responsible directly to the President of the Philippines.

Republic Act No. 7168 which was approved on Dec. 26, 1991, converted the Philippine Normal College into a
University.

Act No. 1870 enacted by the Philippine Assembly and the Philippine Commission in 1908 founded the
University of the Philippines. The university is governed by a Charter.

Commonwealth Act No. 1is the basis of compulsory military training in the school (PMT & ROTC).

Commonwealth Act No. 586 also known as the Educational Act of 1940 provides the legal basis for the present
six-year elementary course, the double-single session, the school-entrance age, and the national support for
elementary education.

Commonwealth Act No. 80 provides the legal basis for adult education. This law implements the constitutional
provision on the citizenship training of adult citizens.

Act No. 3377 (Vocational Act of 1927) amended by Act No. 3740 and R.A. No. 175 and other acts, laid the
basis for vocational education in the public schools and made provision for its support.
 96

MECS Order No. 84 calls for the recognition of academic programs for each private school in order to entitle
it to give the students who have completed the course, a certificate, title, or diploma.

Presidential Decree No. 1006, considered teachers as professionals and teaching as a profession.
Teaching as used in this decree, refers to the profession primarily concerned with classroom instruction
at the elementary and secondary levels in both public and private schools. The term teacher refers to all persons
engaged in teaching at the elementary and secondary levels, whether on full-time or part time basis, including
guidance counselors, school librarians, industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing
supervisory and/or administrative functions in the aforesaid school levels.
A person considered as a professional teacher is one who has “permanent appointment under the Magna
Carta for Public School Teachers and all others who may qualify for registration”.

Commonwealth Act No. 177 placed the public school teachers under the Civil Service rules and regulations
with reference to their examination, appointment, transfer, separation, leave and reinstatement, thus protecting
the teachers’ tenure of office.

Commonwealth Act No. 578 (Teachers as Person in Authority) confers the status of person in authority upon
supervisors, principals, teachers, and professors of public and recognized private schools.
The Act provides as penalty to any person found guilty of assault upon these teaching personnel
imprisonment ranging from six months and one day to six years and a fine of from P500 to 1,000.

DECS Order No. 65 s. 1993 Order that provides special hardship pay for elementary teachers in remote
schools, encourage acceptance of assignment and attendance for all school days.

R.A. 1425 The life, works and writings of Jose Rizal shall be included in the curricula of all school both public
and private, from elementary to universities.

R.A. 1265 provides that a daily flag raising ceremony shall be compulsory in all educational institutions. This
also includes the singing of the Philippine National Anthem

Republic Act No. 4670 (Magna Carta for Public School Teachers)
- declared as its policy the promotion and improvement of the social and economic status of public school
teachers, their living and working conditions, their terms of employment and their career prospects in order that
they may compare favorably with existing opportunities in other walks of life, attract and retain in the teaching
profession more people with the proper qualifications.

Academic Freedom upholds the teachers’ rights to freely discuss topic s or issues within their field of
expertise. In elementary and secondary education the classroom teacher’s responsibilities includes the selection
of a teaching method, supplemental materials, assignment of projects, all within minimum requirements
prescribed by law.

Teacher as a Model. In the majority of schools, teachers’ lives are regulated because the public believes that
they should be examples of high moral standards, impeccable character, conservative dress and grooming and
refined manners. In some schools, teachers may be dismissed for living with members of the opposite sex,
admitted homosexuality, or sexual involvement with students. The passage of Anti-Harassment Law in 1995
will protect students from teachers taking advantage of their vulnerability. Other offenses like telling obscene
jokes, taking prohibited drugs, coming to school drunk, wearing provocative dresses, wearing a beard and
sideburns or pigtails for males may be a cause for non-renewal of appointment since the behavior in question
may seriously impair the teacher’s classroom effectiveness.
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Bill # 4288 (Magna Carta for Students)

The Magna Carta for Students provides the following:

a. for a fully independent and autonomous student council and mandates school owners to provide the
necessary funds to sustain their activities;

b. that there should be one student council for each campus which shall have its own set of officers elected
in annual popular elections and a charter duly ratified;

c. that no student shall be denied admission to any school on account of his physical handicap, socio-
economic status, political or religious beliefs or membership in a student organization;

d. for the participation of students in the tertiary level in the school’s policy making process.

In Loco Parentis. The rights of students are to be protected while under the supervision of the school. There
would be no corporal punishment and whatever disciplining is needed must be done with only their best
interests in mind.

Freedom of Expression. Students are entitled to freedom of expression in so far as these views are consistent
with the rules of the school and will not disrupt school order or transgress the rights of others. In school
publications, for example, students may not write anything, libelous or likely to cause disruption.

Suspension and Expulsion. Guidelines for suspension and expulsion are contained in the manual of
Regulations for Private Schools and School Rules and Regulations. The general procedure is for a student
facing suspension to be told of what he is accused of and what the basis of accusation is, then he must be given
an opportunity to explain his version of the facts. For expulsion, due process requirements have to be followed.

Search and Seizure. Searches are usually conducted because school authorities suspect that illegal or
dangerous items are on the students. The rise of drug use and fraternity squabbles is legitimate reasons for
search. Searches may be done into school entrances and, generally, students do not mind specially when all
others are searched. Lockers which are considered school property may be searched if reasonable caused exists.
Body or strip searches are unconstitutional and should never be allowed.

Students’ Records. Parents retain rights of access to their children’s school records until the child reaches the
age of eighteen. The student alone possesses the right to his school records. Parents or other parties may apply
for records only upon written authority of the student.

Department Order No. 25 s. 1974 (Bilingual Education Program) mandates the use of English and Filipino
separately as media of instruction. English Communication Arts, Mathematics, and Science are to
be taught in English and the rest of the subjects are to be taught in Filipino.

Presidential Decree No. 907 provides that honor graduates (those who finish the course with at least cum laude
honors) from school year1972-73 from schools, colleges, and universities of good standing as determined by the
Secretary of Education and Culture shall be conferred appropriate civil service eligibilities. The Decree took
effect upon its approval on March 11, 1976.

Republic Act No. 6655 (Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988) provides a system of free public
secondary education commencing in School Year 1988-1989. Students enrolled in secondary course offerings in
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national and general comprehensive high schools, state colleges and universities, specialized schools, trade,
technical, vocational, fishery and agricultural schools, and in school established, administered, maintained and
funded by local government units including city, provincial, municipal and barangay high schools, and those
public high schools which may be established by law, shall be free from payment of tuition and other school
fees. Fees related to membership in school community such as identification cards, student organizations and
publications may be collected. The Act also provides that nothing in this Act shall cause or authorize the
reduction or removal of any benefit which the national or local government may have granted to students,
teachers and other school personnel of these public high schools prior to the enactment of this Act.
The right of the student to avail of free public high school shall terminate if he fails fro two (2)
consecutive school years in the majority of academic subjects in which he enrolled unless such failure is due to
some valid cause.

DECS Order No. 49, 1992 (Selection of Honor Students in the Secondary Schools) provides the guidelines for
the selection of honor students. Implementation of the guidelines started SY 1992-1993 in all public and
secondary schools.
In designation “valedictorian”, “salutatorian”, and “honorable mention” shall apply to graduating
students in all secondary schools. There shall be one valedictorian and one salutatorian for all the graduating
classes. In case of a tie between two candidates both may be declared valedictorians or salutatorians. The
number of students to be declared honorable mention in a school shall be one percent (1%) of the total number
of graduating students.
The ranking of students for the selection of those who will be awarded honors should be based on total
weighted rank. Academic excellence shall be given a weight of 7 while performance in co-curricular activities
shall be given a weight of 3. Academic excellence shall be based on the general average of the grades of the
graduating students in the last two years (third and fourth years) of schooling.
Performances in co-curricular activities shall cover the achievement of the candidates for the last two
years. The rating shall be based on the combined assessment of all the third and fourth year teachers of the
candidates.

Republic Act No. 7731- abolished the NCEE to give the marginalized sector greater access to college
education.

DECS Order No. 37 s. 1994- A National Assessment Test (NEAT) for all grade VI elementary pupils will be
given every year on the 13th Tuesday following the beginning of the school year. The test consists of a battery
of achievement tests of the multiple choice type.
NSAT- A new yet similar, test for high school seniors, the National secondary Assessment Test or NSAT
is scheduled to be given three days after the NEAT. The NSAT replaces the abolished NCEE but, unlike the
NCEE, passing the new NSAT will not be a prerequisite to entrance to college.

DECS Order No. 1 s.1994 and Republic Act No. 7791- legal bases of education that increase the number of
school days from 185 days to 200 school days inclusive of examination days for both public and private
schools.

Republic Act No. 7686 institutionalized dual training, allowing students of vocational and technical education
to pursue their studies while at the same time getting paid for on the job training in private industries.

Republic Act No.7687 established a scholarship program for courses that will encourage the youth to pursue
careers in science and technology.
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Republic Act No. 7722 puts up the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) to take over from the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports the task of over seeing tertiary education.

Republic Act No. 7743 called for the establishment of city and municipal libraries.

Republic Act No. 7784 created the Centers for Excellence in Teacher Education.

Republic Act No. 7796 created the Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) which has the
function of upgrading voc-tech training.

Republic Act No. 7836 mandated the holding of periodic licensure tests for would be mentors under the
supervision of the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC).
Batas Pambansa Blg. 232/The Education Act of 1982 states the following objectives of elementary,
secondary, and non-formal education:
Provide the pupils with knowledge and develop the skills, attitudes and values essential for personal
development and a productive life
Promote and intensify awareness of, identification with, and love for our nation and the community in
which the learner develops
Promote experiences that develop the learner’s orientation to the world of work and prepare the learner
to engage in honest gainful work.

Article XIV Sec. 1, Batas Pambansa Blg. 232, and 2001 Governance of Basic Education Act. These are the
legal bases of the restructuring of the Basic Education Curricula also known as the 2002 BEC.
What the 2002 BEC does, among other things, is to 1.streamline the current subject offerings in order to
minimize duplication of topics and objectives, 2.to acknowledge the growing role of information technology in
the delivery of instruction, and 3.to focus on key elements of basic education (functional literacy, values,
patriotism, multiple intelligences, and experiential learning).
Under the Restructured BEC subject offerings were reduced into five:
English
Mathematics tool subjects
Science
Filipino
Makabayan – the discipline within this subject area can be represented by the acronym SIKAP, where S
stands for Sibika, Sining, I for information (and Communication Technology), K for Kultura, AP for Araling
Panlipunan, Pagpapahalaga, Pangkatawan, Pangkalusugan, Pantahanan, at Pangkabuhayan. As a concept and
value; (Pagka) Makabayan serves as the thematical thread for these disciplines.

New Laws Affecting the Philippine Education System

Administrative Order No. 113 - Directing the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS),
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA) to Formulate and Implement Policies for the Integration of the Concepts of Quality Improvement and
Productivity Improvement in All Applicable Subjects and Courses and Programs of All Educational, Technical
and Vocational Institutions (Approved: March 13, 2000, Official Gazette, Vol. 90, No. 25, June 19, 2000). The
DECS and the CHED shall formulate and implement policies for the integration of the concepts of the quality
and productivity improvement in all applicable subjects, courses and programs of all educational institutions in
close coordination with the private sector and other concerned government agencies. These may include
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subjects/courses involving information technology which may be developed in close coordination with the
private sector and other concerned agencies.

Administrative Order No. 116 - Mandating All Concerned Government Agencies and Local Government
Units to Support the Non-formal Education Accreditation and Equivalency (NFE A&E) System that Provides an
Alternative Means of Certification of Learning to Those Filipinos Aged 15 years and Above and Who Are
Unable to Avail of the Formal School System or Have Dropped Out of Formal Elementary and Secondary
Education. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) through the Bureau of Non-formal
Education (BNFE) is mandated to provide non-formal basic education services on behalf of the Philippine
Government (Approved: April 23, 2000, Official Gazette, Vol. 96, No. 30, July 24, 2000).

Executive Order No. 158 - Amending Executive Order No. 80 dated March 5, 1999 by Reverting the
Commission on Filipino Language to the Administrative Supervision of the Office of the President. Effective
October 11, 1999, the Commission on Filipino Language shall return to the Office of the President for
administrative supervision (Approved: October 11, 2000, Official Gazette, Vol. 96, No. 9, February 28, 2000).
Executive Order No. 252 - Establishing the Inter-Agency Committee on Philippine Schools Overseas,
Defining Its Composition, Structure and Functions. The DECS shall review and prescribe guidelines to enable
Philippine schools overseas to maintain academic standards, and improve over-all efficiency as well as enable
licensing of foreign-owned schools offering Philippine curriculum; and develop a system for classifying
institutions overseas that provide Philippine-based curriculum and instruction (Approved: May 25, 2000,
Official Gazette, Vol. 96, No. 41, October 9, 2000).

Memorandum Circular No. 54 - Directing All Concerned Agencies to Immediately Implement Educational
Modernization Projects and Activities Through Information Technology (IT) Particularly in the Application of
IT-Based Strategies in Major Phases of Educational Institutions' Operations, Instruction, Research, Extension,
Management and Support (Approved: February 2, 2000, Vol. 96, No. 16, April 17, 2000). All concerned
agencies directly related to education, including state universities and colleges, are directed to support the
objectives of government towards providing up-to-date educational reforms, as well as developing IT-related
teaching methods and processes at all levels to improve the effectivity of the national teaching and learning
processes, and to utilize IT-based strategies in the implementation of their educational modernization projects
and activities. Emphasis is placed in the application of said schemes in the major phases of the educational
institution's operations, instruction, research, extension, management and support.